10MindBendingFactsAboutSeaStars

Familiaryetundeniablyalien,starfisharebizarrecreaturesthatinhabitawiderangeofocean
environments.Theirappearancefrequentlymatchesthepopulardepictionoftheircelestial
namesake,butthosefreakybodiesholdplentyofsurprises.Whatcreaturecouldlackabrain
buthaveeyesonitsfeet,orhavenobloodbutbeabletodigestoutsideofitsbody?Getready
tolearnaboutcreaturesthatoftenseemtodefythelawsofanimalbiology.

10TheyreNotAlwaysStarShaped

Thenamestarfishaloneelicitsimmediatethoughtofthetraditional
fivepointseastarthatwecommonlyseeintidepools,butseastarshapesareverydiverse.
Commonlypresentintherighthabitatsyetfarlesserknown,sunstarsorsunflowerstarscan
beenormousandshapedmorelikearealstarwiththeirroundedbodiesandmultipleraysthat
extendoutward.ThelargestseastarsinthePacificNorthwest,sunstarscanmeasure1meter
(3ft)acrossandcanweighupto5kilograms(11lb)withsomeofthemostwellendowed
speciessporting

over20arms
.
Sunstarsaremoreactivethanalotofotherstarfishspecies,andtheyremorethancapableof
chasingafterfastmovingprey.Theyrealsostrongenoughtoripapartmolluscandcrustacean
shells.Barnaclesandlargenudibranchesalsowinduponthemenu.Sunflowerstarsareexpert
stalkersandwillsurpriseandseizetheirpreybeforeithasachancetoescape.Whilenativeto
colderwaters,sunstarscomein

trulytropicalcolors
.Theymayformlargegroupsinparticularly
richfeedingareas.

9NoBlood,NoBrains,NoProblem

Seastarsarecomplexandstrangeanimals,yetinmanyways,their
bodiesarealsoratherprimitive.Whiletheyhavehighlyadaptedstomachsandexceptionally
welldevelopedskin,seastarslackbrainsandhaveabsolutelynoblood.Lackinga
bloodstreamorgills,starfishlivebypumpingseawaterthroughtheirbodiestodelivernutrients,

oxygen,andotheressentialfluids.Asareplacementforblood,seawaterisdistributedthrough
theirbodiesviaasystemknownasa
watervascularsystem
.Radiatingthroughthebodyofa
seastararecanalsfilledwithseawaterthatsmovedthroughacomplexsystemofcorpuscles
andspiralsystems.
Seawateriscirculatedthroughthebodyinanalmostmechanicalmanner,withmusclesand
lymphaticglandsworkingtomoveandadjustthechemistryofthewater.Sinusesandvarious
corpuscleandtubesystemsallworktogethertomakethesystemworktomaximum
effectiveness,all

withoutthepresenceofblood
.Thestarfishbodyisstillsomethingofa
mystery,andwestilldontentirelyunderstandhowtheywork.Thescientificexplorationofthe
starfishbodyremainsoneofthemostinterestingbiologicalsubjectsonthisplanet.

8StickyFeet

Wemaycalltheextensionsrunningoutwardfromaseastarsbody
arms,buttheyallhavefeetattached.Lookcloselyattheundersideofastarfish,andyoullfind
somethingsurprising:Oneacharm,theremaybeupto

15,000tinytubefeet
thatmovein
caterpillarlikesynchronization,propellingthestarfishforwardatanefficientpace.Inthe
intertidalzone,thetubefeetholdthestarfasttorockswhenthewavesmightotherwisedislodge
andsmashthemtopieces.
Anchoredbytheirtubefeet,thesoftunderbellyofthestarwillhugtherock,whilethebackof
thestariscoveredbytough,leatheryskinwhichtakesthemajorityoftheheat,dryness,and
sunlight.Scientificinvestigationscontinuallyrevealastonishingnewfactsaboutnature,andone
ofthesefindingsistheexistenceof

apowerfulfootglue
inseastars.Theirfeetcanformaglue
thatwillbondindefinitelywitharockorpreyitem,withanadjacenttubereleasingasolventto
undothebondoncethestarisreadytomoveon.

7Cannibalism

Mostofusthinkofseastarsastheoceansdecorations,butwerequicklylearningthatsea
starsmoreoftentaketheroleofvoraciouspredatorsthanpassivegrazers.Itmightcomeasa
greatersurprisetolearnthatcannibalismisalsoawelldocumentedfactoflifeforthesestrange
creatures.Afterstalkingtheirprey,seastarswillengulfthecatchandinverttheirstomachto
begindigestion.Thiscannibalisticbehaviorisoftenprovokedbyreductionsin

normalfood
supplies
.
Withtheirtough,leatheryskin,seastarsareusuallychallengingpreyforhunters,butseastars
arewellequippedtotakedowntheirownkind.Certainseastarsarenotaversetotaking
smallerindividuals,evenoftheirownexactspecies.Onecannibalisticspeciesisthe

chocolate

chipseastar
.Itsaspeciesfavoredbyaquarists,whooftenlearnthehardwaythattheycant
putsmallindividualstogetherwithlargeones.

6SeaStarsAreAggressivePredatorsWithTwoStomachs

Seastarslookattractive,buttheyarevoraciouspredatorswithtwo
stomachsthatgivethemexceptionalhuntingabilities.Oneoftheirmorebizarretraitsistheir
abilitytoejecttheirstomachs.Usingpressureexertedbythewatervascularsystem,thecardiac
stomachcanbepushedoutsideoftheseastarsbodyandinsertedinsideashellfish.Aftera
seastaropensitspreysshellbygluingitsfeettotheoutsideandforciblyrippingtheshellapart,
itll

shootitsownstomachintotheshell
.Theinvertedstomachactuallydigeststheanimalinside
itsshellandturnsitintoaliquefiedsoup.Supportedbyligaments,thestomachthenbringsthe
foodbackintotheseastarforstagetwoofdigestion.
Knownasapyloricstomach,thismechanismis

strangelycomplicated
,withextensionscalled
cecathatfollowtheshapeoftheseastartoabsorbanddelivernutrientsthroughoutthebody.
Thepyloricstomachislocatedinthecentrallocationabovethecardiacstomach,processing
andreleasingnutrientsthroughthepyloricceca.Theseadvanceddigestiveorgancomponents
formtworowsofwhatlooklikemultipledendritesstrungoutwithineacharm.Eacharmofthe
pyloricstomachhastwopyloricceca.Theentiredigestiveprocessofaseastarisoneof
incrediblecomplexityandevolutionaryprogress,especiallyconsideringhowprimitivethe
creaturesareinotherrespects.

5TheCrownOfThornsSituation

Nopopularreviewofseastarecologywouldbecompletewithout
mentioningtheenvironmentaldangerposedbythecrownofthornsstarfish.Occurring
throughouttheIndoPacific,thecrownofthornsstarfishstandsoutbycombiningtheformofa
seastarwiththespikedexteriorassociatedwithurchins.Coveredin

venomousspines
,these
creaturesmaymeasurenearlyhalfameter(1.6ft)across,posingathreattocarelessdivers
andswimmersaswellascoralreefs.Doublingofphytoplanktonlevelshasbeenlinkedto
10foldincreasesinthepopulationsoftheseanimals.Changingoceantemperatureand
currents,aswellasdeclinesinnaturalpredators,havealsobeensuggestedaspotentialfactors
inpopulationbooms.

Lowpopulationsofcrownofthornsstarfishcontributetothediversityofareefbyfeedingon
fastgrowingacropoidcoral,whichgivesslowgrowingcorals

achancetotakehold
.Onthe
otherhand,spikesinthepopulationoftheseechinodermscancausesignificantdamageto
coralreefs.OneofthemostseriouscasesinvolvesdamagetotheGreatBarrierReef.Declines
of50percentintotalcoralcoveronsurveyedreefsover30yearsshowedthat

halfofthat
decline
couldbeattributedtocrownofthornsstarfishpopulationovergrowth.

4BizarreCushionStars

Seastarsasagrouparenamedaftertheirstarlikeappearance,but
somespecieshavetakenonacompletelydifferentappearance.Whilegeneticallyremaining
trueseastars,thecushionstars(
Culcitanovaeguinea)
oftheIndoPacificregionwouldatfirst
glancebeunrecognizableasamemberoftheseastargroup,havingalmostnonexistentarms
andapuffy,

bloblikebody
.Oftencoveredintinylittlespines,thesestrangeanimalshave
developedtheappearanceofapincushion.Thesecreaturesmaymeasureover25centimeters
(10in)acrossandcomeinarangeofcolors.
Whileseastarsaretypicallyveryaccomplishedaspredators,abletohuntshellfishandopen
themupwithpowerfultubefeet,cushionstarsaremuchgentleranimalswithlessdramatic
lifestyles.Theymostlyfeedondetritus,plantmaterial,

andsometimescoral
.Thecushionstar
alsoservesasasortofhomeforotherspeciesofmarineanimalinastrangesymbiotic
relationshipsystem.Smallfishmayliveinsidethemainbodycavityofthisseastar,whichis
filledwithwater,whileinvertebratesontheoutsidecleanthepricklyspines.

3TheMysteriousSeaStarWastingAffliction

Recentnewsstoriesofcatastrophicseastardieoffshavebroughtthe
plightofthesemarinecreaturestopopularattention.Starfishwastingdisease,whichleadsto
massdieoffsthroughdecay,lesionformation,andultimatefragmentationoftheanimal,has
beenpotentiallylinkedtoadensovirus.Thisisespeciallytrueofthe2014dieoffalongthe
PacificNorthwestcoast.Seastardieoffsfromtruecasesofseastarwastingdiseaseshedlight
onthevulnerabilityofpopulationstoinfections,whichmayhave

differingpathogeniccauses
.
Thedieoffsarenotunprecedented,buttheydoposeathreattokeystonespeciesandhave
attractedgreatconcernintheconservationcommunity.

Massivedieoffsof

sunflowerstars
alongVancouverIslandhavebeennoted,whileother
speciesofseastarswereaffectedallalongthewestcoastfromMexicotoAlaska.Differing
speciesofseastarsexhibitdifferentlevelsofsusceptibility.Keyquestionsremainastowhat
exactecologicalconsequencesthedeclineofseastarscouldhavewhenitcomestothehealth
andbiodiversityofmarineenvironments.Furtherquestionsincludewhatenvironmentalfactors
mightincreasetheprevalenceofinfection.Possibleenvironmentalfactorssuchaspollutionare
worthconsideringasapotentialfactorthatmightincreaseseastarsusceptibilitytoinfectionand
deaththroughwasting.Researchis

stillongoing
,andthepublicisbeingaskedbyorganizations
suchastheVancouverAquariumtosubmitobservations.

2SeaStarsHaveTheWeirdestEyes

Duetotheirlackofblood,atypicalcentralnervoussystem,andanysort
offace,wemightnaturallyassumethatseastarsalsolackeyes.However,seastarsdohave
eyesthatgivethemtheabilitytonavigate,andtheyrelocatedinaprettyweirdplace:the

tipsof
theirarms
.Theseeyesgathervisualinformationtoguidetheseastarfromanydirection,and
theyresimilarinformandstructuretotheeyesseeninarthropodssuchasinsectsand
crustaceans.Ithaslongbeenknownthatseastarshaveeyes,buthowtheycouldseewithouta
brainwasaprominentquestion.
Recentstudies,however,havenowshownhowseastarsusetheireyestonavigatetheirway
aroundmarinehabitatswithafairdegreeofprecision.AninvestigationbyAndersGarmfrom
theUniversityofCopenhagenandDanEricNilssonofLundUniversityshowedhowblue
starfishwouldmovearoundinanundirectedmanneruntilcomingwithin2meters(6.5ft)ofa
reef.Visuallysensingthereef,theseastarswouldmakeabeelinefortheirdesired
environment.Thelightdetectingcellsworkslowly,andseastarsarecolorblind,butitappears
thatsteadyimagessuchasreefsstandoutas

dimsplotches
toguidetheanimal.

1SeaStarsCanSwitchGenderAtWill

Often,thesimplerananimalis,themoreremarkableitsabilitiesare,such
asregeneratingpartsorswitchinggender.Certainseastarscanstartoutasonegender,
switch,andtheneven

switchbackatalaterdate
.Reasonsforswitchinggendersarediverse,
andmayincludebreedingconvenienceandvariousresponsestowaterquality,temperature,
andfoodavailability.Genderdifferencesinseastarsaresubtlefromanexternalperspective,

thoughmalesaresmallerthanfemalesincertainspecies.Evenflippingaseastarovermaynot
alwaysindicateitsgender.
Whilemostspeciesarebornaseithermaleorfemale,thecushionstaris

alwaysbornmale
,
withindividualsswitchingtofemalelaterinlife.Seastarsexualityhasmanyunusualaspects.
Firstofall,somespecieshavebothmaleandfemalesexorgansandcantakeoneitherrole
whilemating.Second,seastarsdonotgenerallytouchwhilemating,butreleasespermand
eggsintothewatertomix.Third,someseastarsareprotectiveoftheiryoung,carryingthem
ontheirbackuntiltheyarereadytomaketheirownwayalongtheoceanfloor.

Choosetheappropriateoptionstocompletethesentences

1.Mostofthepatientvisitstophysicianassistantsintherecentyearsallaroundheworld.

havebeenmade
wasmade
willhavebeenmade
havemade
make

2.ThesedifferencesbetweentwophotographswiththehelpofPhotoshop.

shouldremove
musthaveremoved
havetoremove
couldhavebeenremoved
wereabletoremove

3.Noclinicalstudiesinthischilddiseaseresearchsofar.

hadcompleted
willbecompleted
havecompleted
hadtocomplete
havebeencompleted

4.Thegovernmentthatthetaskswithgreatsuccess.

isconfirming/maintained
confirms/havebeenmaintained
wasconfirmed/havemaintained
willconfirm/hadbeenmaintained
confirmed/aremaintaining

5.Withacomprehensiveinternationalreport,thecountry'spositionIntheregionalandglobal
arenawithmeasurablecriteria.

istoidentify
identifies
willbeidentified
identified
isgoingtoidentify

6.ThecriticsthatthereviewasabookinEnglishandInmanyotherlanguages.

aresaid/couldbepublished
say/canbepublished
willsay/hadbeenpublished
said/maybepublished
havesaid/shouldpublish

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PassiveCausativeQuiz1
7.Newlegislationincongressbutitbymany.

wasintroduced/wasn'taccepted
introduced/didn'taccept
willbeintroduced/isn'taccepted
introduced/hadn'tbeenaccepted
isintroduced/won'taccept

8.Ifyouareinterestedinwhatintheproject,itswebsite.

hasbeencompleted/maybevisited
completed/willbevisited
completes/shouldbevisited
wascompleted/hadbeenvisited
willbecompleted/canvisit

9.Theseclothesfordailyusesoyouthemwhereveryouwant.

design/shouldbeworn
willbedesigned/mustwear
aredesigned/canwear
weredesigned/couldbeworn
designed/mightbeworn

10.Amoredevelopedmodelofthiscarintheshowroomsoon.


isgoingtoshow
willbeshown
wasshown
hasbeenshown
hadshown

Choosetheappropriateoptionstocompletethesentences

1.Epilepsytobecausedbypoorair,whichtobecarriedbytheveinstothebrain.

isbelieved/thought
believes/isthought
wasbelieved/wasthought
isbelieving/isthinking
willbebelieved/hasthought

2.TheWii,whichisavideogameconsolebyNintendoonNovember19,2006.

made/wasreleased
ismade/wasreleased
wasmade/willrelease
makes/released
made/released

3.Hehisfirstcollectionofpoemsintheearlyeightiesandsincethattimehebycritics
andpublic.

publishes/praised
published/hasbeenpraised
publishes/haspraised
waspublished/waspraised
willpublish/willbepraised

4.Wecanveryconfidentlypredictthatifmoreoftheforests,thereerosion

arecut/willbe
cut/is
willcut/was
havebeencut/usedtobe
wascut/willbe

5.Thepoorbirdandallitseffortstoescapefromthetrapinvain.


hasbeencaptured/hadbeen
captures/were
hadbeencaptured/was
willcapture/are
hadbeencaptured/were

6.Tohaveaclearimage,starswithatelescope.

mustbeobserve
hadbetterobserve
shouldbeobserved
hadtoobserve
couldhavebeenobserved

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PassiveCausativeQuiz2
7.Itthathismusicthousandsofpeopleinthenextyears.

wasthought/willinfluence
thinks/isinfluencing
isthought/willinfluence
willbethought/influences
thought/influenced

8.ArchaeologiststodaythatthepyramidofanancientEgyptianpharaohafterbeing
buriedforgenerations.

announced/hadrediscovered
announces/isrediscovered
areannounced/wasrediscovered
willannounce/rediscovers
haveannounced/hasbeenrediscovered

9.AMalawiwomanwhowithHIVfiveyearsagoababynow.

isfacing/expects
isfaced/wasexpected
wasfaced/isexpecting
faces/expected
faced/willbeexpected

10.AnneFrank:TheDiaryofaYoungGirlanInternationalbestsellerthatintomorethan
50languages.


is/hasbeentranslated
hadbeen/istranslated
is/hastranslated
willbe/translated
was/willtranslate

ESLEFLArticles
Aspirin (1) to lower fever, relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and thin the blood. Common
conditions (2) with aspirinincludeheadache,muscleandjointpain.Aspirinisbelievedtoact
against fever, pain, and inflammation by interfering (3) the synthesis of specific
prostaglandins in the body. (4) its ability toinhibittheformation ofbloodclots,aspirinisalso
used in law doses to prevent heart attackandstrokeandtocontrolunstableangina.Thedrug's
usefulness in preventing certain cancers, the dangerous highblood pressure (5)sometimes
occursduringpregnancyandmigraineheadachesisalsounderinvestigation.

1.A)used
B)isused
C)hasused
D)wastouse
E)istouse
2.A)treated
B)treating
C)tobetreating
D)havingtreated
E)tohavetreated
3.A)on
B)at
C)for
D)with
E)over
4.A)Inaddition
B)Also
C)Although
D)Since
E)Becauseof
5.A)where
B)what
C)that
D)who
E)ofwhich

History, (6) its broadest sense, is the story of humanity's past. It also refers (7) the
recording of that past. The (8) sources of history include books, newspapers, printed
documents, personal papers (9) oral accounts. Historiansusethismaterialtoformcoherent
narratives and uncover linked sequences and patterns in past events. (10) histories are
concerned with causality,thatis,whycertainoutcomeshappened astheydid,andhowtheyare
linkedtoearlierevents.

6.A)in
B)at
C)of
D)as
E)on
7.A)on
B)at
C)for
D)with
E)to
8.A)subsequent
B)punctual
C)exciting
D)diverse
E)previous
9.A)onaccountof
B)despite
C)dueto
D)aswellas
E)butfor
10.A)Much
B)Most
C)Every
D)Whole
E)Each

ESLTEFLConversationTopicsandQuestionsBirthdays
Howarebirthdayscelebratedinyourcountry?
Doyouknowofanyfamouspeoplewiththesamebirthdayasyou?
Doyouknowwhatwasinthenewsonthedayyouwereborn?
Whataresomebirthdaytraditionsyouknowoffromothercountries?
Howdoyouliketocelebrateyourbirthday?
Whatisyourbestbirthdaymemory?
Whatisyourworstbirthdaymemory?
Haveyoueverhadasurprisebirthdaypartyforyourselforsomeoneelse?

Whatisthebestbirthdaygiftyouhaveeverreceived?
Whatistheworstbirthdaygiftyouhaveeverreceived?
Whataresomethingsyouliketodoforyourbirthday?
Whenisyourbirthday?

ESLTEFLConversationTopicsandQuestionsVacationsorHolidays
Didyouencounteranyproblemsduringyourvacation?Howdidyouresolvethem?
Didyouhaveanybadexperiences?
Didyoumeetanyinterestingpeople?Tellmeaboutthem.
Didyounoticeanycrossculturaldifferencesduringyourvacation?
Didyoustudyduringthevacation?Ifso,whatdidyoustudy?
Didyouenjoyyourlastvacation?
Howdoyoufeelafteralongvacation?
Howmanydayswasyourvacation?
Howwasyourtrip?
Whydidyouvisittheplace(s)youwentto?Howdidyougetthere?
Whydidyouchoosethemeansoftransportationthatyouchose?
Howmuchluggagedidyoutake?Wouldyoutakethesameordifferentequipmentnexttime?
Inwhatwaysdidyouobtainrealsatisfactionwhenyouwereonvacation?
Wastheplaceyouwenttoverydifferentfromwhereyoulive?
Whatwerethewomenlike?Whatwerethemenlike?Werepeoplefriendly?
Didyoustayinahotel?
Whathistoricalsitesdidyouvisitandwhatdidyoulearn?
Whatinterestingpeopledidyoumeet?Tellmeaboutthem.
Whatsouvenirdidyoubuy?
Whatwasthebestfoodyouateduringyourvacation?
Whatwasthemostenjoyablethingthatyoudidduringyourvacation?
Whatwasthemostinterestingthingthatyoudidduringthevacation?
Whereintheworldwouldyoumostliketogoforyournextvacation?

Whoisthemostremarkablepersonyouhaveevermetonholiday?
Whatisthemostexoticorstrangestthingyouateonholiday?
Haveyoueverthoughtofgivingupyourholidayduetounavoidablereasons?