Chapter Two

Fundamental Concept on Research

2.1 Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing & it is stated in a declarative from in
term of relation between/among variables, it can be defined as a conjectural statement of the
relation between two or more variable. Empirical means its is based on evidence/observation.
Research problem
Example: What is the relation between the literacy rate and the demand of magazine?
Hypothesis: There is no relation between the literacy rate & the demand of magazine.
Such that hypothesis is a linked with research problem & it is in declarative from.
Hypothesis is proposition based on certain level of confidence but not supported by evidence.
Criteria of a good hypothesis;
Hypothesis is a statement & proposition set for empirical testing: The hypothesis should meet the
following criteria;
i)
Statement should be in declarative from & it should have at least two variables.
ii)
It should be the statement about the relation between/among variables.
iii)
The stated relation should be testable.
Importance of Hypothesis
Hypothesis is very important tool for research/researcher because.
a) They are main working instruments
b) They can be tested such that the research become valid & reliable
c) They are powerful tools for the advancement of knowledge
It always help & (show guide direct line) and enables him/her to conclude the empirical
manifestations.
Types of Hypothesis:
1. Descriptive hypothesis & Relational Hypothesis
2. Null Hypothesis & Alternative hypothesis.
Descriptive Hypothesis:
This is always refer as empirical uniformities such hypothesis state the existence, size, form of
distribution.
For example:
1. The numbers of female staff are not more than male staff.
2. The number of government officer is less than of manager in private comprise.

Such hypothesis states the facts but do not state any relations between the variable.
Relational hypothesis;
This type of hypothesis test the existence of logically derived relations between the empirical
uniformities or it shows the relations between the variables of the case.
Examples: There is a relation between the productivity of agriculture farming use of chemical
fertilizer.
Null Hypothesis:
The proposition which is stated in negative from.
Example: if we are testing the relation between the student achievement & the attendance, then
null hypothesis may be express as:
Ho: There is no significant relation between the student achievement & attendance.
(The evidence may support or reject the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis reject, the
opposite next hypothesis is accepted.
Alternative Hypothesis:
An alternative hypothesis is the set of alternative to the null hypothesis. In other word, the
complement of null hypothesis is called alternative hypothesis. It always represents all other
possibilities that are not included in null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is dented by H, or
Ha.
Example
H1: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in soil.
H0: Tomato plants show no difference in growth rates when planted in compost rather than soil.
2.2 Sampling, its characteristics, types, benefits & problems.
When some of elements/data persons are selected with the intention of finding out something
about the population from which they are taken, that groups of elements is refined as a sample &
the process of selection is called sampling.
Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual
observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population
The method of selecting a portion of the universe with a view to draw conclusions about the
universe under study is known as sampling.
Sampling method is the scientific procedure of selecting those sampling units which would
provide the required estimate & associated margins of uncertainty arising from examining only a
part & not the whole.

The enumeration of population (universe) by sampling methods is proposed by Laplace in 1783.

Before carried out the sampling: the answers of following questions should be find out,

How should the observations be mode <

How many observations should be made?
How should the total sample be made?
How should the data, thus obtain be analyzed?

There are number of different techniques and methods were developed. The method is tested to
determine whether the above mentions questions are adequately answered or not.
Sampling frame:
The complete list of sampling units, which represents the population to be covered, is called the
sampling frame or frame. The frame consist either a list of the units or a map of areas, in case a
sample of areas is being taken. The frame should be accurate, free from omission and
duplications, exhaustive, adequate, up to date & units should be identified with out are ambiguity
.
Sample design:
A sample design is the theoretical basis & the practical means by which the characteristic of
population by generalizing from the characteristic of relatively few of the units comprising the
population.
Statistics:
Statistics refer to that value of available or attribute calculated from a sample taken out of a
population. The characteristic of a sample are called static i.e. sample variance, sample
correlation efficient are Statistics (x,s,r)
Parameters:
Parameters are the value of a variables calculated from the population under the study, i.e.
Populations mean, variance, correlation efficient etc.
Objectives of Sampling
The objective of sampling procedure is to study about the universe by selecting
representative units from the concerned population through minimum resources i.e. time, cost
and energy without loosing the accuracy.
To obtain maximum possible information about the universe through the selected
samples.
To obtain the limits of accuracy of the estimates populations parameters.
To test the significance of populations parameters on the basis of sample statics.
Principle of sampling theory:

The main aim of sampling theory is to make sampling more effective so that the answer to a
particular question is given in a valid efficient & economical way.
i)
ii)
iii)

Principle of validity.
Principle of statistical regularity.
Principle of optimization.

Demerits of sampling Technique

1) Less accuracy
2) Misleading conclusion
3) Need for specialized knowledge
4) When sampling not possible
Method of sampling
1) Probability sampling (Random sampling)
2) Now Probability sampling
Probability sampling
Probability sampling is the scientific method of selecting samples according to some law of
chance in which each unit in the population have some pre-assigned probability of being selected
in the sample.
Each unit has an equal chance of being selected.
Sampling units have different probabilities of being selected
It can be categories into ;
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
Multi stage sampling
Non Probability Sampling
This is method of selecting samples in which the choice of selection of sampling unit depends
entirely on the judgement of sample
Judgment or purposive sampling
Convenience sampling
Accidental sampling
Quota sampling
Sequential sampling
Error in Sampling
There are many types of errors in sampling process and among them some are given as;
Non response error
Coverage error
Compiling error

 Publication error
2.3 Field Work
For the collection of all the required information, data, values, the researcher should visit the site
or the field, the activities is refer as field work. To collect adequate & reliable information, the
researcher should visit the field and study the related subject or topic.
There are many activities in the field work; the main activities are given as:
1. Selection of Field area
It is mainly depend on the objectives & Scope of research work. Before visiting the site,
the researcher should identify the field area. Similarly the alternative candidate site or
field should identify and select the site of easy access, economical, less costly but should
not compromise optimization of reliable and adequate data.
2. Preparation
The systematic preparation is very essential task before the field work. The essential
tools, device, instruments should make ready. Similarly the clothes, foods, medicine and
other required physical items also make ready. It will better to prepare the check list of
each item such that no item will forget for field work.
3. Preliminary Survey
It is very important task for field work. It is not the process of detain survey or data
collection but it is the preliminary activities or survey before staring detailed survey. It
give some basic idea, guideline for detail study such that the task of detail study become
easy and also consumed less time.
4. Use of key Informants
At the field work the researcher should take the help of local and reliable person and
he/she have lots of idea about your study or the data which the researcher required. Such
people refer as key informant and with the help of such person, the study become very
easy and consumed less time.
5. Note Taking:
In the field work, the researcher should noted down the available information, data,
values which may be very useful for research work.

2.4 Validity
Validity is the activities which prove the research work is valid. Such the research work should
test of its validity.
a) Logical Validity
The result should be logically valid of each research work. If the result is not logically
accepted, the research is not valid.

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b) Jury Opinion
The objective, hypothesis, methodology and the conclusion of research work is check by
the group of expert in the related field for the test of research work validity. If the group
accepts the work is valid, then the research is considered as valid.
c) Known Group:
If the research work is tested by the known or expert of related field before/ with out the
specific evaluation of research work and accepted it is valid, then also the research work
is considered valid research.
d) Independent Criteria:
If some measuring criteria is developed to check for the validity of research work, and it
give good result, the research work is considered valid.

2.5 Reliability
Reliably is another measuring parameter of good research work. The reliability is one criteria
which test whether the research is reliable or not. The reliability can be test by two different
ways
a) Test Re Test
The research work is test many time by the same method & process as mention in report,
the result should be obtain identical. If the result is identical in each test, the research is
considered as reliable
b) Multiple Forms
If the test is carried out by different way/ methods and the result obtained from each
different way is same, then the research work is considered as reliable.

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