Electrodynamics

Princeton University
Ph501
Electrodynamics
Problem Set 8
Kirk T. McDonald
(2001)
kirkmcd@princeton.edu
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/
Princeton University 2001
Ph501 Set 8, Problem 1
1. Wire with a Linearly Rising Current

A neutral wire along the z-axis carries current I that varies with time t according to
I(t) =
t (t > 0),
(t 0),
(1)
is a constant.
Deduce the time-dependence of the electric and magnetic elds, E and B, observed at
a point (r, = 0, z = 0) in a cylindrical coordinate system about the wire. Use your
expressions to discuss the elds in the two limiting cases that ct r and ct = r + ,
where c is the speed of light and r.
The related, but more intricate case of a solenoid with a linearly rising current is
considered in http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/solenoid.pdf
2. Harmonic Multipole Expansion

A common alternative to the multipole expansion of electromagnetic radiation given in
the Notes assumes from the beginning that the motion of the charges is oscillatory with
angular frequency . However, we still use the essence of the Hertz method wherein
the current density is related to the time derivative of a polarization:1
J = p.
(2)
The radiation elds will be deduced from the retarded vector potential,
1
A=
c
1
[J]
dVol =
r
c
[p]
dVol,
r
(3)
which is a solution of the (Lorenz gauge) wave equation

2 A
1 2A
4
= J.
2
2
c t
c
(4)
Suppose that the Hertz polarization vector p has oscillatory time dependence,
Using the expansion
p(x, t) = p (x)eit .
(5)
+ ...
r = R r n
(6)
of the distance r from source to observer,
show that
A = i
ei(kRt)
cR
p (r) 1 + r n
1
ik + ...
R
dVol ,
(7)
where no assumption is made that R source size or that R = 2/k = 2c/.

Consider now only the leading term in this expansion, which corresponds to electric
dipole radiation. Introducing the total electric dipole moment,
P
1
p (r ) dVol ,
Some consideration of the related topics of Hertz vectors and scalars is given in the Appendix of
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/smallloop.pdf
(8)
use
1 E
c t
to show that for an observer in vacuum the electric dipole radiation elds are
B=A
B=k
2e
i(kRt)
2e
B=
and
i(kRt)
(9)
i
P,
1+
n
kR
(10)

1
i
(P n
) + [3(
.
(11)
n
n P)
n P] 2 2
E=k
R
k R
kR
Alternatively, deduce the electric eld from both the scalar and vector potentials via
E =
1 A
,
c t
(12)
in both the Lorenz and Coulomb gauges.

For large R,
Bfar k
2e
i(kRt)
P,
n
,
Efar Bfar n
(13)
while for small R,

Bnear
ik
(
n P)eit ,
2
R
Enear
3(
n P)
n P it
e
,
3
R
(14)
Thus, Bnear Enear, and the electric eld Enear has the shape of the static dipole eld
of moment P, modulated at frequency .
Calculate the Poynting vector of the elds of a Hertzian oscillating electric dipole (10)(11) at all points in space. Show that the time-averaged Poynting vector has the same
form in the near zone as it does in the far zone, which conrms that (classical) radiation
exists both close to and far from the source.
Extend your discussion to the case of an oscillating, point magnetic dipole by noting
that if E(r, t) and B(r, t) are solutions to Maxwells equations in free space (i.e., where
the charge density and current density J are zero), then the dual elds
E(r, t) = B(r, t),
are solutions also.
B (r, t) = E(r, t),
(15)
3. Rotating Electric Dipole

An electric dipole of moment p0 lies in the x-y plane and rotates about the x axis with
angular velocity .
Calculate the radiation elds and the radiated power according to an observer at angle
to the z axis in the x-z plane.
towards the observer, so that n
z = cos , and let l = y
n
.
Dene n
Show that
Brad = p0 k 2
ei(krt)
i l),
(cos y
r
Erad = p0 k 2
ei(krt)
),
(cos l + i y
r
(16)
where r is the distance from the center of the dipole to the observer.
), the radiation is linearly polarized,
Note that for an observer in the x-y plane (
n=x
while for an observer along the z axis it is circularly polarized.
Show that the (time-averaged) radiated power is given by
d P
c 2 4
=
p k (1 + cos2 ),
d
8 0
P =
2cp20 k 4
2p2 4
= 03 .
3
3c
(17)
This example gives another simple picture of how radiation elds are generated. The
eld lines emanating from the dipole become twisted into spirals as the dipole rotates.
At large distances, the eld lines are transverse...
4. Magnetars
The x-ray pulsar SGR1806-20 has recently
been observed to have a period T of 7.5 s

and a relatively large spindown rate T = 8 1011 . See, C. Kouveliotou et al., An
X-ray pulsar with a superstrong magnetic field in the soft -ray repeater SGR1806-20,
Nature 393, 235-237 (1998).2
Calculate the maximum magnetic eld at the surface of this pulsar, assuming it to be
a standard neutron star of mass 1.4M = 2.8 1030 kg and radius 10 km, that the
mass density is uniform, that the spindown is due to electromagnetic radiation, and
that the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the magnetic dipole moment of the
pulsar.
Compare the surface magnetic eld strength to the so-called QED critical eld strength
h = 4.4 1013 gauss, at which electron-positron pair creation processes become
m2c3 /e
highly probable.
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/kouveliotou_nature_393_235_98.pdf
5. Radiation of Angular Momentum

Recall that we identied a eld momentum density,
S
U
= k,
2
c
c
(18)
Lfield = r Pfield.
(19)
Pfield =
and angular momentum density
Show that for oscillatory sources, the time-average angular momentum radiated in unit
solid angle per second is (the real part of)
d L
1 3
n B ) B(
n E)].
=
r [E(
dt d
8
(20)
Thus, the radiated angular momentum is zero for purely transverse elds.
In prob. 2, eq. (11) we found that for electric dipole radiation there is a term in E with
1/r2 . Show that for radiation by an oscillating electric dipole p,
En
d L
ik 3
=
(
n p)(
n p ).
dt d
4
(21)
If the dipole moment p is real, eq. (21) tells us that no angular momentum is radiated.
However, when p is real, the radiation is linearly polarized and we expect it to carry
no angular momentum.
Rather, we need circular (or elliptical) polarization to have radiated angular momentum.
The radiation elds (16) of prob. 2 are elliptically polarized. Show that in this case
the radiated angular momentum distribution is
k3
d L
= p20 sin l,
dt d
4
and
P
d L
z.
=
dt
(22)
[These relations carry over into the quantum realm where a single (left-hand) circularly
polarized photon has U = h
, p = h
k, and L = h
.
For a another view of waves that carry angular momentum, see
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/oblate_wave.pdf
6. Oscillating Electric Quadrupole

An oscillating linear quadrupole consists of charge 2e at the origin, and two charges
e each at z = a cos t.
Show that for an observer in the x-z plane at distance r from the origin,
Erad = 4k 3 a2e
sin(2kr 2t)
sin cos l,
r
(23)
n
. This radiation is linearly polarized.
where l = y
Show also that the time-averaged total power is
P =
16 6 4 2
ck a e .
15
(24)
7. A single charge e rotates in a circle of radius a with angular velocity . The circle is
centered in the x-y plane.
The time-varying electric dipole moment of this charge distribution with respect to the
origin has magnitude p = ae, so from Larmors formula (prob. 2) we know that the
(time-averaged) power in electric dipole radiation is
PE1 =
2a2e2 4
.
3c3
(25)
This charge distribution also has a magnetic dipole moment and an electric quadrupole
moment (plus higher moments as well!). Calculate the total radiation elds due to the
E1, M1 and E2 moments, as well as the angular distribution of the radiated power and
the total radiated power from these three moments. In this pedagogic problem you
may ignore the interference between the various moments.
Show, for example, that the part of the radiation due only to the electric quadrupole
moment obeys
a4 e2 6
d PE2
=
(1 cos4 ),
d
2c5
Thus,
PE2 =
v2
12a2 2
PE2
,
=
PE1
5c2
c2
where v = a is the speed of the charge.
8a4e2 6
.
5c5
(26)
(27)
8. Radiation by a Classical Atom

a) Consider a classical atom consisting of charge +e xed at the origin, and charge e
in a circular orbit of radius a. As in prob. 5, this atom emits electric dipole radiation
loss of energy the electron falls into the nucleus!
Calculate the time to fall to the origin supposing the electrons motion is nearly circular
at all times (i.e., it spirals into the origin with only a small change in radius per turn).
You may ignore relativistic corrections. Show that
tfall =
a3
,
4r02 c
(28)
where r0 = e2/mc2 is the classical electron radius. Evaluate tfall for a = 5 109 cm
= the Bohr radius.
b) The energy loss of part a) can be written as
e2a 4
dU
e2
= Pdipole
=
dt
c
a
or
a
c
3
3
v
c
U
T
3
v
c
(29)
3
dipole energy loss per revolution

v
energy
c
(30)
For quadrupole radiation, prob. 5 shows that

5
v
quadrupole energy loss per revolution
energy
c
(31)
Consider the Earth-Sun system. The motion of the Earth around the Sun causes a
quadrupole moment, so gravitational radiation is emitted (although, of course, there
is no dipole gravitational radiation since the dipole moment of any system of masses
about its center of mass is zero). Estimate the time for the Earth to fall into the Sun
due to gravitational radiation loss.
What is the analog of the factor ea2 that appears in the electrical quadrupole moment
(prob. 5) for masses m1 and m2 that are in circular motion about each other, separated
by distance a?
Also note that in Gaussian units the electrical coupling constant k in the force law
F = ke1e2/r2 has been set to 1, but for gravity k = G, Newtons constant.
The general relativity expression for quadrupole radiation in the present example is
PG2 =
32 G m21m22
a4 6
5 c5 (m1 + m2 )2
(32)
[Phys. Rev. 131, 435 (1963)]. The extra factor of 4 compared to E2 radiation arises
because the source term in the gravitational wave equation has a factor of 16, rather
than 4 as for E&M.
10
9. Why Doesnt a Steady Current Loop Radiate?

A steady current in a circular loop presumably involves a large number of electrons in
uniform circular motion. Each electron undergoes accelerated motion, and according
to prob. 5 emits radiation. Yet, the current density J is independent of time in the
limit of a continuous current distribution, and therefore does not radiate. How can we
reconcile these two views?
The answer must be that the radiation is canceled by destructive interference between
the radiation elds of the large number N of electrons that make up the steady current.
Prob. 5 showed that a single electron in uniform circular motion emits electric dipole radiation, whose power is proportional to (v/c)4 . But the electric dipole moment vanishes
for two electrons in uniform circular motion at opposite ends of a common diameter;
quadrupole radiation is the highest multipole in this case, with power proportional to
(v/c)6. It is suggestive that in case of 3 electrons 120 apart in uniform circular motion
the (time-dependent) quadrupole moment vanishes, and the highest multipole radiation is octupole. For N electrons evenly spaced around a ring, the highest multipole
that radiates in the Nth, and the power of this radiation is proportional to (v/c)2N +2.
Then, for steady motion with v/c 1, the radiated power of a ring of N electrons is
very small.
Verify this argument with a detailed calculation.
Since we do not have on record a time-dependent multipole expansion to arbitrary
order, return to the basic expression for the vector potential of the radiation elds,
1
A(r, t) =
c
1
[J]
dVol
r
cR
1
[J] dVol =
cR
J(r, t = t r/c) dVol ,
(33)
where R is the (large) distance from the observer to the center of the ring of radius
a. For uniform circular motion of N electrons with angular frequency , the current
density J is a periodic function with period T = 2/, so a Fourier analysis can be
made where
J(r, t) =
with
m=
Jm (r)eimt ,
1T

Jm (r ) =
J(r, t)eimt dt .
T 0
Then,
A(r, t) =
Am (r)eimt ,
(34)
(35)
(36)
etc.
The radiated power follows from the Poynting vector,
c 2
c 2
dP
=
R |B|2 =
R | A|2 .
d
4
4
(37)
However, as discussed on p. 181 of the Notes, one must be careful in going from a
Fourier analysis of an amplitude, such as B, to a Fourier analysis of an intensity that
11
depends on the square of the amplitude. Transcribing the argument there to the present
case, a Fourier analysis of the average power radiated during one period T can be given
as

d P
cR2 T
1 T dP
cR2 T
2
|B| dt =
B
Bm eimt dt
=
dt =
d
T 0 d
4T 0
4T 0
m
T
2
2
1
cR
cR
Bm
B eimt dt =
Bm Bm
=
4 m
T 0
4 m=

dPm
cR2
2
.
=
|Bm |
2 m=0
m=0 d
(38)
That is, the Fourier components of the time-averaged radiated power can be written
cR2
cR2
dPm
cR2
2
2
2
=
|Bm | =
| Am | =
|imk
n Am | ,
d
2
2
2
(39)
points from the center of the ring to the observer.

where k = /c and n
Evaluate the Fourier components of the vector potential and of the radiated power
rst for a single electron, with geometry as in prob. 5, and then for N electrons evenly
spaced around the ring. It will come as no surprise that a 3-dimensional problem with
charges distributed on a ring leads to Bessel functions, and we must be aware of the
integral representation

im 2 imiz cos
e
d.
(40)
Jm (z) =
2 0
Use the asymptotic expansion for large index and small argument,
(ex/2)m
Jm (mx)
2m
(m 1, x 1),
(41)
to verify the suppression of the radiation for large N.

This problem was rst posed (and solved via series expansions without explicit mention
of Bessel functions) by J.J. Thomson, Phil. Mag. 45, 673 (1903).3 He knew that atoms
(in what we now call their ground state) dont radiate, and used this calculation to
support his model that the electric charge in an atom must be smoothly distributed.
This was a classical precursor to the view of a continuous probability distribution for
the electrons position in an atom.
Thomsons work was followed shortly by an extensive treatise by G.A. Schott, Electromagnetic Radiation (Cambridge U.P., 1912), that included analyses in term of Bessel
functions correct for any value of v/c.
These pioneering works were largely forgotten during the following era of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, and were reinvented around 1945 when interest emerged in
relativistic particle accelerators. See Arzimovitch and Pomeranchuk,4 and Schwinger.5
3
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/thomson_pm_45_673_03.pdf
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/arzimovitch_jpussr_9_267_45.pdf
5
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/accel/schwinger.pdf
4
12
10. Spherical Cavity Radiation

Thus far we have only considered waves arising from the retarded potentials, and have
ignored solutions via the advanced potentials. Advanced spherical waves converge
on the source rather than propagate away so we usually ignore them.
Inside a cavity, an outward going wave can bounce o the walls and become an inward
going wave. Thus, a general description of cavity radiation should include both kinds
of waves.
Reconsider your derivation in Prob. 1, this time emphasizing the advanced waves, for
which t = t + r/c is the advanced time. It suces to consider only the elds due to
oscillation of an electric dipole moment.
If one superimposes outgoing waves due to oscillating dipole p = p0 eit at the origin
with incoming waves associated with dipole p, then we can have standing waves
and zero total dipole moment.
Suppose all this occurs inside a spherical cavity with perfectly conducting walls at
radius a. Show that the condition for standing waves associated with the virtual
electric dipole is
cot ka =
1
ka
ka
c
min = 2.74 ,
a
(42)
where k = /c. [A quick estimate would be max = 2a min = c/a.]

By a simple transformation, use your result to nd the condition for standing magnetic
dipoles waves inside a spherical cavity:
tan ka = ka
c
min = 4.49 .
a
(43)
13
11. Maximum Energy of a Betatron

A betatron is a circular device of radius R designed to accelerate electrons (charge e,
mass m) via a changing magnetic ux = R2 B ave through the circle.
Deduce the relation between the magnetic eld B at radius R and the magnetic eld
Bave averaged over the area of the circle needed for a betatron to function. Also deduce
the maximum energy E to which an electron could be accelerated by a betatron in terms
of B, B ave and R.
Hints: The electrons in this problem are relativistic, so it is useful to introduce the
factor = E/mc2 where c is the speed of light. Recall that Newtons second law has
the same form for nonrelativistic and relativistic electrons except that in the latter case
the eective mass is m. Recall also that for circular motion the rest frame acceleration
is 2 times that in the lab frame.
14
12. a) An oscillating electric dipole of angular frequency is located at distance d

away from a perfectly conducting plane. The dipole is oriented parallel to the plane,
as shown below.
Show that the power radiated in the direction (, ) is

dP
= 4A sin2 sin2 ,
d
(44)
where
2
sin cos ,
d
and the power radiated by the dipole alone is
=
dP
= A sin2 .
d
(45)
(46)
Sketch the shape of the radiation pattern for d = /2 and d = /4.

b) Suppose instead that the dipole was oriented perpendicular to the conducting plane.
Show that the radiated power in this case is

dP
= 4A sin2 cos2 ,
d
where
=
2
cos .
d
(47)
(48)
In parts a) and b), the polar angles and are measured with respect to the axes of
the dipoles.
c) Repeat parts a) and b) for a magnetic dipole oscillator in the two orientations.
15
13. In an array of antennas, their relative phases can be adjusted as well as their relative
spacing, which leads to additional freedom to shape the radiation pattern.
Consider two short, center-fed linear antennas of length L , peak current I0 and
frequency , as discussed on p. 191 of the Notes. The axes of the antennas are collinear,
their centers are /4 apart, and the currents have a 90 phase dierence.
Show that the angular distribution of the radiated power is

dU
2 2 2 2
=
cos
I0 L sin 1 + sin
3
dtd
16c
2

(49)
Unlike the radiation patterns of previous examples, this is not symmetric about the
plane z = 0. Therefore, this antenna array emits nonzero momentum Prad . As a
consequence, there is a net reaction force F = dPrad/dt. Show that
1 dU
F=
c dt
2
z.
1
12
A variant on this problem is at

http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/endfire.pdf
(50)
16
14. a) Consider a full-wave end-re antenna whose current distribution (along the z axis)
is
2z it
,
(L/2 < z < L/2),
(51)
I(z) = I0 sin
e
L
where L = = 2c/.
Use the result of p. 182 of the Notes to calculate the radiated power exactly. Note
that the real part of the integral vanishes, so you must evaluate the imaginary part.
Show that
dP
I 2 sin2 ( cos )
= 0
.
(52)
d
2c
sin2
Sketch the radiation pattern.
Use tricks like
1
1
1
+
=
2
1u
1+u 1u
to show that the total radiated power is

P =
I2
dP
d = 0
d
2c
4
0
I2
I2
1 cos v
dv = 0 Cin(4) = 3.11 0 .
v
2c
2c
(53)
(54)
(c.f. Abramowitz and Stegun, pp. 231, 244.)

b) Calculate the lowest order nonvanishing multipole radiation. You may need the fact
that

z 2 cos z dz = (z 2 2) sin z + 2z cos z.
(55)
Show that to this order,
I02
82 I02
= 5.26 .
P =
15 2c
2c
which gives a sense of the accuracy of the multiple expansion.
(56)
17
15. Scattering O a Conducting Sphere

Calculate the scattering cross section for plane electromagnetic waves of angular frequency incident on a perfectly conducting sphere of radius a when the wavelength
obeys a (ka 1).
Note that both electric and magnetic dipole moments are induced. Inside the sphere,
Btotal must vanish. Surface currents are generated such that Binduced = Bincident, and
because of the long wavelength, these elds are essentially uniform over the sphere.
(c.f. Set 4, Prob. 8a).
Show that
1
ei(krt)
) n
(B0 n
,
(E0 n
(57)
r
2
is along the vector r that points from the center of the sphere to the distant
where n
observer.
Escat = a3k 2
Suppose that the incident wave propagates in the +z direction, and the electric eld
is linearly polarized along direction l, so E0 = E0l and l z = 0. Show that in this case
the scattering cross section can be written,

z
n
d
= a6 k 4 1
d
2
2
3
)2 .
(l n
4
(58)
Consider an observer in the x-z plane to distinguish between the cases of electric
polarization parallel and perpendicular to the scattering plane to show that

1
d
= a6 k 4
cos
d
2
2
d
cos
= a6 k 4 1
d
2
2
(59)
Then, for an unpolarized incident wave, show

5
d
= a6k 4 (1 + cos2 ) cos ,
d
8
and
(60)
10 6 4
d
d =
ak .
d
3
Sketch the angular distribution (60). Note that
=
d(180 )
d
d(0 )
= 9,
d
(61)
(62)
so the sphere reects much more backwards than it radiates forwards.

Is there any angle for which the scattered radiation is linearly polarized for unpolarized incident waves?
18
16. Exotic radiation eects of charges that move at (essentially) constant velocity but
cross boundaries between various media can be deduced from the radiation spectrum
equation (14.70) from the textbook of Jackson (p. 182 of the Notes):
dU
2
= 2 3
dd
4 c
J(r, t)ei(t(nr)/c)
dt d3 r n
2
(63)
where dU is the radiated energy in angular frequency interval d emitting into solid
is a unit vector towards the observer.
angle d, J is the source current density, and n
Consider the example of the sweeping electron beam in an (analog) oscilloscope. In the
fastest of such devices (such as the Tektronix model 7104) the speed of the beam spot
across the face of an oscilloscope can exceed the velocity of light, although of course
the velocity of the electrons does not. Associated with this possibility there should be
a kind of Cerenkov
radiation, as if the oscilloscope trace were due to a charge moving
with superluminal velocity.
As a simple model, suppose a line of charge moves in the y direction with velocity
u c, where c is the speed of light, but has a slope such that the intercept with the
x axis moves with velocity v > c, as shown in the gure below. If the region y < 0 is
occupied by, say, a metal the charges will emit transition radiation as they disappear
into the metals surface. Interference among the radiation from the various charges
then leads to a strong peak in the radiation pattern at angle cos = c/v, which is the
Cerenkov
eect of the superluminal source all of which can be deduced from eq. (63).
0.3
a) A sloping line of charge moves in the y direction with velocity vy = u c
such that its intercept with the x axis moves with velocity vx = v > c. As the
charge disappears into the conductor at y < 0 it emits transition radiation.
The radiation appears to emanate from a spot moving at superluminal velocity
and is concentrated on a cone of angle cos1 (c/v). b) The angular distribution
of the radiation is discussed in a spherical coordinates system about the x axis.
Ph501 Set 8, Solution 1
19
Solutions
1. The suggested approach is to calculate the retarded potentials and then take derivatives
to nd the elds. The retarded scalar and vector potentials and A are given by

(x, t) =
(x, t R/c) 3
d x,
R
and
A(x, t) =
1
c
J(x, t R/c) 3
d x , (64)
R
where and J are the charge and current densities, respectively, and R = |x x|.
In the present case, we assume the wire remains neutral when the current ows (compare Prob. 3, Set 4). Then the scalar potential vanishes. For the vector potential, we
see that only the component Az will be nonzero. Also, J d3 x can be rewritten as I dz for
current in a wire alongthe z-axis. For an observer at (r, 0, 0) and a current element at
(0, 0, z), we have R = r2 + z 2 . Further, the condition that I is nonzero only for time
t > 0 implies that it contributes to the elds only for z such that (ct)2 > R2 = r2 + z 2.
That is, we need to evaluate the integral only for
|z| < z0
(ct)2 r2 ,
(65)
which must be positive to have physical signicance. Altogether,

t
z0
1
ct + z0 2z0
Az (r, 0, 0, t) =
dz
=
t
ln
c z0
c
c
ct z0
c
r2 + z 2

2
z0 + ct z0
=
t ln
.
c
r
c
(66)
[The two forms tend to arise depending on whether or not one notices that the integrand
is even in z.]
The magnetic eld is obtained via B = A. Since only Az is nonzero the only
nonzero component of B is
Az
2z0
= 2 .
(67)
B =
r
cr
[Some chance of algebraic error in this step!]
The only nonzero component of the electric eld is
Ez =
1 Az
2 z0 + ct
= 2 ln
.
c t
c
r
(68)
For long times, ct r, z0 ct, and the elds become

B
2t
2I(t)
=
= B0(t),
cr
cr
Ez
r
2 2ct
2ct
ln
=
B
ln
B0 ,
0
c2
r
ct
r
(69)
where B0 (t) = 2I(t)/cr is the instantaneous magnetic eld corresponding to current

I(t). That is, we recover the magnetostatic limit at large times.
For short times, ct = r + with r, after the elds rst become nonzero we have
(70)
z0 = 2r + 2 2r,
20
so
2
B 2
c
2
,
r
2 r + +
Ez 2 ln
c
r
and
2r
2
2
c
2
= B .
r
(71)
In this regime, the elds have the character of radiation, with E and B of equal
magnitude, mutually orthogonal, and both orthogonal to the line of sight to the closest
point on the wire. (Because of the cylindrical geometry the radiation elds do not have
1/r dependence which holds instead for static elds.)
In sum, the elds build up from zero only after time ct = r. The initial elds propagate
outwards at the speed of light and have the character of cylindrical waves. But at a
xed r, the electric eld dies out with time, and the magnetic eld approaches the
instantaneous magnetostatic eld due to the current in the wire.
Of possible amusement is a direct calculation of the vector potential for the case of a
constant current I0.
First, from Amperes law we know that B = 2I0 /cr = Az /r, so we have that
Az =
2I0
ln r + const.
c
(72)
Whereas, if we use the integral form for the vector potential we have
Az (r, 0, 0) =
1
c
I dz
2I0
0
=
c
r2 + z 2
2I0
ln r + lim ln(z +
z
c

0
dz
r2 + z 2
z 2 + r2 ).
(73)
Only by ignoring the last term, which does not depend on r for a long wire, do we
recover the elementary result.
2. The expansion
21
+ ...
r = R r n
(74)
implies that the retarded time derivative of the polarization vector is

= p(r
, t = t r/c) ip (r )ei(tR/c+r n/c) = iei(kRt) p (r )eikr n
[p]
),
iei(kRt)p (r)(1 ikr n
(75)
where k = /c. Likewise,
r n
1
1
1+
.
r
R
R
(76)
Then, the retarded vector potential can be written (in the Lorenz gauge)
A(L) =
1
c
[p]
ei(kRt)
dVol i
r
cR
p (r ) 1 + r n
1
ik + ... dVol , (77)
R
The electric dipole (E1) approximation is to keep only the rst term of eq. (77),
(L)
AE1
ei(kRt)
= i
cR
p (r) dVol ik
ei(kRt)
P
R
(Lorenz gauge).
(78)
We obtain the magnetic eld by taking the curl of eq. (78). The curl operation with
respect to the observer acts only on the distance R. In particular,
R =
R
.
=n
R
(79)
Hence,

BE1 =
= k
2e
(L)
AE1
i(kRt)
ei(kRt)
n
ei(kRt)
= ik
ik
n
P
P = ik
R
R
R

i
P.
1+
n
kR
(80)
The 4th Maxwell equation in vacuum tells us that

BE1 =
1 EE1
= ikEE1.
c t
(81)
Hence,

EE1
i
1
ik
=
3 RP
BE1 = ei(kRt)
2
k
R
R

1
1
ik
ik
i(kRt)
i(kRt)
= e
(R P) + e
(R P)
R2 R3
R2 R3

2
ik
ik
k
1
1
(
n
n P) 2Pei(kRt)
= ei(kRt) 3
R
R2 R3
R2 R3
= k
2e
i(kRt)
(P n
) + e
n
i(kRt)
1
ik
)
[P 3(P n
n].
R2 R3
(82)
22
We could also deduce the electric eld from the general relation
E = V
1 A
= V + ikA.
c t
(83)
For this, we need to know the scalar potential V (L) , which we can deduce from the
Lorenz gauge condition:
1 V (L)
A(L) +
= 0.
(84)
c t
For an oscillatory source this becomes
i
V (L) = A(L) .
k
(85)
In the electric dipole approximation (78) this yields6

(L)
VE1
= ei(kRt)
1
ik
)
(P n
2
R
R
(Lorenz gauge).
(86)
For small R the scalar potential is that of a time-varying dipole,

(L)
VE1,near
it
Pn
e
.
2
R
(87)
The electric eld is given by

(L)
(L)
EE1 = VE1 + ikAE1
i(kRt)
ik
ik
1
1
i(kRt)
2e
P
= (P R)ei(kRt)
+
e
(P
R)
+
k
R2 R3
R2 R3
R

k2
1
1
ik
ik
i(kRt)
i(kRt)
)
= e
3
(P n
n+e
P
R
R2 R3
R2 R3
+k 2
= k
2e
ei(kRt)
P
R
i(kRt)
(P n
) + e
n

i(kRt)
1
ik
)
[P 3(P n
n],
R2 R3
(88)
as before. The angular distribution in the far eld (for which the radial dependence is
(P n
) = P (P n
)
1/R) is n
n. The isotropic term P is due to the vector potential,
)
while the variable term (P n
n is due to the scalar potential and is purely radial.
Spherical waves associated with a scalar potential must be radial (longitudinal), but
the transverse character of electromagnetic waves in the far eld does not imply the
absence of a contribution of the scalar potential; the latter is needed (in the Lorenz
gauge) to cancel to radial component of the waves from the vector potential.
6
Equation (86) is not simply the electrostatic dipole potential times a spherical wave because the retarded
positions at time t of the two charges of a point dipole correspond
to two dierent retarded times t .

(L)
For a calculation of the retarded scalar potential via V
= Vol []/r, see sec. 11.1.2 of Introduction to
Electrodynamics by D.J. Griths.
23
We could also work in the Coulomb gauge, meaning that we set A(C) = 0. Recall
(Lecture 15, p. 174) that the wave equations for the potentials in the Coulomb gauge
are
2 V (C) = 4,
1 2A(C)
4
1 V (C)
2 A(C) 2
=
J
+
.
c t2
c
c t
(89)
(90)
Equation (89) is the familiar Poisson equation of electrostatics, so the scalar potential
is just the instantaneous electric-dipole potential,
(C)
VE1 =
it
Pn
e
2
R
(Coulomb gauge).
(91)
One way to deduce the Coulomb-gauge vector potential is via eq. (83),
(C)
AE1
i
i
(C)
= EE1 VE1
k
k

ei(kRt)
ei(kRt) i(ei(kRt) eit )
)
(P n
) +
= ik
+
[P 3(P n
n]
n
R
R2
kR3
(C)
Afar + A(C)
near
(Coulomb gauge).
(92)
We learn that the far-zone, Coulomb gauge vector potential (i.e., the part of the vector
potential that varies as 1/R) is purely transverse, and can be written as
(C)
Afar = ik
ei(kRt)
(P n
)
n
R
(Coulomb gauge).
(93)
Because the radiation part of the Coulomb-gauge vector potential is transverse, the
Coulomb gauge is sometimes called the transverse gauge.
The Coulomb-gauge scalar potential is negligible in the far zone, and we can say that
the radiation elds are entirely due to the far-zone, Coulomb-gauge vector potential.
That is,
(C)
ei(kRt)
(P n
),
n
R
i(kRt)
(C)
2e
P.
= ik Afar = k
n
R
Efar = ikAfar = k 2
(C)
Bfar = Afar
(94)
(95)
It is possible to choose gauges for the electromagnetic potentials such that some of
their components appear to propagate at any velocity v, as discussed by J.D. Jackson,
Am. J. Phys. 70, 917 (2002) and by K.-H. Yang, Am. J. Phys. 73, 742 (2005).7 The
7
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/jackson_ajp_70_917_02.pdf
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/yang_ajp_73_742_05.pdf
24
potentials A(v) and V (v) in the so-called velocity gauge with the parameter v obey the
gauge condition
c V (v)
= 0.
(96)
A(v) + 2
v t
The scalar potential V (v) is obtained by replacing the speed of light c in the Lorenzgauge scalar potential by v. Equivalently, we replace the wave number k = /c by
k = /v. Thus, from eq. (86) we find

(v)
VE1
= e
i(k Rt)
1
ik
3 (P R)
2
R
R
(velocity gauge).
(97)
Then, as in eq. (88) we obtain

(v)
VE1
= e
i(kRt)
= k
2 e
i(kRt)
k2
1
ik
3
3
2
R
R
R
)
(P n
n+e

)
(P n
n+e
i(k Rt)
i(kRt)
1
ik
3 P
2
R
R
1
ik
)
3 [P 3(P n
n].
2
R
R
(98)
The vector potential in the v-gauge can be obtained from eq. (83) as
i
i
(v)
(v)
AE1 = EE1 VE1
k
k

ei(kRt)
i
1
)
(P n
) + ei(kRt)
= ik
+
[P 3(P n
n]
n
R
R2 kR3

i
k 2 ei(k Rt)
k
i(k Rt)
)
)
(P n
ne
+
[P 3(P n
n]. (99)
i
k
R
kR2 kR3
This vector potential includes terms that propagate with velocity v both in the near
and far zones. When v = c, then k = k and the velocity-gauge vector potential (99)
reduces to the Lorenz-gauge potential (78); and when v , then k = 0 and the
velocity-gauge vector potential reduces to the Coulomb-gauge potential (92).8
Turning to the question of energy ow, we calculate the Poynting vector
S=
c
E B,
4
(100)
where we use the real parts of the elds (80) and (82),

cos(kR t)
n
n
cos(kR t) + k sin(kR t) ,
(P
)
)
E = k Pn
+ P [3P
n P]
R
R3
R2
(101)
2
Thanks to J.D Jackson and K.-H. Yang for discussions of the Coulomb gauge and the velocity gauge.
See also, J.D. Jackson and L.B. Okun, Historical roots of gauge invariance, Rev. Mod. Phys. 73, 663 (2001),
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/jackson_rmp_73_663_01.pdf

25

cos(kR t) sin(kR t) .
B = k P (
n P)
R
kR2
2
(102)
The Poynting vector contains six terms, some of which do not point along the radial
:
vector n

2
c
n
cos (kR t) cos(kR t) sin(kR t)
)] (
k 4 P 2 [
n (P
n P)
S =
4
R2
kR3

2
2
n
(
cos (kR t) sin (kR t)
)
+k 2 P 2 [3(P
n P]
n P)
R4

1
k
+ cos(kR t) sin(kR t)
3
R
kR5

cos2 (kR t) cos(kR t) sin(kR t)
c
4 2
2
=
k P sin n
4
R2
kR3

cos2(kR t) sin2 (kR t)
2 2
2
+k P [4 cos P + (3 cos 1)
n]
R4

1
k
+ cos(kR t) sin(kR t)
,
(103)
3
R
kR5
and P. As well as the expected radial ow

where is the angle between vectors n
of energy, there is a ow in the direction of the dipole moment P. Since the product
cos(kR t) sin(kR t) can be both positive and negative, part of the energy ow
is inwards at times, rather than outwards as expected for pure radiation.
However, we obtain a simple result if we consider only
the time-average Poynting
2
2
vector, S. Noting that cos (kR t) = sin (kR t) = 1/2 and
cos(kR t) sin(kR t) = (1/2) sin 2(kR t) = 0, eq (103) leads to
S =
ck 4 P 2 sin2
.
n
8R2
(104)
The time-average Poynting vector is purely radially outwards, and falls o as 1/R2
at all radii, as expected for a ow of energy that originates in the oscillating point
dipole (which must be driven by an external power source). The time-average angular
distribution d P /d of the radiated power is related to the Poynting vector by
ck 4 P 2 sin2
P 2 4 sin2
d P
S =
,
= R2 n
=
d
8
8c3
(105)
which is the expression often quoted for dipole radiation in the far zone. Here we see
that this expression holds in the near zone as well.
We conclude that radiation, as measured by the time-average Poynting vector, exists
in the near zone as well as in the far zone.
Our considerations of an oscillating electric dipole can be extended to include an oscillating magnetic dipole by noting that if E(r, t) and B(r, t) are solutions to Maxwells
26
equations in free space (i.e., where the charge density and current density J are zero),
then the dual elds
E(r, t) = B(r, t),
B (r, t) = E(r, t),
(106)
are solutions also. The Poynting vector is the same for the dual elds as for the original
elds,
c
c
E B = B E = S.
(107)
S =
4
4
Taking the dual of elds (10)-(11), we nd the elds
E = EM1 = k 2
i(kRt)
ei(kRt)
i
M,
1+
n
R
kR

(108)

i
1
(M n
) + [3(
B = BM1 = k
. (109)
n
n M)
n M] 2 2
R
k R
kR
which are also solutions to Maxwells equations. These are the elds of an oscillating
point magnetic dipole, whose peak magnetic moment is M. In the near zone, the
magnetic eld (109) looks like that of a (magnetic) dipole.
2e
While the elds of eqs. (10)-(11) are not identical to those of eqs. (108)-(109), the
Poynting vectors are the same in the two cases. Hence, the time-average Poynting
vector, and also the angular distribution of the time-averaged radiated power are the
same in the two cases. The radiation of a point electric dipole is the same as that
of a point magnetic dipole (assuming that M = P), both in the near and in the far
zones. Measurements of only the intensity of the radiation could not distinguish the
two cases.
However, if measurements were made of both the electric and magnetic elds, then the
near zone elds of an oscillating electric dipole, eqs. (10)-(11), would be found to be
quite dierent from those of a magnetic dipole, eqs. (108)-(109). This is illustrated in
the gure on the previous page, which plots the ratio E/H = E/B of the magnitudes
of the electric and magnetic elds as a function of the distance r from the center of
the dipoles.
27
To distinguish between the cases of electric and magnetic dipole radiation, it suces
to measure only the polarization (i.e., the direction, but not the magnitude) of either
the electric of the magnetic eld vectors.
28
3. The rotating dipole p can be thought of as two oscillating linear dipoles oriented 90
apart in space, and phased 90 apart in time. This is conveniently summarized in
complex vector notation:
x + i
y)eit ,
(110)
p = p0 (
for a rotation from the +
x axis towards the +
y axis. Thus,
(t = t r/c) = 2p0 (
[
p] = p
x + i
y)ei(krt) .
(111)
The radiation elds of this oscillating dipole are given by
[
p] n
k 2 p0 ei(krt)
(
x + i
y) n
c2 r
r
k 2p0 ei(krt)
i l),
=
(cos y
r
k 2 p0 ei(krt)
=
).
= Brad n
(cos l + i y
r
Brad =
Erad
(112)
(113)
The time-averaged angular distribution of the radiated power is given by

c 2
c 4 2
d P
=
r |Brad|2 =
k p0 (1 + cos2 ),
d
8
8
(114)
are orthogonal. The total radiated power is therefore

since l and y
P =
2
2c
d P
d = k 4 p20 = 3 4p20 .
d
3
3c
(115)
The total power also follows from the Larmor formula,

P =
since |
p| =
1 2 |
2
p|2
= 3 4p20 ,
3
2 3c
3c
2
2 p0 in the present example.
(116)
29
4. According to the Larmor formula, the rate of magnetic dipole radiation is

2
2m
dU
2 m2 4
=
=
,
dt
3 c3
3 c3
(117)
where = 2/T is the angular velocity, taken to be perpendicular to the magnetic

dipole moment m.
The radiated power (117) is derived from a decrease in the rotational kinetic energy,
U = I2 /2, of the pulsar:
2
dU
,
= I = MR2 ||
dt
5
(118)
where the moment of inertia I is taken to be that of a sphere of uniform mass density.
Combining eqs. (117) and (118), we have
m2 =
c3
3 MR2 ||
.
5
3
(119)
Substituting = 2/T , and ||

= 2 T /T 2 , we nd
m2 =

3
2 3
T c .
MR
T
20 2
(120)
The static magnetic eld B due to dipole m is

B=
3(m r)r m
,
r3
(121)
so the peak eld at radius R is
2m
.
R3
Inserting this in eq. (120), the peak surface magnetic eld is related by
B=
(122)
3
3 MT T c
3 (2.8 1033 )(7.5)(8 1011 )(3 1010 )3
2
B = 2
=
= 2.8 1030 gauss 2.
5
R4
5 2
(106 )4
(123)
Thus, Bpeak = 1.7 1015 G = 38Bcrit , where Bcrit = 4.4 1013 G.
When electrons and photons of kinetic energies greater than 1 MeV exist in a magnetic
eld with B > Bcrit, they rapidly lose this energy via electron-positron pair creation.
Kouveliotou et al. report that Bpeak = 8 1014 G without discussing details of their
calculation.
30
5. The time-average eld momentum density is given in terms of the Poynting vector as
(the real part of)
S
c
Pfield = 2 =
(124)
E B .
c
8
Hence, the time-averaged angular momentum density is
Lfield = r Pfield =
1
1
r (E B) =
r[E(
n B ) B(
n E)].
8c
8c
(125)
.
writing r = rn
The time-average rate of radiation of angular momentum into solid angle d is therefore
1 3
d L
n B ) B(
n E)],
= cr2 Lfield =
r [E(
dt d
8
(126)
since the angular momentum density L is moving with velocity c.

The radiation elds of an oscillating electric dipole moment p including both the 1/r
and 1/r2 terms of eqs. (80) and (88) are,

ei(krt)
i
3i
k+
p k+
(
n p)
n ,
r
r
r

i
ei(krt)
B = k2
1+
(
n p).
r
kr
E = k
(127)
(128)
B = 0 for this case, only the second term in eq. (126) contributes to the
Since n
radiated angular momentum. We therefore nd

i
2i
ik 3
k3r
d L
1
(
n p )
(
n p) =
=
(
n p)(
n p ),
dt d
8
kr
r
4
(129)
ignoring terms in the nal expression that have positive powers of r in the denominator,
as these grow small at large distances.
For the example of a rotating dipole moment (prob. 2),
p = p0 (
x + i
y)eit ,
(130)
we have
ik 3p20
ik 3 p20
d L
+ i l]
= Re
[
n (
x + i
y)][
n (
x i
y)] = Re
sin [cos y
dt d
4
4
k3
= p20 sin l.
(131)
4
is in the x-z
To nd d L /dt we integrate eq. (130) over solid angle. When vector n
plane, vector l can be expressed as

l = cos x
sin z.
(132)
31
, the contributions to d L /dt in the x-y plane

As we integrate over all directions of n
sum to zero, and only its z component survives. Hence,

d L
k3
d Lz
= z
d = 2 p20 z
dt
dt d
4
P
2ck 3 2
z,
p z =
=
3 0
1
1
sin2 d cos =
2k 3 2
p z
3 0
(133)
recalling eq. (116) for the radiated power P . Of course, the motion described by
eq. (130) has its angular momentum along the +z axis.
32
6. The magnetic eld radiated by a time-dependent, axially symmetric quadrupole is

given by
...
[Q] n
B=
(134)
6c3 r
has rectangular components
where the unit vector n
= (sin , 0, cos ),
n
(135)
and the quadrupole vector Q is related to the quadrupole tensor Qij by

Qi = Qij nj .
(136)
The charge distribution is symmetric about the z axis, so the quadrupole moment
tensor Qij may be expressed entirely in terms of

Qzz =
(3z 2 r2 ) dVol = 4a2 e cos2 t = 2a2 e(1 + cos 2t).
Thus,
Qij =
Qzz /2
Qzz /2
,
0
and the quadrupole vector can be written as

Qzz
(138)
Qzz sin
Qzz
3Qzz cos
+
z
, 0, Qzz cos =
Q =
n
2
2
2
n 3z cos ).
= a2e(1 + cos 2t)(
Then,
(137)
...
[Q] = 8 3 a2e sin 2t(

n 3z cos ),
(139)
(140)
where the retarded time is t = t r/c. Hence,

...
4k 3 a2e
[Q] n
sin(2kr 2t) sin cos ,
=
B=
y
6c3 r
r
=y
sin . The radiated electric eld is given by
since z n
=
E = Bn
4k 3 a2e
l sin(2kr 2t) sin cos ,
r
(141)
(142)
n
= l.
using y
As we are not using complex notation, we revert to the basic denitions to nd that
the time-averaged angular distribution of radiated power is
cr2
2ck 6 a4e2
d P
2
= r S n =
E B n =
sin2 cos2 ,
d
4
(143)
=n
. This integrates to give
since l y
P = 2
1
16ck 6 a4e2
d P
d cos =
.
d
15
(144)
33
7. Since the charge is assumed to rotate with constant angular velocity, the magnetic
moment it generates is constant in time, and there is no magnetic dipole radiation.
Hence, we consider only electric quadrupole radiation in addition to the electric dipole
radiation. The radiated elds are therefore
...
[Q] n
[
p] n
B=
+
,
c2 r
6c3 r
.
E = Bn
(145)
The electric dipole radiation elds are given by eqs. (112) and 113) when we write
p0 = ae.
The present charge distribution is not azimuthally symmetric about any xed axis, so
we must evaluate the full quadrupole tensor,
Qij = e(3ri rj r2 ij ).
(146)
to nd the components of the quadrupole vector Q. The position vector of the charge
has components
(147)
ri = (a cos t, a sin t, 0),
so the nonzero components of Qij are
a2 e
(1 + 3 cos 2t),
2
a2 e
2
2
2
2
= e(3y r ) = a e(3 sin t 1) =
(1 3 cos 2t),
2
= er2 = a2e,
3a2e
sin 2t.
= Qyx = 3exy = 3a2e sin t cos t =
2
Qxx = e(3x2 r2 ) = a2e(3 cos2 t 1) =
(148)
Qyy
(149)
Qzz
Qxy
(150)
(151)
Only the time-dependent part of Qij contributes to the radiation, so we write
sin 2t 0
cos 2t
3a2 e
Qij (time dependent) =

sin 2t cos 2t 0 .
0
0
0
(152)
towards the observer has components given in eq. (135), so the

The unit vector n
time-dependent part of the quadrupole vector Q has components
3a2 e
(cos 2t sin , sin 2t sin , 0).
Qi = Qij nj =
2
(153)
Thus,
...
...
[Qi ] = Qi (t = t r/c) = 12a2 e 3 sin (sin(2kr 2t), cos(2kr 2t), 0).
(154)
, y
, and
It is preferable to express this vector in terms of the orthonormal triad n
l = y
n
, by noting that
=n
sin l cos .
x
(155)
34
Hence,
...
cos(2kr 2t)).
n sin sin(2kr 2t) l cos sin(2kr 2t) + y
[Q] = 12a2e 3 sin (
(156)
The eld due to electric quadrupole radiation are therefore
...
BE2
EE2
2a2ek 3
[Q] n
cos sin(2kr 2t)),(157)
=
sin (l cos(2kr 2t) + y
=
6c3 r
r
2a2ek 3
=
sin (
y cos(2kr 2t) l cos sin(2kr 2t)). (158)
= BE2 n
r
The angular distribution of the radiated power can be calculated from the combined
electric dipole and electric quadrupole elds, and will include a term k 4 due only to
dipole radiation as found in prob. 2, a term k 6 due only to quadrupole radiation,
and a complicated cross term k 5 due to both dipole and quadrupole eld. Here, we
only display the term due to the quadrupole elds by themselves:
ca4e2k 6
d PE2
cr2
=
=
EE2 BE2 n
(1 cos4 ),
d
4
2
(159)
which integrates to give

PE2 = 2
1
1
8ca4 e2k 6
d P
d cos =
.
d
5
(160)
35
8. a) The dominant energy loss is from electric dipole radiation, which obeys eq. (25),
dU
2a2 e2 4
.
= PE1 =
dt
3c3
(161)
For an electron of charge e and mass m in an orbit of radius a about a xed nucleus
of charge +e, F = ma tells us that
v2
e2
=
m
= m 2 a,
2
a
a
(162)
so that
e2
,
ma3
and also the total energy (kinetic plus potential) is
U =
2 =
(163)
e2 1 2
e2
+ mv =
a
2
2a
(164)
Using eqs. (163) and (164) in (161), we have

dU
2e6
e2
= 2 a = 4 2 3 ,
dt
2a
3a m c
(165)
or
1 da3
4
4e4
= 2 3 = r02 c,
3 dt
3m c
3
2
2
where r0 = e /mc is the classical electron radius. Hence,
a2a =
a3 = a30 4r02 ct.
(166)
(167)
The time to fall to the origin is

tfall =
a30
.
4r02 c
(168)
With r0 = 2.8 1013 cm and a0 = 5.3 109 cm, tfall = 1.6 1011 s.
This is of the order of magnitude of the lifetime of an excited hydrogen atom, but the
ground state appears to have innite lifetime.
This classical puzzle is pursued further in prob. 7.
b) The analog of the quadrupole factor ea2 in prob. 5 for masses m1 and m2 in circular
orbits with distance a between them is m1 r12 + m2 r22 , where r1 and r2 are measured
from the center of mass. That is,
m 1 r1 = m 2 r2 ,
so that
r1 =
m2
a,
m1 + m2
and
r2 =
r1 + r2 = a,
(169)
m1
a,
m1 + m2
(170)
36
m1 m2 2
a.
m1 + m2
(171)
and the quadrupole factor is

m1r12 + m2 r22 =
We are then led by eq. (26) to say that the power in gravitational quadrupole radiation
is

8G
m1 m2 2 4 6
PG2 = 5
a .
(172)
5 c m1 + m2
We insert a single factor of Newtons constant G in this expression, since it has dimensions of mass2 , and Gm2 is the gravitational analog of the square of the electric charge
in eq. (26).
We note that a general relativity calculation yields a result a factor of 4 larger than
eq. (172):

32 G
m1 m2 2 4 6
a .
(173)
PG2 =
5 c5 m 1 + m 2
To nd tfall due to gravitational radiation, we follow the argument of part a):
v12
v22
Gm1 m2
2
=
m
=
m
r
=
m
,
1
1
1
2
a2
r1
r2
(174)
so that
G(m1 + m2)
,
a3
and also the total energy (kinetic plus potential) is
2 =
U =
Gm1 m2 1
1
Gm1m2
+ m1v12 + m2 v22 =
a
2
2
2a
(175)
(176)
Using eqs. (175) and (176) in (173), we have

32G4 m21m22 (m1 + m2)
Gm1 m2
dU
a =
,
=
dt
2a2
5a5 c5
or
a3a =
64G3 m1m2(m1 + m2)

1 da4
=
.
4 dt
5c5
(177)
(178)
Hence,
a4 = a40
256G3 m1m2 (m1 + m2)

t.
5c5
(179)
The time to fall to the origin is

tfall =
5a40 c5
.
256G3 m1m2(m1 + m2)
(180)
For the Earth-Sun system, a0 = 1.5 1013 cm, m1 = 6 1027 gm, m2 = 2 1033 cm,
and G = 6.7 1010 cm2/(g-s2 ), so that tfall 1.5 1036 s 5 1028 years!
37
9. The solution given here follows the succinct treatment by Landau, Classical Theory of
Fields, sec. 74.
For charges in steady motion at angular frequency in a ring of radius a, the current
density J is periodic with period 2/, so the Fourier analysis (34) at the retarded
, where R is
time t can be evaluated via the usual approximation that r R r n
the distance from the center of the ring to the observer, r points from the center of
is the unit vector pointing from the center of the ring
the ring to the electron, and n
to the observer. Then,
[J] = J(r, t = t r/c) =
=
im(kRt)
Jm (r )e
Jm (r )eim(tR/c+r n/c
m
imr
n/c
(181)
where k = /c.
We rst consider a single electron, whose azimuth varies as = t + 0 , and whose
velocity is, of course, v = a. The current density of a point electron of charge e can
be written in a cylindrical coordinate system (, , z) (with volume element d d dz)
using Dirac delta functions as
= ev( a)(z)(( t )).
J = chargev
0
(182)
The Fourier components Jm are given by

1
Jm =
T
T
0
J(r, t)e
imt
eim(0 )
dt = ev( a)(z)
.
T
(183)
Also,
+sin y
),
r = (cos x
= sin x
+cos z,
n
and
= sin x
+cos y
. (184)
Using eqs. (183) and (184) in (181) and noting that T = 2, we nd

[J] =
ev im(kRt) im(0 sin cos /c)
e
e
( a)(z).
2 m
(185)
Inserting this in eq. (33), we have

A
=
1
cR
[J] d d dz =
Am e
imt
ev im(kRt0 )
e
2cR m
2
0
d
eim(a sin cos /c)
(186)
so that the Fourier components of the vector potential are

Am =
ev im(kR0 )
e
2cR
2
0
+ cos y
) d.
eim(v sin cos /c) ( sin x
(187)
38
The integrals yield Bessel functions with the aid of the integral representation (40).
part of eq. (187) can be found by taking the derivative of this relation with
The y
respect to z:

im+1 2 imiz cos

Jm
(z) =
e
cos d,
(188)
2 0
part of eq. (187) we play the trick
For the x
2
0 =
0
= m
ei(mz cos ) d(m z cos )
2
0
eimiz cos d + z
2
0
eimiz cos sin d,
(189)
so that

m 1 2 imiz cos
m
1 2 imiz cos
e
sin d =
e
d = m Jm (z).
2 0
z 2 0
i z
Using eqs. (188) and (190) with z = mv sin /c in (187) we have

(190)

1
ev im(kR0 )
1
m+1 Jm
. (191)
(mv sin /c) y
Am =
e
Jm (mv sin /c) x
m
cR
i v sin /c
i
We skip the calculation of the electric and magnetic elds from the vector potential,
and proceed immediately to the angular distribution of the radiated power according
to eq. (39),
ck 2 m2R2
cR2
dPm
=
|imk
n Am |2 =
|
n Am |2
d
2
2
&
ck 2 m2R2 % 2
=
cos |Am,x|2 + |Am,y |2
2

2 2 2
ce k m
v2 2
2
2
=
cot Jm (mv sin /c) + 2 Jm (mv sin /c) .
2
c
(192)
The present interest in this result is for v/c 1, but in fact it holds for any value of
v/c. As such, it can be used for a detailed discussion of the radiation from a relativistic
electron that moves in a circle, which emits so-called synchrotron radiation. This topic
is discussed further in Lecture 20 of the Notes.
We now turn to the case of N electrons uniformly spaced around the ring. The initial
azimuth of the nth electron can be written
2n
.
(193)
n =
N
The mth Fourier component of the total vector potential is simply the sum of components (191) inserting n in place of 0:
Am
ev im(kRn )
1
1
e
Jm (mv sin /c)
=
x m+1 Jm
(mv sin /c)
y (194)
m
i v sin /c
i
n=1 cR
eveimkR
=
cR
N

1
1
(mv
sin
/c)
x
J
(mv
sin
/c)
y
ei2mn/N .
J
m
im v sin /c
im+1 m
n=1
39
This sum vanishes unless m is a multiple of N, in which case the sum is just N. The
lowest nonvanishing Fourier component has order N, and the radiation is at frequency
N. We recognize this as Nth-order multipole radiation, whose radiated power follows
from eq. (192) as

v2
dPN
ce2k 2 N 2
cot2 JN2 (Nv sin /c) + 2 JN2 (Nv sin /c) .
=
d
2
c
(195)
For large N but v/c 1 we can use the asymptotic expansion (41), and its derivative,
(ex/2)m

(mx)
Jm
2m x
(m 1, x 1),
(196)
to write eq. (195) as

ce2 k 2N
dPN
2 2
d
4 sin
ev
sin
2c
2N
(1 + cos2 ) N
dPE1
d
(N 1, v/c 1). (197)
In eqs. (196) and (197) the symbol e inside the parentheses is not the charge but rather
the base of natural logarithms, 2.718...
For currents in, say, a loop of copper wire, v 1 cm/s, so v/c 1010 , while N 1023 .
The radiated power predicted by eq. (197) is extraordinarily small!
Note, however, that this nearly complete destructive interference depends on the electrons being uniformly distributed around the ring. Suppose instead that they were
distributed with random azimuths n . Then the square of the magnetic eld at order
m has the form
|Bm |
2

2
N

imn
e

n=1
=N+
eim(l n ) = N.
(198)
l =n
Thus, for random azimuths the power radiated by N electrons (at any order) is just
N times that radiated by one electron.
If the charge carriers in a wire were localized to distances much smaller than their
separation, radiation of steady currents could occur. However, in the quantum view
of metallic conduction, such localization does not occur.
The random-phase approximation is relevant for electrons in a so-called storage ring,
for which the radiated power is a major loss of energy or source of desirable photon
beams of synchrotron radiation, depending on ones point of view. We cannot expound
here on the interesting topic of the formation length for radiation by relativistic
electrons, which length sets the scale for interference of multiple electrons. See, for
example, http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/accel/weizsacker.pdf
40
10. We repeat the derivation of Prob. 1, this time emphasizing the advanced elds.
The advanced vector potential for the point electric dipole p = p0 eit located at the
origin is
AE1,adv =
= t + r/c)
p(t
ei(kr+t)
{p}
ei(kr+t)
=
= i
p0 = ik
p0 ,
cr
cr
cr
r
(199)
where k = /c.
We obtain the magnetic eld by taking the curl of eq. (199),

BE1,adv = AE1,adv
= k2
ei(kr+t)
ei(kr+t)
n
p0 = ik
= ik
ik
n
p0
r
r
r

i
ei(kr+t)
p0 .
1 +
n
r
kr
(200)
Then,

EE1,adv =
=
=
=
i
1
ik
BE1,adv = ei(kr+t) 2 + 3 r p0
k
r
r

1
1
i(kr+t) ik
i(kr+t) ik
e
+
(r p0 ) e
+
(r p0 )
r2 r3
r2 r3

ik
k2
1
1
i(kr+t)
i(kr+t) ik
(
+3 2 + 3 n
+
n p0 ) + 2p0 e
e
r
r
r
r2 r3

k2
1
1
ik
k 2 ik
i(kr+t)
)
e
+ 3 2 + 3 (p0 n
n+
2 3 p0 . (201)
r
r
r
r
r
r
The retarded elds due to a point dipole p are, from Prob. 1,
EE1,ret
i
ei(krt)
p0 ,
1+
(202)
n
r
kr

1
1
k2
ik
k 2 ik
i(krt)
)
+ 3 2 3 (p0 n
+ 2 3 p0 .(203)
= e
n
r
r
r
r
r
r
BE1,ret = k 2
We now consider the superposition of the elds (200)-(203) inside a conducting sphere
of radius a. The spatial part of the total electric eld is then

EE1
3
k2
ik
)
3 (eikr eikr ) + 3 2 (eikr + eikr ) (p0 n
=
n
r
r
r

ik ikr
1
k2
ikr
ikr
ikr
) + 2 (e + e
) p0
3 (e e
r
r
r

k
3
k2
)
= 2i
n
3 sin kr + 3 2 cos kr (p0 n
r
r
r

1
k
k2
3 sin kr + 2 cos kr p0 .
2i
r
r
r
(204)
41
Remarkably, this electric eld is nite at the origin, although each of the elds (201)
and (203) diverges there. We also recognize that this electric eld could be expressed
in terms of the so-called spherical Bessel functions,
j0 (x) =
sin x
,
x
j1 (x) =
sin x cos x
,
x2
x
j2 (x) =
3
1
3 cos x
sin
x
,
x3 x
x2
... (205)
An expansion of the spherical cavity eld in terms of spherical Bessel functions occurs
naturally when we use the more standard approach to this problem, seeking solutions
to the Helmholtz wave equation via separation of variables in spherical coordinates. See
Electromagnetic Theory by J.A. Stratton (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941) for details
of this method.
Because the sum of the magnetic elds (200) and (202) is purely transverse, this cavity
mode is called a TM mode.
The boundary conditions at the surface of the sphere are that the radial component
of the magnetic eld and the transverse component of the electric eld must vanish.
Since the magnetic elds (200) and (202) are transverse at any radius, we examine the
electric eld at r = a. Of the terms in eq. (204), only those in p0 have transverse
components, so the boundary condition is

k
1
k2
0 = 2 cos ka + sin ka
3 ,
a
a
a
or
cot ka =
1
ka
ka
(206)
ka = 2.744.
(207)
In case of a point magnetic dipole m = m0 eit at the origin, the elds have the same
form as for an electric dipole, but with E and B interchanged. That is, the advanced
elds would be
EM 1,adv
BM 1,adv
i(kr+t)
i
m0 ,
= k
1 +
(208)
n
r
kr

k2
1
1
ik
k 2 ik
i(kr+t)
)
2 3 m0(209)
= e
+ 3 2 + 3 (m0 n
n+
,
r
r
r
r
r
r
2e
and the retarded eld due to magnetic dipole m would be

EM 1,ret
BM 1,ret
i(krt)
i
m0 ,
= k
1+
(210)
n
r
kr

1
1
k2
ik
k 2 ik
)
+ 3 2 3 (m0 n
+ 2 3 m0 (.211)
= ei(krt)
n
r
r
r
r
r
r
2e
If the advanced and retarded magnetic dipole elds are superposed inside a spherical cavity of radius a, the condition that the transverse electric eld vanish at the
conducting surface is
0=e
ika
i
i
sin ka
1+
+ eika 1
= 2 cos ka
,
ka
ka
ka
(212)
42
or
tan ka = ka
ka = 4.493.
(213)
The electric eld of this mode is purely transverse, so it is called a TE mode.

Clearly, other modes of a spherical cavity can be found by superposing the advanced
and retarded elds due to higher multipoles at the origin.
43
11. This problem is due to D. Iwanenko and I. Pomeranchuk, On the Maximal Energy
Attainable in a Betatron, Phys. Rev. 65, 343 (1944).9
The electron is held in its circular orbit by the Lorentz force due to the eld B.
Newtons law, F = ma, for this circular motion can be written
F = ma =
mv 2
v
= e B.
R
c
(214)
For a relativistic electron, v c, so we have
eRB
.
mc2
(215)
The electron is being accelerated by the electric eld that is induced by the changing
magnetic ux. Applying the integral form of Faradays law to the circle of radius R,
we have (ignoring the sign)
2RE =
R2 B ave
=
,
c
c
(216)
and hence,
RB ave
,
2c
The rate of change of the electrons energy E due to E is
E =
eRB ave
dE
= F v ecE =
,
dt
2
Since E = mc2, we can write
mc
2=
eRB ave
,
2
(217)
(218)
(219)
which integrates to
eRBave
.
(220)
2mc2
Comparing with eq. (215), we nd the required condition on the magnetic eld:
=
B=
Bave
.
2
(221)
As the electron accelerates it radiates energy at rate given by the Larmor formula in
the rest frame of the electron,
dE
2e2p2
2e2a2
=
dt
3c3
3c3
(222)
Because E and t are both the time components of 4-vectors their transforms from
the rest frame to the lab frame have the same form, and the rate dE/dt is invariant.
9
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/iwanenko_pr_65_343_44.pdf
44
However, acceleration at right angles to velocity transforms according to a = 2 a.

Hence, the rate of radiation in the lab frame is
2e4 2 B 2
dE
2e2 4 a2
=
,
=
dt
3c3
3m2c3
(223)
using eq. (214) for the acceleration a.

The maximal energy of the electrons in the betatron obtains when the energy loss (223)
cancels the energy gain (218), i.e., when
2e4 2max B 2
eRB ave
,
=
2
3m2 c3
and
max =
3m2 c3 RB ave
4e3 B 2
3R B ave Bcrit
4c B B
(224)

3R Bcrit
,
4c B
(225)
hc = 1/137 is the ne structure constant, Bcrit = m2c3 /e

h = 4.4 1013 G
where = e2 /
is the so-called QED critical eld strength, and is the characteristic cycle time of the
betatron such that B ave = B/. For example, with R = 1 m, = 0.03 sec (30 Hz),
and B = 104 G, we nd that max 200, or Emax 100 MeV.
We have ignored the radiation due to the longitudinal acceleration of the electron,
since in the limiting case this acceleration ceases.
45
12. Since the dipole is much less than a wavelength away from the conducting plane, the
elds between the dipole and the plane are essentially the instantaneous static elds.
Thus, charges arranges themselves on the plane as if there were an image dipole at
distance d on the other side of the plane. The radiation from the moving charges on
the plan is eectively that due to the oscillating image dipole. A distant observer sees
the sum of the radiation elds from the dipole and its image.
The image dipole is inverted with respect to the original, i.e., the two dipoles are 180
out of phase.
Furthermore, there is a dierence s in path length between the two dipole and the
distant observer at angles (, ). We rst calculate in a spherical coordinate system
with z axis along the rst dipole, and x axis pointing from the plane to that dipole.
Then the path dierence is
= 2d sin cos .
s = 2d
xn
(226)
This path dierence results in an additional phase dierence between the elds from
the two dipoles at the observer, in the amount
= 2
4d
s
=
sin cos .
(227)
If we label the electric elds due to the original and image dipoles as E1 and E2,
respectively, then the total eld is
E = E1 + E2 = E1(1 ei ),
(228)
and, recalling eq. (46), the power radiated is

2
|E|2 dP1
dP

=
= 1 ei A sin2 = 2A sin2 (1 cos ) = 4A sin2 sin2 /2
2
d
|E1 | d
(229)
= 4A sin2 sin2 ,
where
=
2d
=
sin cos .
2
(230)
Suppose we had chosen to use a spherical coordinate system (r, , ) with the z axis
pointing from the plane to dipole 1, and the x axis parallel to dipole 1. Then the
46
phase dierence would have the simple form
2d
=
= 2d z n
cos ,
2
(231)
but the factor sin2 would now become

sin2 = n2x + n2y = n2z + n2y = cos2 + sin2 cos2 = 1 sin2 sin2 .
If d = /4, then
dP
= 4A sin2 sin2
sin cos .
d
2
In the side view, = 0, so the pattern has shape

sin2 sin2
sin
2
(232)
(233)
(side view),
(234)
while in the top view, = /2 and the shape is

2
sin
cos
2
(top view).
(235)
This pattern has a single lobe in the forward hemisphere, as illustrated below:
If instead, d = /2, then

dP
= 4A sin2 sin2 ( sin cos ) .
d
(236)

sin2 sin2 ( sin )
(side view),
(237)
47

sin2 ( cos )
(top view).
(238)
This pattern does not radiate along the line from the plane to the dipole, as illustrated
below:
b) If the electric dipole is aligned with the line from the plane to the dipole, its image
has the same orientation.
The only phase dierence between the radiation elds of the dipole and its image is
that due to the path dierence , whose value has been given in eqs. (230) and (231).
It is simpler to use the angles ( , ) in this case, since the radiation pattern of a single
dipole varies as sin2 . Then,
E = E1 + E2 = E1 (1 + ei ),
(239)

2
|E|2 dP1
dP

=
= 1 + ei A sin2 = 2A sin2 (1 + cos ) = 4A sin2 cos2 /2
2
d
|E1| d
(240)
= 4A sin2 cos2 ,
with
2d
=
cos .
(241)
2
This radiation pattern is axially symmetric about the line from the plane to the dipole.
=

If d = /4, then
48
dP
= 4A sin2 cos2
cos .
d
2
(242)
This pattern is a attened version of the donut pattern sin2 , as illustrated below:

dP
= 4A sin2 cos2 ( cos ) .
d
(243)
This pattern has a forward lobe for < /6 and a donut for /6 < < /2, as
illustrated below:
c) For a magnetic dipole with axis parallel to the conducting plane, the image dipole
has the same orientation, the image consists of the opposite charge rotating in the
opposite direction, as shown below:
We use angles (, ) and modify the argument of part a) to nd

E = E1 + E2 = E1 (1 + ei ),
(244)
49

dP
|E|2 dP1
i 2
2
2
2
2

A sin = 2A sin (1 + cos ) = 4A cos sin /2
1
+
e
=
=
2
d
|E1 | d
= 4A sin2 cos2 ,
(245)
where
=
2d
=
sin cos .
2
If d = /4, then
(246)

dP
= 4A sin2 cos2
sin cos .
d
2

sin2 cos2
sin
2
(247)
(side view),
(248)

cos
cos
2
(top view).
(249)
This pattern, shown below, is somewhat similar to that of part a) for d = /2.

dP
= 4A sin2 cos2 ( sin cos ) .
d
(250)

sin2 cos2 ( sin )
(side view),
(251)

cos2 ( cos )
(top view).
This pattern, shown below, is somewhat similar to that of part b) for d = /2.
(252)
50
Finally, we consider the case of a magnetic dipole aligned with the line from the plane
to the dipole, in which case its image has the opposite orientation.
As in part b), the only phase dierence between the radiation elds of the dipole and
its image is that due to the path dierence , whose value has been given in eqs. (230)
and (231). We use the angles (, ) in this case, since the radiation pattern of a single
dipole varies as sin2 . Then,
E = E1 + E2 = E1(1 ei ),
(253)

|E|2 dP1
dP
i 2
2
2
2
2
=
=
1
e

A sin = 2A sin (1 cos ) = 4A sin sin /2
d
|E1|2 d
(254)
= 4A sin2 sin2 ,
with
2d
(255)
=
cos .
2
This radiation pattern is axially symmetric about the line from the plane to the dipole.
=
If d = /4, then
dP
= 4A sin2 sin2
cos .
(256)
d
2
This pattern, shown below, is somewhat similar to that of part a) for d = /2.
51
dP
= 4A sin2 sin2 ( cos ) .
d
(257)
This pattern is qualitatively similar to that for d = /4, shown just above, but the
maximum occurs at a larger value of .
52
13. From p. 191 of the Notes we recall that a single, short, center-fed, linear antenna of
dipole moment
I0Leit
p(t) = i
(258)
2
radiates time-averaged power (according to the Larmor formula)
2 I02L2 sin2

p2 sin2
dU1
=
.
=
dtd
4c3
32c3
(259)
For the record, the current distribution in this short antenna is the triangular waveform

I(z, t) = I0e
it
2 |z|
1
.
L
(260)
The associated charge distribution (z, t) is related by current conservation, J = ,
which for a 1-D distribution is simply

2
I
= I0eit
,
=
z
L
so that
=
2iI0eit
,
L
(261)
(262)
and the dipole moment is given by

p=
L/2
L/2
z dz = i
I0Leit
,
2
(263)
as claimed above.
Turning to the case to two antennas, we proceed as in the previous problem and write
their combined electric eld as
E = E1 + E2 = E1(1 ei ),
(264)
where now the phase dierence has contributions due to the path dierence for
radiation from the two antennas (whose separation is d = /4), as well as from their
intrinsic phase dierence of 90 . That is,
=
2
cos + = (1 + cos ).
4
2
2
(265)
From eqs. (259), (264) and (265) we nd

2
2 I02L2 sin2
dU
dU1

(1 cos )
=
1 ei =
dtd
dtd
16c3

2 I02L2 sin2
1 + sin
cos .
=
16c3
2
(266)
This angular distribution favors the forward hemisphere, as shown in the sketch:
53
The total radiated power is

dU
2I02 L2
.
=
dt
6c3
(267)
is momentum P = U n
/c. Thus, the
Associated with energy U radiated in direction n
angular distribution of radiated momentum is

2 I02L2 sin2
dP
=
cos
1 + sin
4
dtd
16c
2

.
n
(268)
On integrating this over solid angle to nd the total momentum radiated, only the z
component is nonzero,
dPz
dt

2I02 L2 1
= 2
cos cos d cos
sin2 1 + sin
4
16c 1
2

12 dU 12
0.26 dU
2 2 I02L2 12
.
1 = 2
1
=
2
4
2
2
c
c dt
c dt
(269)
The radiation reaction force on the antenna is Fz = dPz /dt. For a broadcast antenna
radiating 105 Watts, the reaction force would be only 104 N.
The radiation reaction force (269) cannot be deduced as the sum over charges of the
/3c3 . Lorentz result is obtained by
radiation reaction force of Lorentz, Frad = 2e2 v
an integration by parts of the integral of the radiated power over a period. This
procedure can be carried out if the power is a sum/integral of a square, as holds for an
isolated radiating charge. But it cannot be carried out when the power is the square
of a sum/integral as holds for (coherent) radiation by an extended charge/current
distribution. Rather, the radiation reaction force on a current distribution must be
deduced from the rate of radiation of momentum, as done here.
54
14. According to p. 181 of the Notes, the power radiated from a known current distribution
that oscillates at angular frequency is given by

2
dP
1

ikr
J
(r
)
k
e
dVol
=
,
d
8c
(270)
/c.
where k = n
We take the z axis along the antenna, so the radiated power due to the current distribution
2z it
(L/2 < z < L/2),
(271)
I(z) = I0 sin
e
L
is

where

1 L/2
2z

=
I0 sin
k sin eikz cos dz

8c L/2
L

k 2 I02 2 2
=
sin ,
8c
dP
d
L/2
(272)
2z
=
sin
[cos(kz cos ) i sin(kz cos )] dz.
L
L/2
(273)
For L = , we have k = 2/L and

/k
/k
sin kz[cos(kz cos ) i sin(kz cos )] dz.
(274)
The real part of this integral vanishes, while

Im
= 2
/k
0
2
sin kz sin(kz sin ) dz =
k

0
sin x sin(x sin ) dx.
(275)
Using the identity

2 sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B),
(276)
we have

Im
1
{[cos[x(1 + cos )] cos[x(1 cos )]} dx.
k 0

1 sin[(1 + cos )] sin[(1 cos )]
=
k
1 + cos
1 cos

1
sin( cos ) sin( cos )
k
1 + cos
1 cos
2 sin( cos )
=
.
k sin2
=
(277)
Inserting this in eq. (272), we nd

dP
I 2 sin2( cos )
.
= 0
d
2c
sin2
(278)
55
The radiation pattern is sketched below:
The total radiated power is, setting cos = u,

I 2 1 sin2 ( cos )
I02 1 1 cos(2u)
dP
du
d = 0
d
cos
=
2
d
c 1
sin2
2c
1
u
1

I02 1 1 cos(2u) 1 cos(2u)
I 2 1 1 cos(2u)
+
du.(279)
=
du = 0
4c 1
1+u
1u
2c 1
1+u
P =
To cast this in the form of a known special function, we let 1 + u = v/2, so that
P =
I02
2c
4
0
I2
I2
1 cos v
dv = 0 Cin(4) = 3.11 0 ,
v
2c
2c
(280)
where Cin is the so-called cosine integral.

b) To calculate the radiation in the multipole approximation, we need to convert the
current distribution I(z)eit to a charge distribution (z, t). This is accomplished via
the continuity equation,
I
= = i.
(281)
z
For the current distribution (271) we nd
=
2i
2z it
I0 cos
e
.
L
L
(282)
The dipole moment of this distribution is

p=
L/2
L/2
z dz = 0,
(283)
so there is no electric dipole radiation. As the current ows along a line, and not in a
loop, there is no magnetic dipole radiation either.
The charge distribution is symmetric about the z axis, so its tensor quadrupole moment
can be characterized in terms of the single quantity
Qzz =
L/2
L/2
2
2z 2 dz = 4
Li
I0
2

0
L/2
0
z 2 dz =
8i
I0
L
L/2
0
z 2 cos
2z
dz
L
x2 cos x dx =
2L i
I0 ,
(284)
56
using the integral (55).

The total power radiated by the symmetric quadrupole moment is, according to p. 190
of the Notes,
L4 4 I02
|Qzz |2 6
=
P =
.
(285)
240c5
30 2 c4 2c
When L = = 2c/, this becomes
P =
82 I02
I2
= 5.26 0 .
15 2c
2c
(286)
In this example, higher multipoles must contribute signicantly to the total power,
which is given by the exact result (280).
57
15. The scattering cross section is given by

2
d
power scattered into d
Sscat(, )
|Escat|
,
=
= r2
= r2
d
incident power per unit area
Sincident
E02
(287)
where in the dipole approximation, the far-zone scattered electric eld is

Escat = k 2
ei(krt)
n
m0 ] ,
[(
n p0 ) n
r
(288)
and p0 eit and m0eit are the electric and magnetic dipole moments induced in the
conducting sphere by the incident wave.
Because the incident wavelength is large compared to the radius of the sphere, the
incident elds are essentially uniform over the sphere, and the induced elds near the
sphere are the same as the static elds of a conducting sphere in an otherwise uniform
electric and magnetic eld. Then, from p. 57 of the Notes, the induced electric dipole
moment is given by
(289)
p0 = a3 E0.
For the induced magnetic dipole, we recall p. 98 of the Notes, remembering that a
conducting sphere can be thought of a permeable sphere with zero permeability and a
dielectric sphere of innite dielectric constant. Hence, the magnetic dipole moment is
m0 =
Then
a3
B0 .
2
(290)
1
ei(krt)
) + (
(E0 n
(291)
n B0 ,
n
r
2
is along the vector r that points from the center of the sphere to the distant
where n
observer.
Escat = k 2a3
For a wave propagating in the +z direction with electric eld linearly polarized along
direction l, E0 = E0l, and the magnetic eld obeys B0 = z E0. Then,
Escat
ei(krt)
= k a E0
r
i(krt)
e
= k 2a3E0
r
2 3
1
(l n
) + n
(z l)
n
2

(
n
z
)
z
l 1
+ n
(
n l) .
2
2
(292)
Inserting this in (287) we nd

z
d
n
= k 4 a6 1
d
2
2
3
(
n l)2 .
4
(293)
z = cos . Then for electric polarization parallel to

For an observer in the x-z plane, n
l = sin , while for polarization perpendicular to the scattering
the scattering plane n
l = 0.
plane n
58
Thus, eq. (293) yields

1
d
= k 4 a6
cos
d
2
2
d
cos
= a6 k 4 1
d
2
2
(294)
For an unpolarized incident wave,

d
1
=
d
2
and so
d d
+
d
d
10 4 6
d
d =
k a
d
8

4 6
=k a
1
1
5
(1 + cos2 ) cos ,
8
(1 + cos2 ) d cos =
(295)
10a2 4 4
k a .
3
(296)
From eqs. (294) we see that d /d is always nonzero, but d /d = 0 for = /3,
so for this angle, the scattered radiation is linearly polarized parallel to the scattering
plane for arbitrary incident polarization.
Addendum: The Fields and Poynting Vector Close to the Sphere
Using the results of prob. 2 we can also discuss the elds close to the sphere. In
particular, from eqs. (10) and (108) the scattered electric eld at any position r outside
the sphere is
i(krt)
i
1
+ [3(
Escat(r, t) = k
(
n p0 ) n
n p0)
n p0 ] 2 2
r
k r
kr

i
m0
1+
n
kr

ei(krt)
1
i
+ [3(
= k 2 a3
(
n E0 ) n
n E0)
n E0 ] 2 2
r
k r
kr
2e

59
1
i
B0 ,
+ 1+
n
2
kr
(297)
also using eqs. (289) and (290). In this Addendum, we suppose that the electric eld of
and B0 = E0 y
, while the
the incident plane wave is along the x-axis, so that E0 = E0 x
point of observation is at r = (r, , ). We express the electric eld vector in spherical
coordinates, noting that
y
z
=
=
=
=
r,
sin ,
sin cos r + cos cos

+ cos ,
sin sin r + cos sin
cos r sin .
(298)
(299)
(300)
(301)
Thus,
ei(krt) '
sin
cos cos
r

1
i
+(2 sin cos r cos cos + sin ) 2 2

k r
kr

1
i
cos sin )
1+
(cos
2
kr

i
ei(krt)
1
2 3
r
= k a E0
2 sin cos
r
k 2r2 kr

1
i
1
i
1+
+ cos cos 1 2 2 +
k
r
kr
2
kr

cos
1
i
i
.
1+
(302)
sin 1 2 2 +
k r
kr
2
kr
Escat(r, t) = k 2 a3E0
Similarly, using eqs. (8) and (109) the scattered magnetic eld can be written
Bscat(r, t) =
i(krt)
i
1
+ [3(
k
(
n m0 ) n
n m0)
n m0 ] 2 2
r
k r
kr

i
p0
+ 1+
n
kr

i(krt)
i
1
2 3e
+ [3(
k a
(
n B0 ) n
n B0 )
n B0 ] 2 2
2r
k r
kr

i
E0
2 1 +
n
kr
ei(krt) '
+ cos
k 2a3E0
cos sin
2r

i
1
+(2 sin sin r cos sin cos ) 2 2

k r
kr

i
+ cos cos )
2 1 +
(sin
kr

ei(krt)
1
i
r
k 2a3E0
2 sin sin
2r
k 2r2 kr
2e

60

1
i
i
+ sin cos 1 2 2 +
2 1+
k r
kr
kr

1
i
i
.
2 cos 1 +
+ cos 1 2 2 +
k r
kr
kr
(303)
On the surface of the sphere, r = a, the scattered electromagnetic elds are, to the
leading approximation when ka 1,
+ sin ),
Escat(r = a) E0 eit (2 sin cos r cos cos

E0
cos ).
Bscat(r = a) eit (2 sin sin r cos sin

2
(304)
(305)
In the same approximation, the incident electromagnetic elds at the surface of the
sphere are
sin ),
(306)
= E0 eit (sin cos r + cos cos
Ein(r = a) E0 eit x
+ cos ).
(307)
= E0 eit (sin sin r + cos sin
Bin(r = a) E0 eit y
Thus, the total electric eld,
Etot(r = a) = Ein (r = a) + Escat(r = a) = 3E0 eit sin cos r,
(308)
on the surface of the sphere is purely radial, and the total magnetic eld,
3
+ cos ),
Btot(r = a) = Bin(r = a) + Bscat(r = a) = E0 eit (cos sin

2
(309)
is purely tangential, as expected for a perfect conductor.

The total charge density tot on the surface of the conducting sphere follows from
Gauss law as
tot =
3E0 it
Etot(r = a) r
3
=
e
sin cos = scat,
4
4
2
(310)
where scat is the surface charge density corresponding to the scattered eld (304).
Similarly, the total current density Ktot on the surface of the sphere follows from
Amp`eres law as
Ktot =
c
3cE0 it
+ cos sin )
= 3Kscat,
r Btot(r = a) =
( cos
e
4
8
(311)
where Kscat is the surface charge density corresponding to the scattered eld (305).
We can now discuss the energy ow in the vicinity of the conductor sphere from two
perspectives. These two views have the same implications for energy ow in the far
zone, but dier in their description of the near zone.
First, we can consider the Poynting vector constructed from the total electromagnetic
elds,
c
Etot Btot.
(312)
Stot =
4
61
Because the tangential component of the total electric eld vanishes at the surface of
the sphere, lines of the total Poynting vector do not begin or end on the sphere, but
rather they pass by it tangentially. In this view, the sphere does not absorb or emit
energy, but simply redirects (scatters) the ow of energy from the incident wave.
However, this view does not correspond closely to the microscopic interpretation that
atoms in the sphere are excited by the incident wave and emit radiation as a result,
thereby creating the scattered wave. We obtain a second view of the energy ow that
better matches the microscopic interpretation if we write
c
Etot Btot
4
c
=
(Ein + Escat) (Bin + Bscat)
4
c
c
c
=
Ein Bin +
(Ein Bscat + Escat Bin) +
Escat Bscat
4
4
4
= Sin + Sinteraction + Sscat.
(313)
Stot =
Since the scattered elds (304)-(305) at the surface of the sphere include tangential
components for both the electric and the magnetic eld, the scattered Poynting vector,
Sscat, has a radial component, whose time average we wish to interpret as the ow of
energy radiated by the sphere. The scattered Poynting vector at any r is given by
c
Re(Escat Bscat)
8
(
c

Re (E,scat
B,scat E,scat
B,scat)r + (E,scat
Br,scat Er,scat
B,scat)
=
8
)
+(E B,scat E Br,scat)
Sscat =
r,scat

c k 4 a6E02 2
1
cos
2
8 r
2

,scat
cos
2
cos
r + sin
2
1
4 4
k r
cos
+ sin2 1
2
2

(314)
The radial term of eq. (314) in square brackets is identical to the far-zone Poynting
vector. However, close to the sphere we nd additional terms in Sscat, so that in the
near zone Srad = Sscat. Indeed, at the surface of the sphere we nd
c 2 4 4 2
1
Sscat (r = a) =
E0 k a cos
cos
8
2

cos
r + sin
2

c 2 cos
r + sin .
E0
8
2
2
cos
+ sin2 1
2
2
(315)
Of course, the conducting sphere is not an energy source by itself, and the radiated
energy is equal to the energy absorbed from the incident wave. For a description of
62
the ow of energy that is absorbed, we look to the time-average of the incident and
interaction terms of eq. (313). Lines of the incident Poynting vector,
Sin =
c 2
c 2
E0 z =
E (cos r sin ),
8
8 0
(316)
enter and leave the sphere with equal strength, and are therefore not to be associated
with energy transfer to the radiation elds. So, we look to the interaction term,
Sinteraction =
(
c

Re (E,scat
B,in + E,in
B,scat E,scat
B,in E,in
B,scat)r
8

+(E,scat
Br,in + E,in
Br,scat Er,scat
B,in Er,in
B,scat)
)
+(E B,in + E B,scat E Br,in E Br,scat)

r,scat
2 3
c k a
8
r
E02
r,in

,scat
cos[kr(1 cos )]

cos
2k 2r2
,in

1
cos
+(1 + cos ) cos
cos + sin2
1
2
2

sin[kr(1 cos )]
cos[kr(1 cos )] r
kr

sin
9
2
+ cos[kr(1 cos )] 2 2 2 cos + . . .

k r
2

sin 2 sin 2
9
,
+ ...
cos[kr(1 cos )]
+
8
k 2 r2
2
(317)
where the omitted terms are small close to the sphere. Note that in the far zone
the time-average interaction Poynting vector contains terms that vary as 1/r times
cos[kr(1 cos )]. These large terms oscillate with radius r with period , and might
be said to describe a radial sloshing of energy in the far zone, rather than a radial
ow. It appears in practice that one cannot detect this sloshing by means of a
small antenna placed in the far zone, so we consider these terms to be unphysical.
Nonetheless, it is interesting that they appear in the formalism.
At the surface of the sphere we have, again for ka 1,

c 2
cos
9
.
+ 9 sin 2 sin 2
r + sin 2 cos2
E0
Sinteraction(r = a) =
8
2
2
8
(318)
The total Poynting vector on the surface of the sphere is the sum of eqs. (315), (316)
and (318),

c 2
9
.
+ 9 sin 2 sin 2
E0 sin cos2
Stot (r = a) =
8
2
8
(319)
The radial component of the total Poynting vector vanishes on the surface of the sphere,
as expected for a perfect conductor.
63
This exercise permits an additional perspective, or possible relevance to thinking about

radiation from antennas. Suppose that instead of knowing that a plane wave was incident on the conducting sphere, we were simply given the surface current distribution
Kscat of eq. (311). Then, by use of retarded potentials, or the antenna formula (63),
we could calculate the radiated power in the far zone, and would arrive at the usual expression (314) (ignoring the terms that fall o as 1/r6 ). However, this procedure would
lead to an incomplete understanding of the near zone. In particular, the excitation of
the conducting sphere by an external plane wave leads to a total surface current that
is three times larger than the current Kscat. For a good, but not perfectly conducting
sphere, an analysis based on Kscat alone would lead to only 1/9 the actual amount of
Joule heating of the sphere. And, if we attempted to assign some kind of impedance
or radiation resistance to the sphere via the form Prad = RradI02/2 where I0 is meant
to be a measure of the peak total current, an analysis based only on knowledge the
current Kscat would lead to a value of Rrad that is 9 times larger than desired.
64
16. The possibility of radiation from superluminal sources was rst considered by Heaviside
in 1888. He considered this topic many times over the next 20 years, deriving most
of the formalism of what is now called Cerenkov

radiation. However, despite being an
early proponent of the concept of a velocity-dependent electromagnetic mass, Heaviside
never acknowledged the limitation that massive particles must have velocities less than
that of light. Consequently many of his pioneering eorts (and those of his immediate
followers, Des Coudres and Sommerfeld), were largely ignored, and the realizable case
of radiation from a charge with velocity greater than the speed of light in a dielectric
medium was discovered independently in an experiment by Cerenkov

in 1934.10
An insightful discussion of the theory of Cerenkov

radiation by Tamm (J. Phys. U.S.S.R.
11
1, 439 (1939), in English!) revealed its close connection with what is now called transition radiation, i.e., radiation emitted by a charge in uniform motion that crosses a
boundary between metallic or dielectric media. The present problem was inspired by
a work of Bolotovskii and Ginzburg, Sov. Phys. Uspekhi 15, 184 (1972),12 on how aggregates of particles can act to produce motion that has superluminal aspects and that
there should be corresponding Cerenkov-like

radiation in the case of charged particles.
The classic example of aggregate superluminal motion is the velocity of the point of
intersection of a pair of scissors whose tips approach one another at a velocity close to
that of light.
Here we consider the example of a sweeping electron beam in a high-speed analog
oscilloscope such as the Tektronix 7104. In this device the writing speed, the velocity
of the beam spot across the faceplate of the oscilloscope, can exceed the speed of light.
The transition radiation emitted by the beam electrons just before they disappear into
the faceplate has the character of Cerenkov

radiation from the superluminal beam spot,
according to the inverse of the argument of Tamm.
Referring to the gure in the statement of the problem, the line of charge has equation
y=
u
x ut,
v
z = 0,
(320)
so the current density is

* Ne(z) t
J = y
x y
+
,
v u
(321)
where N is the number of electrons per unit length intercepting the x axis, and e < 0
is the electrons charge.
We also consider the eect of the image current,

Jimage
x y
* (Ne)(z) t
= +y
.
v u
(322)
We will nd that to a good approximation the image current just doubles the amplitude
of the radiation. For u c the image current would be related to the retarded elds
10
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/cerenkov_pr_52_378_37.pdf
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/tamm_jpussr_1_439_39.pdf
12
http://puhep1.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/EM/bolotovskii_spu_15_184_72.pdf
11
65
of the electron beam, but we avoid this complication when u c. Note that the true
current exists only for y > 0, while the image current applies only for y < 0.
We insert the current densities (321) and (322) into eq. (63) and integrate using rect given by
angular coordinates, with components of the unit vector n
nx = cos ,
ny = sin cos ,
and
nz = sin sin ,
(323)
as indicated in part b) of the gure. The current impinges only on a length L along
the x axis. The integrals are elementary and we nd, noting /c = 2/,
(
) 2
L c
dU
e2N 2 L2 u2 cos2 + sin2 sin2 sin ( v cos )
.
=
2
L c
dd
2 c c2 (1 uc2 sin2 cos2 )2
( cos )
v
(324)
The factor of form sin2 /2 appears from the x integration, and indicates that this
leads to a single-slit interference pattern.
We will only consider the case that u c, so from now on we approximate the factor
2
1 uc2 sin2 cos2 by 1.
Upon integration over the azimuthal angle from /2 to /2 the factor cos2 +
sin2 sin2 becomes 2 (1 + cos2 ).
It is instructive to replace the radiated energy by the number of radiated photons:
dU = h
dN . Thus
d 2 2 u
dN
=
N L 2 (1 + cos2 )
d cos
2
c
L c
( cos )
v
L c
( cos )
v
sin
) 2
(325)
hc 1/137. This result applies whether v < c or v > c. But for v < c,
where = e2/
( c cos ) can never become zero, and the diraction pattern
the argument = L
v
never achieves a principal maximum. The radiation pattern remains a slightly skewed
type of transition radiation. However, for v > c we can have = 0, and the radiation
pattern has a large spike at angle C such that
c
cos C = ,
v
which we identify with Cerenkov

radiation. Of course the side lobes are still present,
but not very prominent.
Discussion
The present analysis suggests that Cerenkov

radiation is not really distinct from transition radiation, but is rather a special feature of the transition radiation pattern which
emerges under certain circumstances. This viewpoint actually is relevant to Cerenkov

radiation in any real device which has a nite path length for the radiating charge.
The walls which dene the path length are sources of transition radiation which is
always present even when the Cerenkov

condition is not satised. When the Cerenkov
condition is satised, the so-called formation length for transition radiation becomes
66
longer than the device, and the Cerenkov

radiation can be thought of as an interference
eect.
If L/ 1, then the radiation pattern is very sharply peaked about the Cerenkov
angle, and we may integrate over noting
L
d cos
d =
to nd
and
sin2
=
2
(326)
c2
d L u2
dN
1
+
.
(N)2
2
c2
v2
(327)
In this we have replaced cos2 by c2/v 2 in the vicinity of the Cerenkov

angle. We
have also extended the limits of integration on to [, ]. This is not a good
approximation for v < c, in which case > 0 always and dN is much less than stated.
For v = c the radiation rate is still about one half of the above estimate.
For comparison, the expression for the number of photons radiated in the ordinary
Cerenkov
eect is
d L 2
(328)
dN 2
sin C .

The ordinary Cerenkov

eect vanishes as 2C near the threshold, but the superluminal
eect does not. This is related to the fact that at threshold ordinary Cerenkov
radiation
is emitted at small angles to the electrons direction, while in the superluminal case
the radiation is at right angles to the electrons motion. In this respect the moving
spot on an oscilloscope is not fully equivalent to a single charge as the source of the
Cerenkov
radiation.
In the discussion thus far we have assumed that the electron beam is well described by a
uniform line of charge. In practice the beam is discrete, with uctuations in the spacing
and energy of the electrons. If these uctuations are too large we cannot expect the
transition radiation from the various electrons to superimpose coherently to produce
the Cerenkov
radiation. Roughly, there will be almost no coherence for wavelengths
smaller than the actual spot size of the electron beam at the metal surface, Thus there
will be a cuto at high frequencies which serves to limit the total radiated energy to
a nite amount, whereas the expression derived above is formally divergent. Similarly
the eect will be quite weak unless the beam current is large enough that N 1.
We close with a numerical example inspired by possible experiment. A realistic spot
size for the beam is 0.3 mm, so we must detect radiation at longer wavelengths. A
convenient choice is = 3 mm, for which commercial microwave receivers exist. The
bandwidth of a candidate receiver is d/ = 0.02 centered at 88 GHz. We take
L = 3 cm, so L/ = 10 and the Cerenkov

cone will actually be about 5 wide, which
happens to match the angular resolution of the microwave receiver. Supposing the
electron beam energy to be 2.5 keV, we would have u2/c2 = 0.01. The velocity of the
moving spot is taken as v = 1.33c = 4 1010 cm/sec, so the observation angle is 41 .
If the electron beam current is 1 A then the number of electrons deposited per cm
along the metal surface is N 150, and N 45.
67
Inserting these parameters into the rate formula we expect about 7 103 detected
photons from a single sweep of the electron beam. This supposes we can collect over all
azimuth which would require some suitable optics. The electron beam will actually
be swept at about 1 GHz, so we can collect about 7 106 photons per second. The
corresponding signal power is 2.6 1025 Watts/Hz, whose equivalent noise temperature is about 20 mK. This must be distinguished from the background of thermal
radiation, the main source of which is in the receiver itself, whose noise temperature
is about 100 K. A lock-in amplier could be used to extract the weak periodic signal;
an integration time of a few minutes of the 1-GHz-repetition-rate signal would suce
assuming 100% collection eciency.
Realization of such an experiment with a Tektronix 7104 oscilloscope would require
a custom cathode ray tube that permits collection of microwave radiation through a
portion of the wall not coated with the usual metallic shielding layer.
Bremsstrahlung
Early reports of observation of transition radiation were considered by skeptics to be
due to bremsstrahlung instead. The distinction in principle is that transition radiation
is due to acceleration of charges in a medium in response to the far eld of a uniformly
moving charge, while bremsstrahlung is due to the acceleration of the moving charge
in the near eld of atomic nuclei. In practice both eects exist and can be separated
by careful experiment.
Is bremsstrahlung stronger than transition radiation in the example considered here?
As shown below the answer is no, but even if it were we would then expect a Cerenkovlike eect arising from the coherent bremsstrahlung of the electron beam as it hits the
oscilloscope faceplate.
The angular distribution of bremsstrahlung from a nonrelativistic electron will be sin2
with dened with respect to the direction of motion. The range of a 2.5-keV electron
in, say, copper is about 5 106 (as extrapolated from the table on p. 240 of Studies in
Penetration of Charged Particles in Matter, National Academy of Sciences National
Research Council, PB-212 907 (Washington, D.C., 1964)), while the skin depth at
88 GHz is about 2.5 105 cm. Hence the copper is essentially transparent to the
backward hemisphere of bremsstrahlung radiation, which will emerge into the same
half space as the transition radiation.
The amount of bremsstrahlung energy dUB emitted into energy interval dU is just
Y dU where Y is the so-called bremsstrahlung yield factor. For 2.5-keV electrons in
in
copper, Y = 3 104 . The number dN of bremsstrahlung photons of energy h
h = Y d/. For the 2% bandwidth of our
a bandwidth d/ is then dN = dUB /
example, dN = 6 106 per beam electron. For a 3-cm-long target region there will be
500 beam electrons per sweep of the oscilloscope, for a total of 3 104 bremsstrahlung
photons into a 2% bandwidth about 88 GHz. Half of these emerge from the faceplate
as a background to 7 103 transition-radiation photons per sweep. Altogether, the
bremsstrahlung contribution would be about 1/50 of the transition-radiation signal in
the proposed experiment.

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Princeton University

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 1

1. Wire with a Linearly Rising Current

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 2

2. Harmonic Multipole Expansion

which is a solution of the (Lorenz gauge) wave equation

Using the expansion

of the distance r from source to observer,

where no assumption is made that R source size or that R = 2/k = 2c/.

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 2

in both the Lorenz and Coulomb gauges.

while for small R,

B (r, t) = E(r, t),

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 3

3. Rotating Electric Dipole

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 4

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 5

5. Radiation of Angular Momentum

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 6

6. Oscillating Electric Quadrupole

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 7

where v = a is the speed of the charge.

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 8

8. Radiation by a Classical Atom

dipole energy loss per revolution

For quadrupole radiation, prob. 5 shows that

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 9

9. Why Doesnt a Steady Current Loop Radiate?

J(r, t = t r/c) dVol ,

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 9

points from the center of the ring to the observer.

to verify the suppression of the radiation for large N.

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 10

10. Spherical Cavity Radiation

where k = /c. [A quick estimate would be max = 2a min = c/a.]

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 11

11. Maximum Energy of a Betatron

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 12

12. a) An oscillating electric dipole of angular frequency is located at distance d

Show that the power radiated in the direction (, ) is

Sketch the shape of the radiation pattern for d = /2 and d = /4.

Show that the radiated power in this case is

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 13

Show that the angular distribution of the radiated power is

A variant on this problem is at

Princeton University 2001

Ph501 Set 8, Problem 14

, the contributions to d L /dt in the x-y plane