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A data set can also be presented by means of a data frequency table, a table
in which each distinct value x is listed in the first row and its frequency f, which
is the number of times the value x appears in the data set, is listed below it in
the second row.
x 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
7 8 9 0 1 2 3
f 5 2 1 4 2 3 8
One way to reorganize and rewrite to make relevant information more visible is
to construct a stem and leaf diagram. The numbers in the tens place, from 2
through 9, and additionally the number 10, are the stems, and are arranged
in numerical order from top to bottom to the left of a vertical line
Suppose 30 students in a statistics class took a test and made the following
scores: 86 80 25 77 73 76 100 90 69 93 90 83 70 73 73 70 90 83 71 95 40 58
68 69 100 78 87 97 92 74
The stem and leaf diagram is not practical for
large data sets, so we need a different, purely
graphical way to represent data. A
frequency histogram is such a device. We
will illustrate it using the same data set from
the previous subsection.
in the
x
n
x =
x
N
The sample median x^~ of a set of sample data for which there are an
odd number of measurements is the middle measurement when the data
are arranged in numerical order. The sample median x^~ of a set of
sample data for which there are an even number of measurements is the
mean of the two middle measurements when the data are arranged in
numerical order. An outlier is a number that is far removed from most or
all of the remaining measurements.
The relationship between the mean and the median for several common
shapes of distributions. In each distribution we have drawn a vertical line that
divides the area under the curve in half, which in accordance with is located
at the median. The following facts are true in general:
a. When the distribution is symmetric, as in panels (a) and (b) of, the mean
and the median are equal.
b. When the distribution is as shown in panel (c) of, it is said to be skewed
right. The mean has been pulled to the right of the median by the long right
tail of the distribution, the few relatively large data values. c. When the
distribution is as shown in panel (d) of, it is said to be skewed left. The mean
has been pulled to the left of the median by the long left tail of the
distribution, the few relatively small data values.
R=xmaxxmin
(x x )2
s=
2
x 2 n
x2 n
(x x )2
S=
=
n
( x)2
=
2
(x)2
N
Xmin
Q1
Q2
Q3
Xmax
The interquartile range (IQR) is the quantity: IQR=Q3Q1 (the
distance from Q1 to Q3 is the length of the interval over which the
middle half of the data range).
z=
xx
s
or
z=
A random experiment is a
mechanism that produces a
definite outcome that cannot be
predicted with certainty. The
sample space associated with a
random experiment is the set of
all possible outcomes. An event is a subset of the sample space. A random
experiment is an action for which all possible outcomes can be listed, but for
which the actual outcome on any given trial of the experiment cannot be
predicted with certainty. In such a situation we wish to assign to each outcome,
such as rolling a two, a number called the probability of the outcome that
indicates how likely it is that the outcome will occur. Similarly, we would like to
assign a probability to any event, or collection of outcomes, such as rolling an
even number, which indicates how likely it is that the event will occur if the
experiment is performed.
A tree diagram is a device that can be helpful in identifying all possible
outcomes of a random experiment, particularly one that can be viewed as
proceeding in stages.
There are two possibilities for the first child, boy or girl, so we
draw two line segments coming out of a starting point, one
ending in a b for boy and the other ending in a g for girl.
For each of these two possibilities for the first child there are
two possibilities for the second child, boy or girl, so from
each of the b and g we draw two line segments, one segment
ending in a b and one in a g. For each of the four ending points
now in the diagram there are two possibilities for the third
child, so we repeat the process once more. The line segments
are called branches of the tree. The right ending point of each
branch is called a node. The nodes on the extreme right are
the final nodes; to each one there corresponds an outcome,
as shown in the figure.
S={bbb,bbg,bgb,bgg,gbb,gbg,ggb,ggg}
If an event E is
E={e 1, e 2, , ek }, then