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REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
The problems listed below are intended as review problems to do before the
final. They are organized in groups according to sections in my notes, but it is
not
forbidden to use techniques from later sections (sometimes dramatically easier)
to
solve earlier problems.
I emphatically do not imply that my solutions are unique or even the best solutions to these problems. I hope, at least, that there are no erroneous solutions.
If you find an error or typo, or have a better solution, be sure to let me know!
(i). Linear Equations and Rn.
(a), (b) and (c) Solve:

1 2 3
-1 5 6
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

3
7

and

1 2 3

1 2 3
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

3
7

and

1 2
3 4

x
y

=

3
7

.
Solutions:
(a)

1 2 3 3
-1 5 6 7

-?

1 2 3 3
0 7 9 10

-?

1 2 3 3
0 1 9
7
10
7

-?
1 0 3
7
1
7
0 1 9
7
10
7
!
.
We interpret this to mean x+3
7 z = 1
7 and y+9

7 z = 10
7 . Rewriting this parametrically
(set z = t) gives
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =
?
???
1
7
10
7
0
?
???
+ t
?
??? 3
7
-9
7
1
?
???
t is any real number.
(b)

1 2 3 3
1 2 3 7

-?

1 2 3 3
0 0 0 4

. No solution.
(c)

1 2 3
3 4 7

-?

1 2 3
0 - 2 - 2

-?

1 2 3
0 1 1

-?

1 0 1
0 1 1


. Solution:

x
y

=

1
1

Date: March 24, 2006.
1
2 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
(ii). Parametric and Point-Normal Equations for Lines and Planes.
(a) Find parametric and point-normal forms for a line in R2 through the point
(6, 4) and perpendicular to the vector (1,-3).
Solution: Parametric: Q(t) = (6, 4) + t (3, 1).
Point Normal: ( (x, y) - (6, 4) ) (1,-3) = 0.
(b) Find parametric and point-normal forms for a plane containing the three
points (6, 4, 7), (0, 0, 1) and (-1, 0, 2).
Solution: V = (6, 4, 7) - (0, 0, 1) = (6, 4, 6) and W = (-1, 0, 2) - (0, 0, 1) =
(-1, 0, 1) lie in the plane, head and tail. V W = (4,-12, 4).
Parametric: Q(s, t) = (0, 0, 1) + s (6, 4, 6) + t (-1, 0, 1).
Point Normal: ( (x, y, z) - (0, 0, 1) ) (4,-12, 4) = 0.
(iii). Linear Transformations from Rn to Rm.
(a), (b) and (c) Which of the following are linear? Justify your conclusion.
g
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

4
x + y

h
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

xy
x + y


f
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

z - x
x + y

.
Solutions:
(a) Not linear, because g(0) 6= 0.
(b) Not linear. If linear, it would correspond to the matrix
( h(e1) h(e2) h(e3) ) =

0 0 0
1 1 0

.
However

0 0 0
1 1 0
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

0
x + y

6=

xy
x + y

.
(c) Is linear: ( f(e1) f(e2) f(e3) )
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

-1 0 1
1 1 0
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

z - x
x + y


.
(iv). Eigenvalues.
(a), (b) and (c) Find real eigenvalues and associated eigenvectors (if any) for:

0 -1
1 0
 
-1 0
0 3

and

1 0
4 5

.
Solutions:
(a) det

 1
-1 

= 2 + 1 which has no real solutions. No real eigenvalues.
(b) det

 + 1 0
0  - 3

= ( + 1)( - 3). Real eigenvalues: -1 and 3.
 = -1 has eigenvector (1, 0).  = 3 has eigenvector (0, 1).
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 3
(c) det

 - 1 0
-4  - 5

= ( - 1)( - 5). Real eigenvalues: 1 and 5.
 = 1 has eigenvector (1,-1).  = 5 has eigenvector (0, 1).
(v). General Vector Spaces and Subspaces.
(a) Is the set of 3 by 3 matrices whose determinant is 0 a vector space with the
usual matrix addition and scalar multiplication?
Solution:
No: not closed under addition.
?
?
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
?
? +
?
?
1 1 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
?
? =
?
?
2 2 2
1 1 2
1 2 2
?
?.

(b) Is the set of ordered pairs of integers a vector space with the usual operat
ions?
Solution:
No: not closed under scalar multiplication. 1
2 (1, 1) =
?? 1
2 , 1
2

.
(c) Prove that the eigenspace for a given eigenvalue of a square matrix is a vec
tor
space.
Solution:
Suppose that v and w are eigenvectors for eigenvalue  for matrix M and c is
any constant.
M(v + cw) = Mv + cMw = v + cw = (v + cw).
So v + cw is also an eigenvector for this eigenvalue.
(d) Is a plane in three dimensional space which contains the origin a subspace
of R3? What if it doesn t contain the origin?
Solution:
Yes: the equation of a plane through the origin can be written in normal form
n x = 0. Dot product is linear, so (as in the last example) the vectors in the pl
ane
are closed under scalar multiplication and vector addition.
The points in any plane not containing 0 cannot be closed under scalar multiplication and so is not a vector space.
(e) Is the graph of y = x2 a subspace of R2?
No: (1, 1) is in this set but 2(1, 1) is not.
(f) Is the set consisting of the x and y axes (combined) a vector subspace of R2
?
Solution:
No: (1, 0) and (0, 1) are in this set but (1, 0) + (0, 1) is not.
4 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
(vi). Basis for a Vector Space.
(a) Find a basis for the vector space of 2 by 2 matrices with trace 0.
Solution:
Trace is a linear function on matrices so its nullspace is a vector space. Obvio
usly
not all 2 by 2 matrices have trace zero, so the dimension of the nullspace is at
most
three. Here is a collection of three independent matrices with trace 0, which mu
st
therefore constitute a basis:
-1 0
0 1

and

0 0
1 0

and

0 1
0 0

.
(b) Find a basis for the plane given by (3, 6, 1) (x, y, z) = 0.
Solution:

{ (-6, 3, 0), (0, 1,-6) }. These are two independent vectors in the plane, which
cannot have dimension exceeding two (since it is not all of R3.) So they form a
basis.
(c) Find a basis for the hyperplane given by (3, 6, 1, 5) (x, y, z,w) = 0.
Solution:
{ (-6, 3, 0, 0), (0, 1,-6, 0), (0, 0,-5, 1) }. These are three independent vecto
rs
in the hyperplane , which cannot have dimension exceeding three (since it is not
all of R4.) So these vectors form a basis.
(d) Find a basis for the set of polynomials in the variable t. (hint: This will
be
an infinite basis.)
Solution:
The easiest basis is { 1, t, t2, . . . } where we will not dwell upon the meanin
g of
. . .
You know what I mean, right? It is obvious that this set spans the vector
space of polynomials, since any polynomial is by definition a linear combination
of
these powers. We need to show it is an independent set.
Suppose there is a sum antn + an-1tn-1 + + a0 of distinct powers of t, and
where an is nonzero, which adds to 0. Then dividing both sides by antn we find
that
0 = 1 +
an-1
ant
+ +
a0
antn
.
But the limit, as t ? 8, of the right is 1, since every term but the first has t
in
the denominator. Since 0 6= 1 we conclude that there is no such nontrivial linea
r
combination, and the set of non-negative powers of t is independent.
(vii). Linear Functions Between Vector Spaces.
Let W denote the set of polynomials in x of degree 5 or less. Consider the linea
r
function d2
dx2 : W ? W.
(a) What is the nullspace of d2
dx2 ? Find a basis.
Solution:
By the mean value theorem (applied twice) if d2
dx2 f = 0 then f(x) must be of the
form ax + b. So { 1, x } is a basis of the nullspace.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 5
(b) What is the image of d2
dx2 ? Find a basis.
Solution:
d2
dx2 reduces the degree of a polynomial by exactly 2 if it started at degree 5, 4
, 3
or 2. So the image of d2
dx2 will be certain polynomials of degree 3 or less. On the
other hand,
d2
dx2
a3
20
x5 +

a2
12
x4 +
a1
6
x3 +
a0
2
x2

= a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0.
So any third degree polynomial is in the image of this differential operator. So
{ 1, x, x2, x3 } is a basis for the image.
(c) Pick a basis A for W and find a matrix MA,A for d2
dx2 .
Solution:
How about the easiest? Let A = { 1, x, x2, x3, x4, x5 }, in that order.
MA,A =

d2
dx2 1

A

d2
dx2 x

A
. . .

d2
dx2 x5

A

=
?
???????
0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 6 0 0
0 0 0 0 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 20
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
?
???????
.
(viii). Nullspace, Columnspace and Solutions.
(a), (b) and (c) Find the nullspace and the columnspace for each matrix:

1 2 3
-1 5 6

and

1 2 3
1 2 3



and

1 2
3 4

.
Solutions:
(a) Nullspace: Span ( { (3, 9,-7) } ). Columnspace: R2.
(b) Nullspace: Span ( { (-2, 1, 0), (-3, 0, 1) } ). Columnspace: Span( { (1, 1)
} ).
(c) Nullspace: { (0, 0) }. Columnspace: R2.
(d), (e) and (f) Represent the solution to the following equations in parametric
form (if there is more than one solution) using your work from above:

1 2 3
-1 5 6
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

3
7

and

1 2 3
1 2 3
?
?
x
y
z
?
? =

7
7

and

1 2
3 4

x
y

=

3
7


.
Solutions:
(d) Solution Set:
??
0, 1, 1
3

+ t(3, 9,-7) for any real t.

This could also be written as
??
0, 1, 1
3

+ Span( { (3, 9,-7) } ).
(e) Solution Set: (7, 0, 0) + s(-2, 1, 0) + t(-3, 0, 1) for any real s or t.
(f) (1, 1) only.
6 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
(ix). More on Nullspace and Columnspace.
(a) Find the nullspace and the columnspace of
?
?
1 2 3
-1 5 4
-1 5 4
?
?
.
Solution:
Nullspace: Span ( { (1, 1,-1) } ). Columnspace: Span( { (1,-1,-1), (2, 5, 5) } )
.
(b) Find the nullspace and the columnspace of
?
?-1 5 6
-1 5 6
-1 5 6
?
?
.
Solution:
Nullspace: Span ( { (-5, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1) } ). Columnspace: Span ( { (1, 1, 1) }
).
(c) Let V denote the set of 3 by 3 matrices. Show that trace: V ? R is linear.
What is the dimension of the kernel of trace?
Solution:
trace(X + cY ) =
X3
i=1
(xii + cyii) =
X3
i=1
xii + c
X3
i=1
yii = trace(X) + c trace(Y ).
The dimension of the nullspace plus the dimension of the image must be nine, the
dimension of the space of 3 by 3 matrices. Since the image of trace is R, which
has
dimension one, the dimension of the kernel must be eight.
(d) Pick bases for V and R from (c). Find a matrix for trace using your bases.
Solution:
Let A be the ordered basis
?
?
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
?

?
?
?
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
?
?
?
?
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
?
?
?
?
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
?
?
for V and let E be the standard basis 1 for R. The matrix MA,E is then the row
matrix ??
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0


.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 7
(x). Some Notation for Solutions.
(a) Let V denote the set of 2 by 2 matrices. trace: V ? R is linear. Find a
basis for the kernel of trace, and use it to find a general solution to trace(v)
= 4.
Solution:
4 0
0 0

+ r

0 1
0 0

+ s

1 0
0 -1

+ t

0 0
1 0

for any real r, s or t.
(b) Let W denote the set of polynomials in x of degree 3 or less. Consider the
linear function d2
dx2 : W ? W. Find a basis for the nullspace of d2
dx2 and use it to
find a general solution to d2
dx2 f(x) = 4.
Solution:
2x2 + rx + s for any real r or s.
(xi). Solving Problems in More Advanced Math Classes.
(xii). Inner Products.
(a), (b) and (c) Which of the following
xT

-1 2
2 -1

y or xT

6 2
2 5

y or xT

1 2
0 1


y
give inner products on R2? Give evidence.
Solution:
All three satisfy the linearity in the first vector
linearity of matrix multiplication.
The first, however, is not positive definite: (1 0)

condition, because of the

-1 2
2 -1

1
0

= -1.
The third is not symmetric: (4 1)

1 2
0 1

2
1

= 17 6= 13 = (2 1)

1 2
0 1

4
1

.
The second is symmetric (because the matrix is) but it still needs to be shown
to be positive definite.
(x y)

6 2
2 5

x
y

= 6x2 + 4xy + 5y2.
Consider the function h(x) = 6x2+4xy+5y2 where y is to be regarded as constant.
h'(x) = 12x+4y and h''(x) = 12. So the horizontal tangent at x = -y
3 is a minimum.
h
??
-y
3

= 6
??
-y
3
2
+ 4
??
-y
3

y + 5y2 = 13y2
3 . This is obviously nonnegative, and can
only be 0 if y itself is 0. But then h(x) = 0 only if x is 0 too.
So (x y)

6 2
2 5


x
y

> 0 unless (x, y) is the zero vector. So the second example
is an inner product.
(d) Prove that hf, gi =
R 1
0 f(x)g(x) dx gives an inner product on the vector space
of continuous functions on the unit interval.
Solution:
8 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
Linearity and symmetry are basic properties of the integral and ordinary arithmetic applied to the integral:
Z 1
0
f(x)g(x) dx =
Z 1
0
g(x)f(x) dx
and
Z 1
0
(f(x) + k h(x))g(x) dx =
Z 1
0
g(x)f(x) dx + k
Z 1
0
h(x)g(x) dx.
It only remains to demonstrate the positivity condition.
If f is continuous and nonzero at c ? [0, 1] there is some small interval of the
form [a, b] near c so that for every point in this interval the magnitude of f i
s greater
than a positive number ". So (f(x))2 > "2 > 0 on this interval. So by the defini
tion
of integral as a Riemann sum,
Z 1
0
f(x)f(x) dx =
Z b
a
f(x)f(x) dx >
Z b
a
"2 dx = "2(b - a) > 0.
We conclude that
R 1
0 f(x)f(x) dx > 0 unless f is the zero function.
(e) Prove that hf, gi =
R 1
0 f(x)g(x) dx does not give an inner product on the
vector space of continuous functions on the interval [0, 2].
Solution:
A counterexample to the positivity condition is provided by the function that is
0 between 0 and 1, but has slope 1 between 1 and 2.
(f) Let V be the space of constant or first degree polynomials. Define hf, gi on
V to be f(0)g(0) + f(1)g(1). Is this an inner product?
Solution:
Yes: If f(0)f(0)+f(1)f(1) = 0 then both f(1) and f(0) are 0. Since f is linear,

that means f is the zero function. The linearity and symmetry conditions follow
quickly.
(g) Is hv,wi = v1v2 + v1 + w1 + w1w2 an inner product on R2?
Solution:
No: hv, 0i will be nonzero if v = (1, 0).
(h) Is hv,wi = v1w1 + v1w2 + v2w1 + v2w2 an inner product on R2?
Solution:
No: Positive definiteness fails (though symmetry and the linearity condition do
hold.) h(1,-1), (1,-1)i = 0.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 9
(xiii). The Matrix for an Inner Product.
Find the matrix G for the inner product on R2 given by
hx, yi = 7x1y1 + x2y1 + x1y2 + 3x2y2.
Solution: G =

he1, e1i he1, e2i
he2, e1i he2, e2i

=

7 1
1 3

.
(xiv). Orthogonal Complements.
Give Rn the usual inner product in each case below.
(a) Find the orthogonal complement of Span ( { (3, 6, 1, 1), (4, 9, 1, 0) } ).
Solution:
Solve the homogeneous system

3 6 1 1
4 9 1 0

?
???
x
y
z
w
?
???
=

0
0

.
The vectors (-3, 1, 3, 0) and (-9, 4, 0, 3) span this vector subspace, which is
the
orthogonal complement we are looking for.
(b) Find the orthogonal complement of Span ( { (3, 6, 1), (4, 9, 1) } ).
Solution:
It is Span ( { (-3, 1, 3) } ). (Use cross product.)
(c) Find the orthogonal complement of Span ( { (3, 6) } ).
Solution:
It is Span ( { (6,-3) } ).
(xv). Orthonormal Basis.
(a) Let V be the space of constant or first degree polynomials. Give V the inner
product hf, gi =
R 3

0 f(x)g(x) dx. Find an orthonormal basis. What is the angle

between x + 1 and x?
Solution:
If you start with ordered basis { 1, x } and apply the orthonormalization procedure you get
n
1
v3
, 2
3 x - 1
o
. The angle between x + 1 and x is about 11o.
(b) With V as above, define inner product hf, gi to be f(0)g(0)+f(1)g(1). Find
an orthonormal basis. What is the angle between x + 1 and x?
Solution:
If you start with ordered basis { 1, x } and apply the orthonormalization procedure you get
n
1
v2
, v2 x - 1
v2
o
. The angle between x + 1 and x is about 27o.
10 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
(xvi). Projection onto Subspaces in an Inner Product Space.
Let W = Span ( { (3, 6, 1, 1), (4, 9, 1, 0) } ) and give R4 the usual inner prod
uct.
(a) Find the matrix with respect to the standard basis for the linear function
ProjW. (hint: First find an orthonormal basis for W and extend it to an orthonor
mal basis for R4.)
(b) Find the matrix, as above, for reflection ReflW of points in R4 across W.
Solution:
Apply the Gramm-Schmidt process to the ordered basis
{ (3, 6, 1, 1), (4, 9, 1, 0), (-3, 1, 3, 0), (-9, 4, 0, 3) }
and you get a particularly easy basis to calculate. That is because the last two
vectors span the orthogonal complement of the first two, cutting by two thirds t
he
projections that must be calculated. The basis you end up with consists of the
ordered basis S = { u1, . . . , u4 } given by
1
v47
?
???
3
6
1
1
?
???
,
1
v5499
?
???
-13
21
-20
-67

?
???
,
1
v19
?
???
-3
1
3
0
?
???
,
1
v20007
?
???
-78
45
-93
57
?
???
.
ProjW has a very simple matrix when expressed in these coordinates:
MS,S =
?
???
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
?
???
.
This matrix kills the part of any vector that sticks out of the plane of W, but
acts
like the identity matrix in W.
However we want the matrix in terms of the standard basis E so we can work
on standard coordinates. Denoting by PS,E the matrix of transition from basis S
to basis E we have PS,E = ( [u1]E [u2]E [u3]E [u4]E ) where the columns of this
matrix are the standard coordinates of the new basis we calculated above. The
matrix we want is
ME,E = PS,EMS,SPE,S.
The matrix PE,S is the inverse of PS,E, but because both E and S are orthogonal,
P-1
S,E = PT
S,E.
The matrix KS,S for the reflection in W is given by
KS,S =
?
???
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 -1 0
0 0 0 -1
?
???
.

This matrix preserves the part of a vector in W and reverses the part that stick
s out
of W. It too can be transformed to KE,E, so it can work on standard coordinates,
by the same process.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 11
(xvii). Approximate Solutions.
(a) Find the point in R2 which is the best possible solution to
?
?
1 2
3 4
6 1
?
?

x
y

=
?
?
3
7
1
?
?
where distance is measured with the usual inner product.
Solution:
We first find the vector in the columnspace of the matrix closest to (3, 7, 1).
We
apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to the columns, yielding
u1 =
1
v46
(1, 3, 6) and u2 =
1
v6509
(36, 62,-37).
The projection of p = (3, 7, 1) onto the columnspace is
hp, u1iu1 + hp, u2iu2 =
3 + 21 + 6
46
(1, 3, 6) +
108 + 434 - 37
6509
(36, 62,-37)
=

975
283
,
1915
283
,
295
283

.
This is a point in the image of the linear transformation, so there is a solutio
n, and

it is the point in the image nearest to the target.

Now solve
?
?
1 2
3 4
6 1
?
?

x
y

=
?
????
975
283
1915
283
295
283
?
????
by the usual methods, yielding x = -35
283 and y = 505
283 .
(b) Find the points in R2 which are best possible

solutions to


1 2
3 6

x
y

=

3
7

where distance is measured with the usual inner product.
Solution:
The columnspace is spanned by (1, 3). Projecting the target (3, 7) onto the
columnspace yields the closest point v =

12
5v10
, 36
5v10

in the image of

1 2
3 6

.
Solving

1 2
3 6


x
y

=
12
5v10
36
5v10
!
yields

x
y

=
0
6
5v10
!
+ t

-2
1

for any real t.
12 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
(xviii). Embedding an Inner Product Space in Euclidean Space.
Find an inner product on a finite dimensional vector space from the examples
given above which are not dot product. Find an orthonormal basis. Satisfy yourse
lf
that the inner product corresponds to dot product on coordinates with respect to
this basis.
Solution:
We will examine the bases and inner products from (xv).
Let V be the space of constant or first degree polynomials with ordered basis
A = { a1, a2 } = { 1, x }. If we give V the inner product hf, gi =
R 3
0 f(x)g(x) dx
and apply Gramm-Schmidt we get basis C = { c1, c2 } =
n
1
v3
, 2
3 x - 1
o
. So the
matrices of this inner product in these two bases are
GA =

ha1, a1i ha1, a2i
ha2, a1i ha2, a2i

=

3 4.5
4.5 9

and

GC =

hc1, c1i hc1, c2i
hc2, c1i hc2, c2i

=

1 0
0 1

If instead we endow V with inner product hf, gi = f(0)g(0) + f(1)g(1) we get
an orthonormal basis D = { d1, d2 } =
n
1
v2
, v2 x - 1
v2
o
. The matrices of this
different inner product in these two bases are
HA =

ha1, a1i ha1, a2i
ha2, a1i ha2, a2i

=

2 1
1 1

and
HD =

hd1, d1i hd1, d2i
hd2, d1i hd2, d2i

=

1 0
0 1

(xix). Change of Basis.
Find matrices of transition from ordered basis A = { 1, x } to orthonormal bases
C for (a) and D for (b) from the last section.
Solutions:
(a) The matrix of transition from C =
n
1
v3
, 2
3 x - 1
o
to A = { 1, x } is
PC,A =
 1
v3 -1
0 2
3

so PA,C = P-1

C,A =
v3 3v3
2
0 3
2
!
.
(b) The matrix of transition from D =
n
1
v2
, v2 x - 1
v2
o
to A = { 1, x } is
PD,A =
1
v2 - 1
v2
0 v2
!
so PA,D = P-1
D,A =
?
?
v2 1
v2
0 1
v2
?
?.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 13
(xx). Effect of Change of Basis on the Matrix for an Inner Product.
Show that the matrix of transition can be used to turn the matrix of the inner
product with respect to original basis into the identity matrix with respect to
orthonormal bases in the two cases above. The inner product becomes dot product
on these coordinates.
Solution:
PT
A,D HD PA,D = PT
A,D I PA,D =
?
?
v2 1
v2
0 1
v2
?
?
T ?
?
v2 1
v2
0 1
v2
?
?
=
v2 0
1

v2
1
v2
!?
?
v2 1
v2
0 1
v2
?
? =

2 1
1 1

= HA.
(xxi). Effect of Change of Basis on the Matrix for a Linear Function.
Find the matrices MA,A, MC,C and MD,D corresponding to differentiation with
respect to the three bases in (xix). Show how to use the matrices of transition
to
transform each matrix into the other two.
Solution:
d
dx
1 = 0 and
d
dx
x = 1 so MA,A =

0 1
0 0

.
So
MC,C = PA,CMA,APC,A =
v3 3v3
2
0 3
2
!
0 1
0 0
 1
v3 -1
0 2
3

=

0 2v3
3
0 0

and
MD,D = PA,DMA,APD,A =
?
?
v2 1
v2
0 1

v2
?
?

0 1
0 0
 1
v2 - 1
v2
0 v2
!
=

0 2
0 0

(xxii). Basis of Eigenvectors.
(a) Let u, v and w be eigenvectors for three different eigenvalues for a linear
function f. Show that these three vectors form an independent set of vectors.
Solution:
Suppose u, v and w are eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues 1, 2 and 3.
Relabel if necessary so that 1 6= 0. Suppose further that au + bv + cw = 0 for
certain real numbers a, b and c. Applying f to this sum and using linearity of f
yields a1u+b2v+c3w = 0. Dividing this by (nonzero) 1 and subtracting this
linear combination from the earlier one yields
b

1 2
1

v + c

1 3
1

w = 0 so b

1 2
1

v = c

3
1 - 1

w.
14 REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
Applying f to both sides of the rightmost equation yields different multiples of
each
side. The only way that can happen is if both sides are the zero vector. It foll
ows
that c and b are both 0, which implies that a = 0 too. So the three eigenvectors
are independent.
The same argument can be adapted to show that any finite number of eigenvectors for different eigenvalues must form an independent set of vectors. (hint: I
f this
set is dependent there would be a dependency involving the fewest number of thes

e
vectors. That number of vectors must exceed three, by our work from above. So
every coefficient in a linear combination of these particular eigenvectors which
adds
to the zero vector must be nonzero. Apply the argument from above to exhibit
a nontrivial combination of these vectors involving fewer eigenvectors, yielding
a
contradiction and establishing the result.)
(b) Find a basis of eigenvectors using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem as suggested
in the notes for the matrix
M = ME,E =
?
?
1 0 0
4 5 0
7 8 9
?
?
where E is the standard basis of R3.
(c) Find the matrix of transition from the standard basis E to the new basis B.
Verify that PE,BME,EPB,E = MB,B is diagonal.
Solution:
The characteristic polynomial for this matrix is
h(x) = (x - 1)(x - 5)(x - 9).
The columnspace of the matrices found below must be killed by the missing factor
,
and so are eigenvectors for the eigenvalue involved in the missing factor. These
calculations are so arduous to do by hand that hardware assistance is a practica
l
necessity.
(M - I)(M - 5I) =
?
?
0 0 0
0 0 0
60 64 32
?
?
(M - I)(M - 9I) =
?
?
0 0 0
-16 -16 0
32 32 32
?
?
(M - 5I)(M - 9I) =
?
?
32 0 0
-32 0 0
4 0 0
?
?
We select ordered basis B of eigenvectors u1 = (0, 0, 1) and u2 = (0,-1, 2) and
u1 = (8,-8, 1). These are eigenvectors for eigenvalues 9, 5 and 1, respectively.
REAL LINEAR ALGEBRA: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS 15
MB,B must be diagonal, and we verify
MB,B =
?

?
9 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 1
?
? =
?
?
0 0 8
0 -1 -8
1 2 1
?
?
-1?
?
1 0 0
4 5 0
7 8 9
?
?
?
?
0 0 8
0 -1 -8
1 2 1
?
?
= PE,BME,EPB,E.
(d) Suppose MA,A is a matrix for a linear transformation f : V ? V where V has
dimension 4 and A = { a1, a2, a3, a4 }. We find that f has eigenvalues 3 and 7 w
ith
corresponding eigenvectors v1 and v2. We also find that the vectors v1, v2, a2,
a3
(in that order) form a basis B. What can you say about the matrix MB,B?
Solution:
The matrix will be ([f(v1)]B [f(v2)]B [f(a2)]B [f(a3)]B). The first two columns
simplify nicely: the first is 3e1 and the second is 7e2. Nothing can be said abo
ut
the last two columns.