University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

University of Wollongong Thesis Collection

University of Wollongong

Year

Transient behaviour modelling of

underground high voltage cable systems
Muhamad Zalani Daud
University of Wollongong

Daud, Muhamad Zalani, Transient behaviour modelling of underground high voltage cable systems, Masters by Research thesis, School of Electrical, Computer and
Telecommunications Engineering - Faculty of Informatics, University of Wollongong, 2009.
http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2032
This paper is posted at Research Online.

Transient Behaviour Modelling of Underground

High Voltage Cable Systems

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree

Master of Engineering - Research

from

University of Wollongong

by

Muhamad Zalani Daud, BEng

School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering

July 2009

To my wife, my son and my late mum

Abstract
The behaviour of voltage and current transients when a high voltage (HV) cable is first
energised is a problem of practical significance to utilities. Modelling of this behaviour
on a suitable simulation platform is an attractive approach, in many cases, provided that
the results closely match real-world behaviour. This thesis presents modelling and analysis
of transients resulting from energisation of an unloaded cable using PSCADr /EMTDCTM
simulation software. An assessment of the applicability of existing frequency-dependent
(FD) cable models is given. The impact of transients on a simulated cable system is also
presented and discussed.
In cable system modelling, system components must be accurately modelled, primarily
the underground cable. Two common frequency-dependent cable models are based on the
travelling wave method, namely the FD-Mode and FD-Phase models. These models are
investigated by comparing their ability to predict energisation current transients resulting
from the switching of an unloaded 132 kV underground cable. The simulated results are
validated by comparison with the measurement data. It was found that, the FD-Phase
model provides more accurate results compared to the FD-Mode model. This model is
widely applicable and suitable for use in modelling a wide range of frequencies.
The FD-Phase model was used in this study to analyse the distribution of overvoltages
at sending and receiving ends of the cable system. Specifically, statistical analysis has been
carried out correlating the overvoltage magnitudes induced and the closing behaviour of the
circuit breaker (CB). Two statistical switching techniques have been applied, namely the
deterministic and probabilistic approaches. Based on the approaches studied, results from
probabilistic techniques are recommended owing to the fact that it is closer to reality.

iii

Certification
I, Muhamad Zalani Daud, declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of Master of Engineering - Research, in the School of Electrical,
Computer and Telecommunications Engineering at the University of Wollongong, is wholly
my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been
submitted for qualification at any other academic institution.

......................................
Muhamad Zalani Daud
July 7, 2009

iv

Acknowledgements
I would like to express sincere appreciation for the intelligent advise, encouragement and
guidance of my supervisors, Dr Philip Ciufo and Associate Prof. Sarath Perera.

Thanks to Integral Energy (IE) and University of Wollongong Power Quality and Reliability
Centre (IEPQRC) for providing the power system network data and the cable energisation
test results used in this research.

Thanks to Mr Sean Elphick and Mr Neil Browne for their valuable advice and help on
the experimental energisation test data.

My gratitude also should go to all my friends in IEPQRC for their support and friendship.

Thanks also to the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) and University Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Malaysia for the financial support.

My special thank to my family in Malaysia who has been my inspiration since the primary school until this stage of my education.

Finally, my deepest feelings and thankfulness I would like to dedicate to my wife for her
love, friendship and endless support and patience during my postgraduate studies.

Publications arising from this Thesis

1. M. Z. Daud, P. Ciufo, S. Perera, Investigation on the suitability of PSCADr/EMTDCTM
models to study energisation transients of 132 kV underground cable, Proc. Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC 2008), Paper ID: 037,
December 2008, Sydney, Australia.
2. M. Z. Daud, P. Ciufo, S. Perera, Statistical analysis of overvoltages due to the energisation of a 132 kV underground cable, Proc. Electrical Engineering/Electronics,
Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology Conference (ECTI-CON
2009), Paper ID: 1325, May 2009, Bangkok, Thailand.

vi

Table of Contents
Abstract

iii

Certification

iv

Acknowledgements

List of Publications

vi

List of Abbreviations

List of Figures

xi

List of Tables

xiii

1 Introduction
1.1 Statement of the Problem
1.2 Objectives of the Thesis .
1.3 Contributions . . . . . . .
1.4 Outline of the Thesis . . .

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2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Transients and Travelling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Cable Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 The Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Coaxial Cable Electrical Parameters . . . . . .
2.3.3 Impedance and Admittance Matrices . . . . . .
2.4 An Overview of Approaches and Existing Models . . .
2.4.1 Electromagnetic Transients Simulation . . . . .
2.4.2 Lumped Pi Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Distributed Parameter Travelling Wave Models
2.5 PSCADr /EMTDCTM Cable Models . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 The FD-Mode Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 The FD-Phase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Analysis of Switching Transient Overvoltages . . . . .
2.6.1 An Overview of Statistical Switching Studies .
2.6.2 Switching Phenomena and Statistical Methods
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 PSCADr /EMTDCTM Power System Model Development

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Power System Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Power System Component Modelling . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 132 kV Upstream Power Source . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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viii

3.4

3.5

3.6
3.7

3.3.3 Transformer and Capacitor Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Underground cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Physical Construction and Material Properties . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Cable Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inclusion of FD-Mode and FD-Phase Models in the Simulation . . . .
3.5.1 Frequency-dependent Parameter Settings . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Simulation Step Size and Simulation Time . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results from Simulation of Preliminary PSCADr/EMTDCTM Model
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Cable Energisation Transient Behaviour and Assessment of Cable Models

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Experimental Energisation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Measurement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Measured Current Transient Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Data for Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Analysis of the CB Pole Closing Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Model Refinement and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Implementation of CB Pole Closing Times to the Circuit Model .
4.3.2 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Comparison of Results Predicted by FD-Mode and FD-Phase Models . .
4.4.1 Simulation using FD-Mode Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Simulation using FD-Phase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Implication from Measured and Simulated Data . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Overvoltage Transient Behaviour for the System Under Study . . . . . .
4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 Analysis of Overvoltage Stress due to Cable Energisation

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 An Overview of Switching Transient Evaluation Methods . . . .
5.3 Simulation Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 First Approach (Deterministic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Second Approach (Probabilistic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Model Refinement and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Implementation of Deterministic Approach in Simulation
5.4.2 Implementation of Probabilistic Approach in Simulation .
5.5 Analysis of Overvoltage Data from Simulation . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Results from Deterministic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 Results from Probabilistic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.3 Results for the Pole Span below 1 ms . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendices

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ix
A Fundamental Equations in Cable Modelling
A.1 The General Transmission Lines or Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2 Coaxial Cable Electrical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3 Impedance and Admittance Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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B Power System Component Data

B.1 Input Parameter Calculation of Surrounding Components . . . . . . . . . .
B.2 Underground Cable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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C Measurement Data
C.1 Current Transients from Experimental Energisation Tests . . . . . . . . . .
C.2 CB Pole Closing Times from Experimental Energisation Tests . . . . . . . .

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References

100

List of Abbreviations
HV

high voltage

EHV

extra high voltage

UHV

ultra high voltage

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

EMTP

electromagnetic transients program

DC

direct current

FD

frequency-dependent

CB

circuit breaker

ULM

universal line model

CC

cable constant

CF

curve fitting

BHTS

Baulkham Hills transmission substation

BVZS

Bella Vista zone substation

BTTS

Blacktown transmission substation

SWTS

Sydney West transmission substation

CFTS

Carlingford transmission substation

XLPE

cross-linked polyethylene

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

HDPE

high-density polyethylene

SVL

sheath voltage limiter

RMS

root mean square

FFT

fast Fourier transform

VT

voltage transformer

TV

tertiary voltage

PDF

probability density function

CDF

cumulative density function

SE

sending end

RE

receiving end

List of Figures
2.1
2.2
2.3

Single phase frequency domain equivalent circuit of FD-Mode model . . . .

Weighting Function from J Marti formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical 2 % slow-front overvoltage values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Single line schematic diagram of power system network under study

Overhead line representation in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . . . . . . . .
Cable cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable input data in PSCADr/EMTDCTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cross-bonding and configuration of the cable . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current transients from preliminary FD-Mode model at T = 10 kHz
Current transients from preliminary FD-Phase model . . . . . . . . .
Current transients from preliminary FD-Mode model at T = 50 Hz
Overvoltage transients at the sending end of the cable . . . . . . . .

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4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15

Cable energisation test set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Current transients from measurement data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blue and white phase current transients from third measurement . . . . . .
Frequency spectrum of blue and white phase current transients . . . . . . .
Determination of CB pole closing times from third energisation test . . . .
Establishment of CB pole closing times in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . . . . . .
Simulated current transients from FD-Mode model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency spectrum of simulated current transients using FD-Mode model .
Simulated current transients from FD-Phase model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency spectrum of simulated current transients using FD-Phase model
Steady-state charging current for cable under test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An example of high frequency transformer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overvoltage transients at sending and receiving end terminals . . . . . . . .
Busbar voltages during cable energisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sheath voltages during switching with and without surge arresters . . . . .

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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Gaussian distribution curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Implementation of deterministic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results from deterministic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results from probabilistic approach for 1 ms, 2 ms and 3 ms spans
Results from probabilistic approach for below 1 ms pole span . . .

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A.1 A x section of a coaxial cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.2 A simplified coaxial cable cross-sectional area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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B.1 Current transients simulated using two different source models . . . . . . .

B.2 Overhead line conductor co-ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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C.1
C.2
C.3
C.4

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Blue and white phase current transients from first measurement . .

Blue and white phase current transients from second measurement
Blue and white phase current transients from fourth measurement
Frequency spectrum of current transients from first measurement .
xi

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xii
C.5 Frequency spectrum of current transients from second measurement . . . .
C.6 Frequency spectrum of current transients from fourth measurement . . . . .
C.7 CB pole closing times for each test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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List of Tables
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Source model input data of voltage source model-2 .

Cable layers radial measurements . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable dimensions and material properties input data
Cable coordinates input data . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

CB pole switching times and maximum span from each test . . .

Red phase magnitudes for different simulation time step . . . . .
Sending end voltage magnitudes from simultaneous closure of CB
Significant overvoltage peaks from deterministic approach . . . .
Relevant statistical information for different cases of pole span .

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B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
B.5
B.6

Calculation of sequence impedances for voltage source model-1 and

132 kV overhead line general data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conductor and ground wire data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformer general data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformer positive sequence leakage reactance data . . . . . . . .
Cable data from manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

model-2
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Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1

Statement of the Problem

In recent times, a steady increase in introduction of underground cables has been seen in new
residential areas across Australia [1]. Their penetration, particularly in urban areas, gives
significant benefits as they can provide additional network capacity without the need for
an expensive overhead transmission easement. They also result in reduced visual impact
as compared to the visual impacts of bulky overhead transmission systems. In certain
situations, the expansion of overhead lines is impossible due to political and environmental
pressures from the public and government. New technology has resulted in underground
cables becoming competitive with overhead lines on technical, environmental and economic
levels.
However, the use of underground cable has a great impact on the quality of power and
has become one of the popular topics of discussion among power engineers and researchers.
Of particular relevance is the high frequency current and voltage transients resulting from
switching operations. The problems depend on several factors, including configuration of the
underground cables, the characteristics of circuit breaker (CB), general network topology,
as well as other external factors. To a certain extent, transients can be worse for the case
of switching at the transition point of overhead to underground transmission. It is crucial

2
to address the impact of this switching on the design requirements, not only for extra high
voltage (EHV) systems but also in the case of medium transmission voltages, such as the
132 kV systems [2]. The systems just described are dominant in urban areas in Australia
such as Sydney and Brisbane [3].
Switching operations cause surges to develop and travel within the cable circuit. The
travelling waves result in high frequency damped oscillations in the cable system. Normally,
voltage and current transients are most severe at the receiving end of the cable with unloaded
conditions. This is due to multiple reflections of surges with different magnitudes occurring
at the end terminals of the circuit. The surges continuously travel throughout the circuit
until they are damped out by resistive elements. Generally, these surges are not only
dangerous to the cable being switched, but also to the nearby power system components
and surrounding circuits.
Underground cable energisation may occur anywhere within a transmission and distribution network, with the time and location of occurrences difficult to predict. Normally
the effects of transients are minimised by means of protective and preventive devices and
other switching techniques. The parameters of these devices may be obtained by evaluation
of switching transient voltage and current magnitudes for a particular network. Switching transients are considered to be one of the more difficult electromagnetic phenomena to
model and predict, and as such has been an ongoing research topic over several decades.
As such, modelling and software simulation of electromagnetic transients to study their
behaviour is one of the key topics of this research.
The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTPTM ) is one of the most widely used software tools for electromagnetic transient analysis. Subsequent and based on the EMTPTM
algorithm, the Electromagnetic Transients including DC (EMTDCTM ) program was introduced. To enable easy access and configuration of these programs, they come with computeraided design software, such as the Alternative Transients Program (ATPr ) and the Power
Systems Computer-Aided Design (PSCADr ). Both ATPr /EMTPTM and PSCADr /EMTDCTM
software suites are now major tools in power system studies.

3
There are a number of dedicated models in EMTP-type suites that can be used for cable
and transmission lines. The modelling choices vary from a simple pi model approach to more
complex ones. Some of the models are based on theories developed by early researchers,
which were established over 30 years ago [48]. These models are the frequency-dependent
type that take into account the distributed nature and frequency-dependent characteristics
of the cable (or transmission lines) parameters. In other words, they have been formulated
to model transient analysis. However, these models are not general and in some situations
may not be suitable for certain network configurations. For example, it is not always clear
whether the more sophisticated models should always be used in every transient simulation,
as under some circumstances simpler models may provide comparable results.
The literature shows that verification of the suitability of these models has been predominantly measured for the case of overhead lines, rather than their underground counterparts.
Less rigorous treatment of existing models on cables has raised questions in relation to
their applicability and reliability when applying these models to underground cable analysis. Such concerns can be addressed by further analysis of existing underground cable
models in terms of accuracy and suitability, specifically when they are intended to be used
under a specific network configuration.
Effort in validating cable models by detailed comparison is found for several cases carried
out in ATPr /EMTPTM [9, 10]. However, the approach used in [9] only gives examples of
single phase energisation of cables. Recently, Nichols et al. [10] carried out a practical comparison examining several frequency-dependent models such as KC Lee [11] and Semlyen [4]
approaches for the case of 3-phase energisation. However these models result in inconsistencies in transient magnitudes and introduce numerical instability. Consequently, suggestions
arise from previously studied models which lead to the requirement of studying the more accurate cable model. Such models are currently incorporated in the PSCADr /EMTDCTM ,
for instance, one of them is the Universal Line Model (ULM) [8].
The energisation of an underground cable results in high frequency voltage and current
transients. The behaviour of these transients are determined by many factors. For example,

4
the transient peak magnitudes are influenced by the closing span of CB contacts and the
closing angle (point-on-wave) on power frequency voltage [12]. The voltage transients applies
considerable stress on the insulation of cables as well as the insulation systems of nearby
components. These stresses may result from either transients with high magnitudes or cumulative occurrences of low magnitude overvoltages. It is essential to minimise the impact
of these transients. The assessment of peak values is of importance in the evaluation of insulation co-ordination and examination for determination of protection schemes. Due to the
variability of CB contact closure, a statistical method is the most practical means to carry
out such studies. To ensure precise and reliable results from simulation, a carefully crafted
model of the power system network, with inclusion of an accurate frequency-dependent cable model, is indispensable. The literature shows that these assessments are predominately
carried out for EHV transmission systems using the ATPr /EMTPTM programs [13, 14].
In summary, an examination of transient behaviour and switching overvoltages is an
important task in planning and design of a power system. These studies are important as
they have a direct bearing on the insulation requirements, cost and reliability of the designed
network. PSCADr/EMTDCTM is an attractive platform to carry out these studies.

1.2

Objectives of the Thesis

The main aim of this research is to carry out studies on the behaviour of the transients
due to the energisation of a high voltage (HV) underground cable system. The two major
objectives of this research are now presented.
Firstly, in order to facilitate selection of a suitable model of an underground cable, the
goal is to investigate the suitability of the cable models currently incorporated in one of
the EMTP-type simulators - the PSCADr/EMTDCTM software suite. As this work is a
continuation of [15], of particular interest is a study on the applicability and validity of
other models, namely the frequency-dependent mode (FD-Mode) and frequency-dependent
phase (FD-Phase) models [16].

5
Secondly, an extensive study of underground cables is carried out with a view to provide
useful information on switching overvoltage distributions based on the statistical method,
as suggested by the IEC standards [17, 18]. The modelling of a power system network
employing the statistical evaluation of overvoltage data is to be carried out. An accurate
cable model investigated earlier is used to represent the underground systems.

1.3

Contributions

Modelling work presented in this thesis is carried out on PSCADr /EMTDCTM platform.
The network representing the power system connected to the cable under investigation
includes the source, overhead transmission lines, distribution transformers and the capacitor
banks. The two major contributions arising from this work are as follows:
1. Analysis and verification of the suitability of the FD-Mode and FD-phase models
by practical comparison, for the purpose of studying the behaviour of energisation
transients on HV cables.
2. An extensive analysis of overvoltage distributions caused by cable energisation using
statistical analysis for the network under study.

1.4

Outline of the Thesis

The remaining chapters in this thesis are arranged as follows:

Chapter 2 summarises the literature including theoretical aspects of transient phenomena in electrical power systems, electromagnetic transients simulation and cable (transmission line) modelling techniques. The characteristics of existing models, specifically the
FD-Mode and FD-Phase models are further described. At the end of this chapter, analysis
of the switching transient problems is presented.
Chapter 3 explains the modelling process for the power system network under investigation including the underground cable. Treatment of the source model, transformer model

6
and other surrounding components are detailed. Frequency-dependent modelling of transmission lines and underground system are established. Some results from preliminary model
simulations are presented and analysed. Problems arising from the preliminary model are
identified and suggestions for improvement are provided at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 4 focuses on the procedures and methodology undertaken when organising
the experimental tests. Collection of data used in refinement of the preliminary model is
presented. Measurement data of current transients is synthesised to prepare suitable data
for comparison with simulated results. Refinement of the preliminary model and inclusion of
FD-Mode and FD-Phase models for simulation are then presented. Results from simulation
using both models are compared with the measurement data. The analysis of results is
presented in both time and frequency domain. Finally, an overview of overvoltage transients
which stress the underground cable and surrounding network components is presented.
Chapter 5 first provides an overview of switching transient evaluation methods. The
approaches used are also introduced. Then, the refinement of power system model to cater
for two different approaches considered is presented. Particularly, an explanation on the
construction of the multiple run system in PSCADr/EMTDCTM is given. Results from
simulations are presented for the different cases studied.
Chapter 6 provides conclusions based on the work covered in the thesis and provides
recommendations for further work.

Chapter 2

Literature Review
2.1

Introduction

Transient analysis is indispensable in predicting the performance of systems as well as in

designing system insulation. Simulation using electromagnetic transient software suites
is one of the most reliable methods for this purpose. However, it is a difficult task to
model the performance of systems which demonstrate strong frequency dependence. For
example, the parameters of an underground cable are naturally distributed and its nonlinear characteristics change with increase in frequency. Therefore, frequency-dependent
approaches should be catered for in achieving better accuracy. There are a number of
dedicated frequency-dependent cable models currently available, particularly in the EMTPtype transient simulators. They are formulated based on wave equations derived from the
behaviour of travelling surges in the electrical system.
As the main interest of the work presented in this thesis is to study the transients due
to energisation of a cable system, only switching related issues are considered. This chapter
gives an overview of power system transients, particularly the surges that are caused by
switching operations. Their behaviour is described using mathematical expressions derived
from the wave equations. Coaxial cable modelling, such as the representation of high frequency parameters and impedance matrices, are explained. Several models currently incor-

8
porated in EMTP-type platforms are highlighted and compared to emphasise their different
properties and suitability for studying high frequency transients of an underground cable.
Then, modelling approaches of FD-Mode and FD-Phase models are presented. Finally, the
impact of transient overvoltages on the insulation system are reviewed.

2.2

Transients and Travelling Waves

An electrical transient is initiated whenever there is an abrupt change in circuit conditions

due to events such as switching operations. Another definition is the situation of unbalance
that occurs during transition from one steady state to a new steady state condition [19].
It is an electromagnetic phenomena whose behaviour strongly depends on the electrical
parameters of the power system components. The components consist of distributed R, L
and C elements which are in different proportions.
Transients occur in a very short period of time before settling down to a steady state
condition. This short duration cannot be ignored because during such situations, components in the system could be subjected to high current and high voltage peaks that place
considerable stress on insulation systems. Extreme cases might damage equipment such
as transformers and circuit breakers. Furthermore, electrical insulation and other sensitive
properties of the components are typically designed to work optimally at rated values and
are therefore susceptible to the deviation from the rated operation.
The classification of transients fall into two major categories - impulsive and oscillatory [20]. Cable energisation belongs to the category of oscillatory transients in which the
instantaneous value of voltage or current changes polarity rapidly. Their occurrence is due
to resonances during switching where parameters are described by magnitude, duration and
spectral content. Evaluation of the peak values and transient frequencies are of primary
importance for assessing the insulation coordination of the system as well as the parameter
of protective schemes intended to be installed in the network.
Cables are designed in such a way to meet their protective and durability requirements
as well as the uniform distribution of currents. Generally, metallic sheaths and screens are

9
used. These layers further worsen the transient due to their coupling effects. Every single
switching operation on a cable may result in the elements of a power system being subjected
to voltages and currents having a wide frequency range which may extend from 50 Hz to
the region of 100 kHz [21]. Over such a frequency range, the parameters of the system and
of the earth path are not constant. Such conditions require the frequency dependent nature
to be accounted for in order to achieve an accurate cable model.
In power system networks, cables are physically long and consist of joints and points of
discontinuity. The complexity of modelling such networks is compounded by the inductive
and capacitive elements that are distributed along its length. As a consequence, the surges
that travel from their origin end up with multiple reflections and refractions at the cable
ends, joints or may be eliminated at surge limiting devices. Furthermore, as the transmission
systems are finite in length, the transmissions and reflections of waves occur iteratively. The
travelling surge is normally referred as an incident wave and its reflection and refraction
can be solved using Kirchhoffs Law [19, 22].
Further complications arise when considering the reflection and refraction at various
junctions. These various terminations may consist of many interconnected lines or cable
circuits having different intrinsic impedances. Bewley [23] devised a convenient diagram
(Bewley Lattice Diagram) which shows the position and direction of motion of every incident, reflected and refracted wave on the system at every instant of time. The multiplicity of
successive reflections at multiple junctions can be monitored. However, it is difficult to apply the Bewley Lattice Diagram for the case of non linear devices. The graphical method of
Bergeron is suitable instead [24]. This method is valid for both linear and nonlinear models
and helps to calculate the delay of an electromagnetic signal on electrical circuits. Well documented information on reflected and refracted waves by means of the lattice diagram method
provided valuable contributions toward the development of a digital computer program for
the simulation of electrical transients. The Bergeron method (Method of Characteristics)
of implementing the travelling wave solution technique into the time domain solution has
been applied by Dommel in the development of EMTPTM [25].

10

2.3

Cable Modelling

2.3.1 The Wave Equations

The behaviour of travelling surges can be described mathematically using the wave equations. These equations govern general two conductor uniform transmission lines including
the coaxial cable. The derivation of these fundamental equations is given in Appendix A
(Section A.1). A set of coupled wave equations to describe the voltage along and the current
through the circuit are [26]
d2 V
= 2V
dx2

(2.1)

d2 I
= 2I
dx2

(2.2)

Both voltage, V , and current, I, are characterised by a propagation constant, , which is a

complex number defined as

= + j =

(r + jl)(g + jc) =

zy

(2.3)

where the real, , and imaginary, , parts in (2.3) are known as attenuation and phase
constants respectively. The per unit length parameters of the cable are described as r (resistance), l (inductance), g (conductance) and c (capacitance), whereas is the frequency.
Similarly, z and y are the corresponding series impedance and shunt admittance of the circuit. Another important parameter influencing the wave propagation is the characteristic
impedance, Zc , within the circuit. It is defined as the ratio of circuits series parameters to
its corresponding shunt parameters as given by

Zc =

r + jl
g + jc

(2.4)

The general solutions of (2.1) and (2.2) are described using the DLambert equations as

V (x) = V0+ ex + V0 e+x

(2.5)

11
I(x) = I0+ ex + I0 e+x

(2.6)

where the plus and minus signs denote the forward and backward directions of wave propagations respectively.
Depending on the nature of study, modelling of a cable may be described using a constant
or a frequency-dependent parameter approach. Underground cable energisation transient
modelling involves the consideration of frequency variations. Increase in frequency further
increases the non-linear characteristics of cables and the nearby system components which
require frequency-dependency to be accounted for. These greatly increase the burden in
modelling. Marti et al. [27] has postulated several factors that should be treated carefully
in order to achieve better accuracy in modelling such as:
The distributed nature of transmission system parameters.
Asymmetrical arrangement of coupled conductors with ground return.
The strongly frequency-dependent series parameters especially for the ground mode.

2.3.2 Coaxial Cable Electrical Parameters

A copper cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cable normally comprises XLPE insulation and
other layers such as semiconducting bedding, copper wire screen (metallic screen) and the
water blocking layers. The metallic screen layers (sheath) of the cable contribute very much
to the high frequency transient currents. In particular cases, the high frequency cable model
requires inner and outer semiconducting screens to be accounted for. Gustavsen [28, 29]
described some procedures for converting geometrical and material data taking into account
other conductive screen layers to be included as an input to electromagnetic transient simulators.
The non-uniformity of ac current distribution is affected greatly by the frequency. At
higher frequencies, skin effects are prevalent where current tends to flow more densely
near the outer surface of the conductor. Similarly, the currents flow primarily along the
inner surface of the outer conductor. The conductor core is stranded in such a way to

12
further minimse the skin effect. In modelling, the resistivity of the stranded core is normally
modified to a new value to account for the air gaps within the core conductors [28].
The proximity effect also greatly affects the non-uniformity of current distribution in
the cable conductor. The conductors in close proximity will produce magnetic flux linkages
which can disturb current distribution amongst each other. Increasing conductor spacing
might reduce such coupled influences. The significance of this effect can be seen particularly
in multi-conductor cable and cables in the same duct. This effect also depends on the size
and length of the conductors. It is another complex and crucial branch in studying electric
cable transient phenomena. Further information on this effect on underground cable can be
found in [30].
In general, the geometrical and material parameters (details of calculation are presented
in Appendix A (Section A.2)) are included as input data in the modelling of a cable system in
PSCADr /EMTDCTM [16,31]. Simplifying assumptions may be considered to overcome the
lengthy and complicated solution of more general ones such as presented in Section 2.3.1. For
instance, in some cases, simple equations which neglect the effect of resistance and conductance are considered valid since the severity from travelling waves is most pronounced in
the early stages before they become attenuated. Another example is when considering a
lossless transmission cable, such as one with nearly perfect conducting materials [26].

2.3.3 Impedance and Admittance Matrices

The EMTP-type simulators are facilitated with cable constant (CC) routines for the calculation of the impedance (z) and admittance (y) matrices. The development of this program
was based on the Pollacks equations [32, 33]. A general solution of parameters for several
cases of underground cables are provided in [34, 35]. The equations form the basis of the
calculation of series and shunt parameters of a cable in EMTP-type simulators. The general
expression of impedance and admittance parameters per unit length for N xN conductors
can be described as matrices as presented in Appendix A (Section A.3). The main diagonal elements of these matrices correspond to the self-impedance (or self-admittance) of

13
each conductor (core and sheath with respect to ground). Similarly, the off-diagonal quantities represent their respective mutual impedance (or admittance). The elements in these
matrices are complex and may be given in Cartesian format such as zij = rij + jxij and
yij = gij + jbij . In some circumstances, a correction algorithm may be applied to these
matrices to account for electrical effects such as long line distances. The type of ideal transposition settings may also affect the elements of these matrices [16]. Consequently, the
shunt conductance, g, in some situations can, in general, be ignored as the loss angle of
underground cables is very small. The matrix b is symmetric and has positive values for
main diagonal terms which represent the shunt susceptance while the off-diagonal terms are
zero for underground cables [2].

2.4

An Overview of Approaches and Existing Models

2.4.1 Electromagnetic Transients Simulation

An analogue computer, or transient network analyser (TNA), has been widely used in the
past for the study of transient phenomena in electrical networks. However, since the advent
of digital computers, their application has gradually decreased [21]. Dommels work [25] in
programming time domain solution for transmission lines in digital computer has inspired
continuing research in the development of EMTP-type programs. His early attempts in
modelling, based on travelling wave concept, employed the Bergerons method [24]. Since
then, a number of models have been developed and are made available particularly in
EMTP-type suites. They are different in ability and applicability due to simplifications and
assumptions used, primarily for achieving computer memory and processing time savings
as well as robustness.
In achieving a high accuracy model, the frequency dependence of power system elements
is indispensable. The approach involves several steps of complex calculation of mathematical
modelling. Time domain model variables are first transferred into the frequency domain so
that their intrinsic response can be derived (allows the rational function fitting of impulse

14
response). A time domain simulation can then be carried out using convolutions that use
the time domain counterpart of their variables, which are obtained from the inverse Fourier
transform [5, 6]. Some of the models prefer the variables to be transformed into z-domain
by means of the z transformation [7]. The computational effort in modelling is greatly
reduced since the introduction of the recursive convolution technique in the solution of the
time domain convolution integrals [4].
The modelling is difficult when multi-phase conductors are considered. Furthermore, the
nature of frequency dependence is strong for the case of underground cables and the asymmetric structure of transmission lines. In practice, the physical system of conductors (mutually coupled) are firstly decoupled into a mathematically-equivalent decoupled one. The
modal decomposition process [36, 37] increases the burden from the modal transformation
matrices which are also frequency-dependent. Although a constant transformation matrix
can be assumed, it is crucial to consider a frequency-dependent transformation matrix (Tv
or Ti for voltage and current variables respectively) in modelling. L Marti [6] developed a
more accurate model for transmission lines and underground cable which accounted for the
frequency dependence of transformation matrices. However, at the present time and in the
recent past, an increasing effort to overcome difficulties in handling the frequency-dependent
transformation matrix has been evident. Eventually, the direct phase domain models are
much more reliable today [7, 8].
In either EMTPTM or EMTDCTM type programs, the models are divided into two broad
categories; the lumped parameter or the distributed parameter travelling wave models. The
suitable approach may be selected depending on the study requirements. A wide range of
models are available including the lumped pi, Bergeron, Noda, KC Lee, Semlyen, L Marti,
J Marti (FD-Mode) and the ULM (FD-Phase) models [11, 31]. The following section provides an analysis of these models except the FD-Mode and FD-Phase models where detailed
investigations are documented in Section 2.5.

15

2.4.2 Lumped Pi Models

A short transmission line or cable can be described as a lumped pi model with arrangement
of R, L and C parameters of the mutually coupled phases calculated at the steady state
frequency. R and L represent the series impedances where shunt losses are ignored and the
total admittance is divided into two sections lumped at the sending and receiving ends [38].
Such a model can be used to perform accurate steady-state system calculations and is also
suitable for studies which assume constant parameters. Cascading many pi sections can,
in general, represent a long line [31]. However, for predicting a wide range of frequency
variations upon cable energisation, such implementations may not be adequate [10]. Furthermore, cross-bonding of cable sheaths [2] is neglected in this approach.
Another complex model based on the lumped pi approach is applicable, such as the
cross-bonded uniform-pi cable model evaluated by Nagaoka [39]. However it has the same
drawbacks in terms of frequency response. In addition, the sheath voltage is not accessible
at cross-bonding points of a minor section in this model since the cross-bonding is only
considered at the major sections. Another version is the exact-pi model [40], which has the
potential in characterising the frequency dependent effect of transmission lines. However,
for a wider frequency range, this model is not suitable as complications in relation to time
delays result in oscillating functions in frequency domain. Its higher order fitting as the
line length increases results in a considerably longer time taken for the solution in time
domain [41].

2.4.3 Distributed Parameter Travelling Wave Models

The distributed parameter travelling wave models have received much attention over the
pi approach. This is a result of most studies requiring a frequency-dependent approach
to be catered for in calculation. The Bergeron model [21, 31], for instance, represents the
inductance and capacitance of pi sections in a distributed manner. It is a simple constant
frequency method based on travelling wave theory. It incorporates travelling wave delays via
a simple equivalent circuit containing a current source and a constant resistance representing

16
the characteristic impedance. In other words, it is roughly equivalent to using an infinite
number of pi sections with a lumped resistance in the middle and at line ends to represent
losses. An early attempt by Dommel [25] to provide a frequency-dependent transmission
line model was based on this approach. His model forms the basis of the time domain
algorithm used in the development of transmission line models in EMTPTM . However, the
frequency response of Bergerons method is only good in the neighborhood of the frequency
at which the parameters are evaluated. It is not recommended for high frequency transient
studies [31].
Noda et al. [7], introduced an Auto-Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) model which
employed the method as a substitute for the existing method in approximating time domain convolution. As the modelling is directly performed in the phase domain, it avoided
the use of frequency-dependent transformation matrices. Furthermore, numerical effort is
minimised and stability is greatly increased. However, as the z-transform approach was
used, the resulting model is dependent on the time step settings (t) and is not directly
applicable for an arbitrary time step [42].
KC Lee and Semlyen models are amongst the other dedicated models incorporated in
EMTPTM [4, 11]. The KC Lee approach is suitable for the representation of untransposed
transmission lines. For underground cables, it requires manual calculation of modal transformation matrices [15]. However, as the constant parameter representation is assumed, the
heavily frequency-dependent nature of cable systems means that this method may not be
suitable. The Semlyen model, on the other hand, is theoretically suitable for a wide range
of frequencies. The recursive implementation of convolutions introduced has contributed to
the ongoing research in cable modelling because of the ability in reducing computational
efforts [4]. However, for underground cables, it is very poor in terms of stability of numerical
calculation as proven in recent studies [10].
L Marti [6] has implemented the frequency-dependent calculation of modal transformation matrices to his model which is suitable for cable systems. The formulation improves the
weakness encountered in the J Marti [5] model, especially for the case of strongly frequency-

17
dependent underground cables and untransposed transmission lines. Unfortunately, this
model is not currently available as a dedicated cable model in PSCADr/EMTDCTM . However, for certain cases of transient studies, the J Marti or FD-Mode model can be still used,
provided that a suitable frequency is specified for its transformation matrix [5, 31]. This
model will be further explored in Section 2.5 together with the ULM (FD-Phase model).

2.5

PSCADr /EMTDCTM Cable Models

Literature has shown that modelling the distributed nature and frequency-dependent characteristics of underground cables are absolutely necessary in order to achieve better accuracy
of transient modelling. Two distributed parameter travelling wave models in PSCADr will
be treated in this section - the FD-Mode and FD-Phase models. Performance of these
models are to be compared and presented in Chapter 4.

2.5.1 The FD-Mode Model

This model is based on the theory developed by J Marti [5]. To account for the frequencydependent characteristics, the frequency-dependent quantities are calculated as discrete
functions in the frequency domain. This yields all variables represented as a function of
frequency. Figure 2.1 illustrates the frequency domain equivalent circuit comprising the
sending (node k) and receiving (node m) end terminals of FD-Mode model. Here, Ekhist

Figure 2.1: Single phase frequency domain equivalent circuit of FD-Mode model [27]

18
and Emhist are the wave transfer sources defined from the change of variables method [43]
used for the simplification of mathematical modelling. For example, they can be represented
as forward travelling wave functions at both sending (Fk ) and receiving (Fm ) ends by
Ekhist = (Vm + ZC Im )e = Fm e

(2.7)

Emhist = (Vk + ZC Ik )e = Fk e

(2.8)

where is the total length of the cable. Whereas, the propagation function, A, as a function
of frequency is described by

A() =

1
= e()
cosh[()] sinh[()]

(2.9)

Figure 2.1 depicts a general line model in terms of the characteristic impedance function,
ZC , and the propagation function, A, with the equivalent transfer sources [27,31]. However,
the time domain model is preferred since it is directly compatible with the time domain
solution algorithm in EMTP-type program. Therefore, the time domain form of (2.7) and
(2.8) are evaluated from convolution integrals as

Ekhist (t) =

Emhist (t) =

fm (t u)a1 (u)du

fk (t u)a1 (u)du

(2.10)

(2.11)

The time domain of the propagation constant, a(t) is obtained from inverse Fourier transform and has the form as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The lower limit of the integral, ,
is the travel time and is calculated using the phase constant, (imaginary term), of the
propagation function. Evaluation of the convolution integrals are greatly accelerated using
the recursive convolution [4]. Unlike the constant parameter model, where the constant
parameter lossless line is considered, the characteristic impedance, ZC , in this approach is
synthesised in the frequency domain with an R C network with constant Rs and Cs.

19
Further details on the evaluation of variables for this model are described in [5], whereas,
detailed explanation on how these variables are implemented in EMTDCTM can be found
in [31].

Figure 2.2: Weighting function from J Marti formulation [5]

So far, the formulation of this model has been discussed for a single line representation.
For the case of polyphase lines (or cables), which are mutually coupled, the variables are
firstly decoupled by means of modal decomposition theory [36] using (2.12), (2.13) and
(2.14).
[Vphase ] = [Tv ] [Vmode ]

(2.12)

[Iphase ] = [Ti ] [Imode ]

(2.13)

[T ]Tv = [T ]1
i

(2.14)

The voltage and current variables can be solved individually in the modal domain which is
identical to the treatment of a single phase line. The modal transformation matrices ([Tv ]
and [Ti ]) for matrix diagonalisation used in (2.12) and (2.13) are obtained from eigenvalue
problem and are calculated using cable constant (CC) routines in PSCADr /EMTDCTM .
Consequently, as constant transformation matrices are assumed in this formulation, user
should specify suitable constant frequency for these matrices in PSCADr /EMTDCTM [16].

20

2.5.2 The FD-Phase Model

The FD-Phase approach avoids the matrix diagonalisation and the formulation in modal
domain that occurs in FD-Mode model. Based on the theory by Morched et al. [8], the
formulation of variables is carried out in the phase domain. From the literature, emphasis
has been given to the treatment of the propagation function and characteristic impedance
as they have strong influences on the behaviour of transients in cables. Hence, the critical
part in this formulation is an accurate fitting of the propagation matrix transfer function
(represented as H()) and characteristic admittance (represented as YC ()) in the frequency
domain so that the well-known recursive convolution technique [4] can be employed. The
time domain solution of this model is given by (2.15) [8],

YC V i = 2

n
X
k=1

Hk (t k ) if ar

(2.15)

where V and i are the voltage and current respectively, k is the travelling time and if ar is
the reflected current wave of the receiving end. Hk denotes the modal component of H().
Solution for (2.15) requires H() and YC () to be replaced by a low order rational function
approximation to permit a recursive implementation of convolutions [4]. Fitting of YC is
a straightforward task as it has no time delays and it can be fitted directly in the phase
domain using Vector Fitting (VF) [44] as

si

Him (s)

N
X

cm
s am
m=1

(2.16)

However, fitting of H() is quite difficult as its elements contain modal contributions with
widely different time delays. Firstly, a frequency-dependent transformation matrix is used
to calculate its modes. Then, each mode is fitted using (2.16). Finally, with known values
of poles and time delays from modes, each element of H() is fitted of the form [8]
Ng X
N
X
h(s) =
(
i=1

cm,i
)esi
s

a
m,i
m=1

(2.17)

21
This model is general and theoretically accurate for most overhead lines as well as widely
different modal time delays as found in underground cables. Further detail on the general
aspects of this model are described in [8] and its implementation in PSCADr /EMTDCTM
can be found in [31, 41].

2.6

Analysis of Switching Transient Overvoltages

The preceding sections so far described the modelling related problems of an underground
cable. Selection of a proper model is crucial in transient modelling in achieving better accuracy, particularly at higher frequencies. In addition to this work in studying the behaviour
of transients in electrical systems, this section will further explore the transient overvoltage
distributions due to cable energisation. The most accurate cable model will be selected
(presented in Chapter 4) for this purpose and detailed analysis is presented in Chapter 5.
The information will be useful for future consideration on design of the protective levels in
relation to this class of cable systems.

2.6.1 An Overview of Statistical Switching Studies

Switching overvoltage studies are of primary importance in electric power insulation coordination. Their role has been widely researched [13, 14, 45, 46].

Studies are normally

performed with particular interest in avoiding breakdown, or minimising transient stress on

the insulation systems as well as the transmission and distribution equipment. In general,
characterisation of overvoltage stress may be performed by the following means [18]:
the maximum peak values;
a statistical overvoltage of the peak values;
a statistical overvoltage value generated by particular events with a peak value that
has a 2 % probability of being exceeded.
Simulation using a reliable cable model is one of the approaches that can be used to obtain
such data. Other than a dedicated simulation approach, the particular general considera-

22
tion which is confirmed by different measurements in field also can be adopted. The latter
method has been used in [46] in studying the influence of the cable length and type of
insulation compound on the risk of insulation failures on MV and HV lines. Some statistical switching studies have also been performed in EMTP-type simulators such as a large
scale statistical switching analysis by Lee and Poon [13] and case studies on the impact
of protective devices carried out in [14]. In the case of a long, cross-bonded cable system,
studies on the overvoltage sensitivity stress on the insulation can be found in [45]. Some
general and specific modelling guidelines in relation to switching overvoltage studies are
also provided [47, 48].

2.6.2 Switching Phenomena and Statistical Methods

Switching surges are random in nature as they are affected by many different factors. Two
factors to be further investigated in this work are:
1. The pole span of the circuit breaker (CB) which refers to the time between the first
and the third pole to close.
2. The point-on-wave (POW) of switching angles on the 3-phase closure.
In practice, the breaker poles will not close simultaneously. There will be a small time
gap between poles during the 3-phase closure. The high speed closing of contacts and
their closing times are governed by their mechanical tolerances. Normally, the difference
between the first pole and the third pole to close, especially in extra high voltage (EHV)
and ultra high voltage (UHV) systems, fall in the order of 3 ms to 5 ms [12]. A smaller gap
is expected from medium transmission voltage such as 132 kV system based on the analysis
of measurement data of reference [15].
The second parameter considered is the closing angle, which refers to the point-on-wave
where the CB starts to close. If a contact initiates a close at the peak of the power frequency
(50 Hz) voltage, the corresponding phase will experience higher transient magnitude. Arcing
(pre-strike) might also occur and affect the behaviour of the transient at the circuit breaker

23
terminals. Furthermore, strong coupling effects between phases can cause unexpected high
magnitude and frequency overvoltages. Controlled switching [12], for example, may be used
to make sure closing of contacts at the zero crossings of the power frequency voltage. In
this closing practice, the deviation in pole closing times on 3-phase closing should be small
enough to prevent the pre-strike phenomena. Otherwise, pre-insertion resistors should be
used instead, which cost more [49].
Due to the random behaviour of CB poles during switching, probability analysis is the
most practical way in providing useful data on switching overvoltages. In practice, there
are several analytical methods [50]. However, the statistical study approach is the most
common. Random closing of contacts can be assumed to follow the normal distribution.
Statistics are applied to switching data to derive relevant information suitable for insulation coordination. Cumulative probability distribution of overvoltages is calculated and
compared with the ability of the system to withstand transient overvoltages. An analysis
of several statistical switching evaluation techniques can be found in [51]. Some guidelines
such as the procedures and the reference values are included in the IEC standards [17, 18].
For example, the diagram illustrated in Figure 2.3 may be useful.

Please see print copy for image

Figure 2.3: Range of 2 % slow-front overvoltages at the receiving end due to line energisation
and re-energisation [18]

24

2.7

Summary

This chapter presented an overview of the behaviour of transients due to switching operation on transmission systems. The development of EMTP-type simulation programs was
reviewed with focus given primarily on cable modelling issues. In Section 2.6, the importance
of switching studies was addressed. Of particular interest is in providing relevant data for
the evaluation of insulation coordination and protective schemes for the network.
Over the last 30 years, interest has been primarily focused on the accuracy of transmission line modelling. In other words, underground cable models have not been as exhaustively examined and validated as their overhead line counterparts. Furthermore, it is
unclear whether more sophisticated models or simpler methods should be used for a cable, particularly, when considering modelling and simulation of high frequency behaviour
of transients of underground cable system.
There are two common approaches currently in practice to represent a frequency-dependent
cable model. They are either the formulation in modes (FD-Mode model) or the direct formulation in phase domain (FD-Phase model). Theoretical aspects of these models have been
presented. Literature review also highlighted the advantages of phase domain modelling over
the traditional modal domain approach. However, it is crucial to consider assessment of
both approaches particularly when a suitable model is intended to be used in a specific
network, such as the power system network under study.
The issues stated above are to be investigated by careful simulation, employing the FDMode and FD-Phase models to validate their effectiveness against real-world behaviour.
Then, further studies may be performed on the energisation transient behaviour of a cable
using the most accurate model. The modelling work for such purposes is presented in
Chapter 3.

Chapter 3

PSCADr/EMTDCTM Power System

Model Development
3.1

Introduction

The development of power system network model in PSCADr /EMTDCTM is explained in

this chapter. The majority of data used in this work has been obtained from [15] and [52].
However, conversion of the data from these sources has been made to make the data useable
as input to model described here. The construction of the cable model is the main criteria
in model development where treatment of cable layers is detailed to account for the effect
of semiconducting layers on the system transients.
In this chapter, the power system network located around the underground cable system being considered is first introduced. Then, development of models for the power system
components such as a 132 kV source, double-circuit transmission lines and others are established. Cable modelling is then presented with detailed dimensions and calculation of
its layered construction, material properties and configuration. Then, description of the
implementation of frequency-dependent models to represent the cable system is presented.
The simulation of preliminary PSCADr/EMTDCTM power system model is carried out
without considering the details of circuit breaker pole closing times as obtained from exper25

26
imental measurements. Simulation results obtained from preliminary model for FD-Mode
and FD-Phase approaches are presented and discussed.

3.2

Power System Network

Energising a long cable system is similar to the switching of a capacitive component. This
is due to the complex physical cable construction which has a predominantly capacitive
behaviour. Furthermore, transients developed are influenced by the non-linear characteristics of system components in the vicinity. This means that amplitude, frequency and wave
shape of the current and voltage oscillations are determined by the configuration of the
network as seen from the terminals of switching devices. It is therefore of great importance
to include detailed modelling of these components. For example, as recommended in [53],
specific modelling should be considered on the surrounding network of at least up to one
bus back from the switching location.
The cable to be modelled with a frequency-dependent model is a 132 kV underground
high voltage (HV) cable linking Baulkham Hills transmission substation (BHTS) to Bella
Vista zone substation (BVZS) as illustrated in Figure 3.1 [15]. In this network, power
is supplied by a 132 kV source (upstream) through several kilometres of overhead transmission feeders. Overhead lines are amongst the major components that characterise the
travelling surges from the switching of an underground cable. They are modelled using
the frequency-dependent approach. However, due to lack of detailed modelling data, other
frequency-dependent components such as transformers located near the switching point, are
represented as lumped parameter model. The source and capacitor banks are also developed
based on lumped element models and are included in the circuit. Further details on the
treatment of these components are presented in Section 3.3.

27

Figure 3.1: Single line schematic diagram of power system network under study

3.3

Power System Component Modelling

3.3.1 132 kV Upstream Power Source

From Figure 3.1, beyond the 132 kV source at Sydney West (SWTS) subsystem, there is a
330 kV bus stepped down by two transformers into 132 kV. It is assumed in this practice
that the 132 kV side at Sydney West is a voltage source with some source impedance.
To represent this source, three types of 3-phase voltage source models are available in
PSCADr /EMTDCTM [16]. Voltage source model-3 is not suitable in this exercise as it
permits only external control of voltage.
Based on available source parameter data, either voltage source model-1 or voltage
source model-2 can be used. Model-1 requires its positive and zero sequence impedance
data to be included as series components. While model-2 assumes parallel representation
of its positive and zero sequence impedance values. Care should be taken when selecting
model-1 as the zero sequence parameters need to be included manually using R and L
components attached (at terminal) in series behind the source. Use of the voltage source
model-2 requires conversion of series parameters (valid at 50 Hz) given in the data book [52]
to form the parallel connected RL circuit. Both parallel and series connected RL source

28
models have been used in the simulations, where it was noted that the difference between
the results obtained is marginal as will be demonstrated in Section B.1 of Appendix B.
In this work, source model-2 was used to represent the 132 kV upstream voltage source of
the network in Figure 3.1. The values of positive and zero sequence parameters (resistance,
Rp , and inductance, Lp values at 50 Hz) in the parallel circuit can be obtained from series
sequence components (Rs and Ls ) using the following expressions

Rp =

Rs2 + (Ls )2
Rs

(3.1)

Lp =

Rs2 + (Ls )2
2 Ls

(3.2)

where , is the angular frequency. Table 3.1 provides the input data for the voltage source
model-2, whereas calculation details of sequence impedances are given in Appendix B (Section B.1).

Page
1

2
3
4

Table 3.1: Source model input data of

Input data
Configuration
- Source name
- Source impedance type
- Source control
- Base MVA (3-phase) (MVA)
- Base voltage (L-L, RMS) (kV)
- Base frequency (Hz)
- Voltage input time constant (s)
- Impedance data format
- Specified parameters
Positive sequence Rrl
- Resistance (parallel) ()
- Inductance (parallel) (H)
Zero sequence Rl
- Resistance (parallel) ()
- Inductance (parallel) (H)
Source values for fix control
- Voltage magnitude (L-L, RMS) (kV)
- Frequency (Hz)
- Phase (deg)

voltage source model-2

Values
Src1
R//L
fixed
100
132
50
0.002
RRL values
Behind the source impedance
0.4513
0.0000883
0.3048
0.0001015
132
50
0.0

29

3.3.2 Transmission Lines

For the transmission lines, there are four, double-circuit pairs, twin-conductor overhead
feeders included in the circuit model. Two of them connect Sydney West transmission
substation and Blacktown transmission substation (BTTS) busbars and are approximately
10 km in length. Another set is from Blacktown (BTTS) to Baulkham Hills transmission
substation which is about 5 km in length, while approximately 7 km lines also connected
from Baulkham Hills to Carlingford transmission substation (CFTS). They are supported
by double circuit steel towers (DCST) each having a height of approximately 12 to 23 metres
above the ground [52].
Modelling of these lines can be performed in several ways in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . It
depends on the availability of input data as well as the expected study results. A simple
overhead line model can be established employing a double circuit pi section. However,
in taking into account the frequency dependence effect using frequency-dependent models,
more detailed line input data may be required. Either manual entry of sequence impedance
data or details of tower data may be entered to perform a more complex overhead line
model.
In this work, as no suitable pre-defined tower model is available, the universal tower
model was used. The overhead line input data was used by the line constant (LC) calculation routines for the calculation of line impedance and admittance matrices. Also, in this
work, the FD-phase model has been selected to represent transmission lines because it is
more general and recommended by PSCADr/EMTDCTM [16]. Appendix B (Section B.1)
provides details of the input data for all four sets of transmission lines. Figure 3.2 illustrates
the overhead line geometry data input as used in PSCADr /EMTDCTM .

30

Figure 3.2: Overhead line representation in PSCADr /EMTDCTM

3.3.3 Transformer and Capacitor Bank

In modelling the effect of distribution transformers to switching transients, the high frequency model should be used. However, due to inadequacy of available data, the default
three-phase, three-winding model in PSCADr /EMTDCTM was used to represent the transformers at Baulkham Hills transmission substation.
The effects that the transformer has on the system transient is a significant problem
and has been widely discussed. High frequency transformer model is either modelled using
a detailed internal winding model or terminal model. Further details on the high frequency
modelling of a transformer can be found in [5456].
There are also shunt capacitor banks installed at the secondary side of each transformer
at Baulkham Hills transmission substation. They are modelled as an equivalent capacitor
to ground. In theory, this lumped model again may not have significant influence on the
behaviour of the transient as the frequency might extend up to the order of tens of kilohertz.
The parameter calculation for including the model of transformers and capacitor banks at
Baulkham Hills busbars (sending end of the cable) is included in Appendix B (Section B.1).

31

3.4

Underground cable

3.4.1 Physical Construction and Material Properties

Modelling of the 132 kV underground cable system has been the main task of this thesis
and it has been carefully treated to account for the frequency-dependent effects and wide
frequency variations of underground cable energisation transients.
The cable is an XLPE type, single core (copper) conductor of 630 mm2 cross-sectional
area. To model the layers and properties that closely resemble a cable in a real system,
the measurement of the radial thickness of the cable has been based on the data stated by
manufacturer (see Appendix B (Section B.2)) and that from the cable sample. Figure 3.3
shows the cross-section of the cable sample, and Table 3.2 gives the radial measurements of
the various layers.

Figure 3.3: Cable cross-section

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 3.2: Cable layers radial measurements

Layer
Core conductor
Inner ins. semiconducting carbon loaded XLPE
Pure XLPE
Outer ins. semiconducting carbon loaded XLPE
Copper wire screen (Sheath)
Aluminium foil
PVC inner serving
HDPE outer serving

Radius (m)
0.01525
0.01675
0.03525
0.03725
0.03975
0.04025
0.04275
0.04525

32
The values in Table 3.2 have been used to calculate the capacitance between cylindrical
shells to validate the existing measurements based on example given in [28] (Equation (10)).
It has been found that the new capacitance value was approximately 10 % lower than the
value given by the manufacturer. Apparently in this case, a smaller value of the thickness of
the layer has been provided by the manufacturer. Therefore, from this example, it is important to consider measurement of cable layers from both the data stated from manufacturer
and a cable sample.
However, the data given in Table 3.2 are not the final input data required. For the conductor and insulator properties, as well as the sheath radius, it is also necessary to convert
the existing data to a new set of data to account for inner and outer semiconducting layers
and the air gaps that exist within the stranded core. This is a crucial procedure in the transient simulation of a cable since cable constant (CC) routines in PSCADr /EMTDCTM [31]
only perform calculations based on a simplified configuration of a coaxial cable (detailed
in Appendix A (Section A.2)). It has also been shown that these additional layers have
a significant impact on the wave propagation characteristics in cable system [28]. Figure
3.4 depicts a geometrical representation of a coaxial cable in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . From
Figure 3.4, it is apparent that the cable core is treated as a solid conductor (1st conductor)
rather than stranded wires with air gaps. Similarly, the sheath is represented as a tubular conductor (2nd conductor). To account for such physical conditions the corrected core
resistivity value, 1 , can be calculated using (3.3) [28]

1 =

c r12
A

(3.3)

where c =1.678E-8 m is the original core resistivity value for copper and A is the crosssectional area of the conductor. Similarly for the relative permittivity of XLPE insulator,
1 , it can be calculated with (3.4)
1 =

C ln rr21
20

(3.4)

33

Figure 3.4: Cable input data in PSCADr /EMTDCTM

where C is the cable capacitance as stated by manufacturer and 0 =8.854E-12 F/m. The new
sheath radius, r3 , when considering it as a tubular conductor can be obtained from (3.5) [28]

r3 =

Ash
+ r22

(3.5)

where Ash is the total cross-sectional area of cable sheath as stated by manufacturer. The
thickness of outer layers (PVC and HDPE) has been measured to be approximately 5 mm.
Therefore, the new value for the 2nd insulator was approximated as 0.043087 m. Values
for the sheath resistivity, 2 , and the relative electrical permittivity of 2nd insulator, 2 ,
remain unchanged as in [15], while the relative magnetic permeability was assumed to be
identical for all layers (r =1). Table 3.3 depicts the final converted data entered into
PSCADr /EMTDCTM cable model. Impedance (z) and admittance (y) matrices are calculated by CC routines based on the geometrical and physical properties input data entered
by user. The supporting routines were originally developed based on the simplified coaxial
cable geometry model where details can be found in [34, 35].

34
Table 3.3: Cable dimensions and material properties input data
Outer
Resistivity, Relative electrical Relative magnetic
Radius, (m) (m)
permittivity
permeability
Conductor, r1
0.01525
1.946E-8
1
st
1 insulator, r2
0.03725
3.052
1
Sheath, r3
0.038087
1.678E-8
1
2nd insulator, r4
0.043087
3.125
1
Layer

3.4.2 Cable Configuration

The three, single core cables are buried underground in ducts in a tre-foil configuration
as displayed in Figure 3.5 (b). This arrangement is a common practice in HV cables and
is preferred over the flat arrangement, in order to minimise the electromagnetic coupling
effects between conductors. The measurement details of their arrangement are as shown in
Figure 3.5 and Table 3.4 displays the final values of X and Y co-ordinates of all phases.
Table 3.4: Cable coordinates input data
X position (m)
Y position (m)

Cable C1

Cable C2

Cable C3

0
1.1985

0.11
1.0075

0.22
1.1985

The ground resistivity was assumed at 100 m based on default value in PSCADr/EMTDCTM .
It was approximated based on Carsons homogeneous earth formula [57]. Users can select
either analytical approximation or numerical integration for the solution to the ground
impedance integral. It is recommended to use the analytical approximation due to time
savings and numerical stability. However, if accuracy is concerned, the latter option can be
selected instead [16].
There are more than two joints along the cable route. Therefore, cross-bonding is a
practice for this cable to further minimise transient stress on the joints introduced by circulating current within the sheaths and cable core. Cross-bonding configuration of sheaths
are divided into two major sections as illustrated in Figure 3.5. Each cross-bonded minor
section is terminated by sheath voltage limiters (SVL), which are grounded with the equivalent earthing impedances (RSV L ). Major sections are directly earthed and represented

35
as resistance to ground (Rmat ) for the corresponding substations ground mat. The selection of adequate rating for SVLs and ground resistance values are explained in [2]. The
hypothetical representation of the cross-bonding of the cable and physical configuration of
phases as depicted in Figure 3.5 is adopted from [2, 15].

Figure 3.5: Cross-bonding and configuration of the cable

3.5

Inclusion of FD-Mode and FD-Phase Models in the Simulation

3.5.1 Frequency-dependent Parameter Settings

As described in Chapter 2 (Sections 2.5.1 and 2.5.2), accurate modelling of frequencydependent systems require evaluation of propagation and surge impedance (or admittance)
transfer functions in the frequency domain. This is achieved through the curve fitting (CF)
algorithm which calculates the poles and zeros of the cable transfer function according to a
known frequency. An explanation on how this program works can be found in [31].

36
In PSCADr /EMTDCTM , the user can freely change some parameters of the curve
fitting algorithm to adapt to the specific requirements. For instance, frequency range can
be defined for the operation of curve fitting. By default, the range is set between 0.5 Hz and
1 MHz. It is important to note that the choice of the lower frequency limit has an influence
on the line or effective conductance of the cable. The number of poles can also be set
based on the simulation requirement. The total number of poles used in the calculation will
depend on the maximum allowed error (in percent) between curves set by the user. Once
the program uses all the poles, a constant approximation will take place for all remaining
higher frequencies.
Another important feature is the least squares weighting factor. It can be set for three
different frequency ranges; 0 to 50 Hz, 50 Hz and 50 Hz to higher. The user can set which
frequency range should be emphasised for more precise calculation. Each factor can be set
as any number (default=1) which implies that the higher the factor, the smaller the error
will be.
The main difference in the implementation of FD-Phase and FD-Mode models is the
specific frequency increment setting required by the FD-Phase model, while for the FDMode model, a constant frequency needs to be specified for the operation of the modal
transformation matrix [16]. This clearly shows the difference between these two models, as
different assumptions are used in the handling of frequency-dependent modal transformation
matrix. In this case, it is possible in the FD-Phase model to set frequency increments of
up to 1000 frequencies (lowest setting is 100 frequencies), which means that cable constants
(CC) will perform the curve fitting for 1000 frequencies equally spaced on a log scale.
For the FD-Mode model, the constant transformation matrix was set to be approximated
in the order of tens of kilohertz. This value was based on previous experience in measurement
that the frequency range extends up to several tens of kilohertz during energisation of cables
in unloaded condition [15]. Care should be taken in setting-up the curve fitting parameters
as instability in the simulation may occur. For example, highly demanding requirements
might slow down the simulation and generate more error warnings. The log file should

37
always be checked as a guide for settings and also to ensure a stable simulation.

3.5.2 Simulation Step Size and Simulation Time

In the determination of adequate solution time step, it is known from Figure 3.5 that the
shortest cable length (referring to shortest cable section defined in model) is approximately
0.855 km. In typical cables, depending on the surge impedance of the cable, the surges will
travel at about half the speed of light which is approximately 1.5108 m/s. Therefore, the
choice of an appropriate simulation time step should be below 5.7 s. In this case, 0.1 s was
used. Accordingly, as the performance of these models will be assessed by comparison with
existing measurement data of the current energisation transient [15], the simulation time
was set to run for 30 ms. This was achieved by simply employing the snapshot feature
which allows switching after a stable run (when power frequency voltage peak reached
approximately

2
3

132 kV). The output data for the simulation using preliminary power

system model is then processed in MATLABr which is discussed in Section 3.6.

3.6

Results from Simulation of Preliminary PSCADr /EMTDCTM Model

The modelled power system network up to this stage is considered as a preliminary model
since the simulation was performed without the inclusion of details replicating the real
energisation test (as from measurement data). The purpose of simulation is to validate
the stability of the constructed power system model. Observation has been made as to
the behaviour of current and voltage transients during cable energisation. Identification of
potential areas of improvement for the existing model was also sought.
In the simulation, simultaneous closure of the circuit breaker was assumed. Steady
state power was supplied to the downstream with no loads connected at the terminating
connection of the cable as well as at the substation busbars. The cable was then energised by
switching the CB at the sending end at Baulkham Hills transmission substation. Figures 3.6
and 3.7 depict the current transient of each phase predicted by FD-Mode and FD-Phase
models respectively at the instant of switching.

From these figures, identical waveforms

38
Simulated current transients of preliminary FDMode model ( [ T ] = 10kHz)
1
0.5
0
0.5

Current (kA)

1
0
1

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.5
0
0.5
1
0
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

Figure 3.6: Simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom) phase current transients
of preliminary model using FD-Mode approach with modal [T ] set at 10 kHz
Simulated current transients of preliminary FDPhase model
1
0.5
0

Current (kA)

0.5
1
0
1

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.5
0
0.5
1
0
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

Figure 3.7: Simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom) phase current transients
of preliminary model using FD-Phase approach

39
are observed from both models with only a small deviation (approximately 2 %) of the
transient peak magnitudes for each phase. The transient envelope also decays almost at the
same time in approximately 15 to 20 ms.
Referring to the point-on-wave closing of the CB poles on the respective phases, as in
this case, red phase power frequency voltage was at the highest magnitude compared to
blue and white counterparts. Also, during this instant, blue and white phase instantaneous
magnitudes were negative values. It is evident from these waveforms that the situation is
similar to the behaviour of transients for the case of switching of a capacitor bank [20].
For FD-mode model, it is important to approximate the modal transformation matrix
accurately. For example, as can be seen in Figure 3.8, current transients seem largely different compared to the waveforms in Figures 3.6 and 3.7, where all phases exhibit relatively
higher transient magnitudes. The overvoltage transient at Baulkham Hills transmission
substation is also simulated which is displayed in Figure 3.9. It is clear that the overvoltage
magnitudes, especially of the red phase, rise to nearly 200 kV (1.86 pu).
Simulated current transients of preliminary FDMode model ( [ T ] = 50 Hz)
1
0.5
0
0.5

Current (kA)

1
0
1

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.5
0
0.5
1
0
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

Figure 3.8: Simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom) phase current transients
of preliminary model using FD-Mode approach with modal [T ] set at 50 Hz

40

Voltage (kV)

Simulated BHTS busbar voltage during cable energisation (FDPhase model)

200
100
0
100
200
0

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure 3.9: Overvoltage transients at the sending end of the cable

In the real-world, simultaneous closure of CB contacts rarely occur. There will be small
time gaps between them. The simulation model will be further refined, to include CB pole
closing times that closely match the actual measurement condition. The simulated waveforms will be analysed by comparison with measurement data. Furthermore, the frequency
response of each model will be extensively investigated in Chapter 4.

3.7

Summary

In this chapter, the test system for the analysis of FD-Mode and FD-Phase models was
developed. Of primary importance is the frequency-dependent behaviour of system components. Accordingly, careful treatment of the underground cable network has been presented.
Particular care was taken in accounting for the effects of semiconducting layers on the system transients.
Results from the preliminary simulation indicate the general behaviour of transients
developed which are very similar to the case of switching of a capacitor bank. They also
revealed the general characteristics of FD-Phase approach which is much more consistent
over a wide range of frequencies. FD-Mode model, on the other hand, requires careful
selection of its constant frequency for approximation of the modal transformation matrices.
In Chapter 4, the model is to be further refined to match the real-life behaviour for
the case of switching of an underground cable. The key points include incorporation of
pole switching times of CB and also identification of suitable constant frequency modal

41
transformation of FD-Mode model. For both models, curve fitting (CF) parameters are to
be optimised for better accuracy along with a stable run of simulation program.

Chapter 4

Cable Energisation Transient

Behaviour and Assessment of
Cable Models
4.1

Introduction

The preceding chapter highlighted the treatment of system components in the considered
power system network to develop a sufficiently accurate model in PSCADr /EMTDCTM .
Based on the preliminary model simulation results, some suggestions arise. Particularly,
for the underground cable model, employing the FD-Mode approach would require an appropriate constant frequency to cater for precise operation within the expected frequency
range. On the other hand, FD-Phase model is more general which enables calculation over
a wide range of frequencies. In addition, inclusion of these cable models should be organised carefully, particularly in the selection of suitable parameters for the curve fitting (CF)
algorithm to avoid unnecessary warning errors and instability in the simulation.
This chapter explains procedures undertaken during cable energisation tests carried out
in August 2007. The measured current transient data are analysed to select one suitable set
of results to be used as a benchmark for the purpose of detailed comparison with simulation
42

43
outcomes from each cable model. Taking into account several issues discussed in Chapter 3,
the power system model is modified accordingly, such as incorporating the pole switching
times of the circuit breaker (CB). For the FD-Mode model, a suitable frequency for constant
modal transformation matrix is also determined. Analysis of results from both cable model
simulations is then presented and compared with measurement data. The main criteria
includes the ability of the models to predict the following:
Transient amplitudes in time domain.
Transient envelope times in time domain.
Frequency domain response.

4.2

Experimental Energisation Tests

4.2.1 Measurement Method

A suitable measuring probe is necessary for the measurement of high frequency current
transients. For the case under study, it should be able to detect the current transients
within the range of up to at least several tens of kilohertz based on the information provided
in [20]. Despite a number of measurement transducers available, the Rogowski coil offers a
range of benefits. It is an ideal apparatus for measuring high frequency current transients,
as it provides an isolated current measurement which does not load the measured circuit.
This high-current transducer has an excellent bandwidth comparable to other measurement
transducers such as the coaxial shunt. For example, the one used in this project has the
capability of measuring current transients of up to 50 kHz, which is considered sufficient for
this test. During the test, two Rogowski coils were attached to the blue and white phases,
close to the CB at Baulkham Hills substation. The overall test set-up is as illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
For the test procedure, the cable was first isolated by opening the sending and remote
end circuit breakers. Then, the loads at sending and remote end busbars were also disconnected to reduce their impact on the transient waveforms to be observed. A period of

44

Figure 4.1: Diagram illustrating cable energisation test set-up

time (approximately 10 minutes) was used to allow the capacitive elements to fully discharge. Finally the sending end circuit breaker was closed to energise the cable and the
resulting high frequency current transients data were recorded. An oscilloscope was used
for recording the data. The sampling rate was set at 250 kHz. A total of four energisation
tests were performed. Analyses of these waveforms are presented in Section 4.2.2.

4.2.2 Measured Current Transient Waveforms

The measured blue and white phase current transients from the four energisation tests
undertaken are as displayed in Figure 4.2. As seen from Figure 4.2, all waveforms exhibit
high current magnitudes in the order of 500 A to nearly 1000 A. At the instant of switching,
the phase with higher instantaneous voltage magnitude is likely to force the current to rise
higher than the other phases. The peak values are also dependent on several other factors
such as the degree of electromagnetic coupling among cables, trapped-charge in cables,
pre-strike phenomena as well as mechanical influences inherent in the CB.
Under normal operating conditions, multiple transient stresses may be felt by cables and
nearby system components due to the varying nature of system parameters. The impact of
transients from energisation and re-energisation of cables is introduced by many direct and
indirect factors such as periodical maintenance, system faults, fault clearing, load rejection

45

500

Current (A)

500
0
500
1000
0.05

Current (A)

Blue and white phase current transients (test 2)

1000

500

500

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0
500
0

0.05
0.1
Time (s)

0.15

500

Current (A)

500

1000
0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

500

500

Current (A)

1000

1000
0.05

0.05
0.1
Time (s)

0.15

0.2

0.2

0.05
0.1
Time (s)

0.15

0.2

500

1000

500

0.15

1000
0.05

0.2

0.1

Blue and white phase current transients (test 4)

1000

500

0.05

500

1000

1000
0.05

0.2

Blue and white phase current transients (test 3)

Current (A)

500

1000

1000
0.05

Current (A)

1000
0.05
1000

Current (A)

Current (A)

Blue and white phase current transients (test 1)

1000

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.05
0.1
Time (s)

0.15

0.2

0
500
1000
0.05

Figure 4.2: Blue (top) and white (bottom) phase current transients from each measurement
for example. The transient envelope for these tests decays at a repeatable rate. This time
is within approximately 10 ms. The system damping depends on the portion of resistive
elements in the circuit. After approximately 30 ms, the 50 Hz charging current is recorded to
be in the average of 21 A (cable length is approximately 5.6 km long). This data correlates
well with the data quoted by manufacturer which is around 3.7 A/km.

46

4.2.3 Data for Comparison

Based on an analysis of suitability of data in Figure 4.2, the third set of test data was
used as a benchmark for comparison with results simulated from FD-Mode and FD-Phase
models (presented in Section 4.4). It was chosen since the transient peak magnitudes and
the transient envelope times were at the average values. It also has minimal impact in terms
of mechanical influences from the circuit breaker.
The details of the blue and white phase current transient data are depicted in Figure 4.3.
In Figure 4.3, the signals are displayed for 30 ms following the energisation of the cable.
The transient envelope time for the blue phase is approximately 13 ms whereas the white
phase transient envelope is seen to last 10 ms. The blue phase current magnitude peak is
713 A whereas the white phase shows a peak approximately equal to 527 A. Lower peak
magnitude for the white phase current is due to the lower instantaneous voltage magnitude
at switching. The waveforms seem naturally distorted due to strong electromagnetic coupling effects between phases. The mechanical influences from CB contacts are also obvious,
for example, chatter bounce is seen to interfere with the transient waveforms which occur
at time approximately 2 ms. These criteria are to be further discussed in Section 4.4.3.
Measured blue phase current transient (test 3)
Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
0.025
Time (s)
Measured white phase current transient (test 3)

0.03

1000
Current (A)

waveform distorted naturally

500
0
500
1000

impact of CB chatter bounce

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure 4.3: Blue (top) and white (bottom) phase current transients from third measurement

47
It is also apparent that relatively high frequency transients are confined within the first
millisecond after energisation. At the instant of CB closure initiation, the blue and white
phase current amplitudes varied from zero to -587 A and -247 A respectively. This gives a
clear indication that the power frequency (50 Hz) voltage magnitudes of the blue and white
phases are negative values at the instant of switching. Such information is useful when
incorporating CB switching times in the simulation.
Other than the time domain comparison, the frequency response analysis of cable models
are also to be carried out. The intention is to measure the ability of models in predicting
the dominant peaks in the frequency spectrum. The energy spectral density (ESD) plots
of the current transient signals are provided. In theory, an accurate model should be able
to simulate the component frequency behaviour over the specified calculation range. This
analysis is based on evaluation methodology used in [10, 15].
To prepare the frequency domain plots, it is necessary to avoid low frequency signals
from dominating the frequency spectrum. This is achieved by filtering the raw signals using
MATLABr with a third order high pass Butterworth filter with the cut-off frequency set
at 200 Hz. Frequency components below this boundary are then attenuated. It has been
established in [15], that the third order filter is deemed sufficient for this case. The filtered
waveform is then converted into the frequency domain by means of an FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform). The frequency spectrum of the corresponding blue and white phase current
transients are as illustrated in Figure 4.4. From Figure 4.4, it is evident that the frequency
spectrum of blue and white phase signals are dominant in the range of 250 Hz to 10 kHz.
The major peaks of signal energy in this range occur at 1.1 kHz, 1.8 kHz, 2.9 kHz and
5.8 kHz. Measured data (time and frequency domain plots) for the first, second and fourth
tests are included in Appendix C (Section C.1).
The major criteria of measured current transients discussed in this section are to be
compared with results obtained from simulation of both cable models. However, this data
was obtained from measurement in the field where the CB poles no longer behave in an
ideal manner. To include this behaviour in the simulation model, pole closing times were

48
Blue phase frequency spectrum (test 3)
Magnitude

30
20
10
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)
White phase frequency spectrum (test 3)

Magnitude

10

0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 4.4: Frequency spectrum of blue (top) and white (bottom) phase current transients
measured and analysed. The outcome of this analysis is presented in Section 4.2.4.

4.2.4 Analysis of the CB Pole Closing Times

Identification of the closing time for each pole during the cable energisation test is established by measuring the line voltage at the secondary of voltage transformer (VT) located
at the sending end of the cable. The VT has the transformation ratio of 132 kV/110 V.
From analysis of the measured red-to-white and white-to-blue voltage waveforms and based
on [10], it is known that the red phase CB contact is the first to close followed by white
and blue phases. The related waveform with the corresponding pole switching times are as
illustrated in Figure 4.5. The instantaneous peaks are believed to be the times where the
contacts initiate their closure. The closing times are marked for the corresponding phase
poles. From this measurement, the time span between the first and third pole to close
is approximately 0.44 ms. Normally, in HV breakers, the maximum span can be up to 3
ms [12]. Pole closing times for the first, second and fourth measurements are displayed in
Appendix C (Section C.2).

49
Instantaneous line voltage (Vredwhite) at secondary of VT (test 3)
Voltage (V)

400

1.738E5 (red)
4.574E4 (blue)

200
0

3.894E4 (white)

200
400
0.5

0.5

1.5
Time (s)

2.5

3
3

x 10

Figure 4.5: Determination of CB pole closing times from third energisation test

4.3

Model Refinement and Simulation

4.3.1 Implementation of CB Pole Closing Times to the Circuit Model

The preliminary power system model is modified in such a way that allows the CB pole
switching times to be applied. As explained in Chapter 3 (Section 3.5), snapshot file is
saved (at time t) after the steady state power frequency (50 Hz) voltage peak of each phase
reached the nominal value at

2
3

132 kV. Depending on the voltage input time constant

of the source model (set by the user), a stable running simulation may be achieved after
at least one cycle. In this simulation, the snapshot is recorded at the time t=0.0375 s, as
illustrated in Figure 4.6. This value is inferred based on the point-on-wave where the CB
initiates a close as observed in the measurement data. The magnitude and direction of
power frequency voltage of each phase at this instant is similar to the situation as described
in Chapter 3 (Section 3.6), where the blue phase is more negative than the white phase.
In general, it is difficult to anticipate the exact point-on-wave for the closure of the CB.
The technique used in this simulation is based on the available measurement data and
reference [10].

Figure 4.6: Establishment of CB pole closing times in PSCADr /EMTDCTM

50

4.3.2 Simulation
From measurement data, the current transients were recorded for approximately 30 ms after
the energisation. To capture points between zero to 30 ms, the simulation is re-run from
the snapshot file for about 30 ms. Another crucial aspect to be considered is the simulation
time step. Setting up a smaller time step may increase the degree of accuracy as more
points can be calculated. However, it results in a very slow simulation that sometimes
yields numerical instability and produces subsequent error messages. Based on guidelines
described in Chapter 3 (Section 3.5), the simulation time step of 0.1 s is used and is
considered adequate for this simulation.

4.4

Comparison of Results Predicted by FD-Mode and FD-Phase Models

4.4.1 Simulation using FD-Mode Model

It is obvious from the example discussed in Chapter 3 (Section 3.6) that this model is capable of simulating high frequency transients provided that a suitable constant frequency is
selected for the model to calculate accurately the cable parameters. Therefore, the important task in the inclusion of this model is the selection of suitable frequency for the modal
transformation matrix. Several frequencies ranging from 5 kHz to 30 kHz have been tested.
It was found that the model produces a consistent result for the frequencies ranging between
10 kHz to 20 kHz. Setting up a lower frequency than this range for modal transformation
resulted in excessively high current peaks. In contrast, a lower peak is produced for a constant frequency higher than 20 kHz. This revealed one of the difficulties when incorporating
FD-Mode model. In this simulation, 15 kHz was deemed adequate for its operation.
Consequently, the maximum allowed fitting error for curve fitting (CF) calculation is
set to be as low as 0.1 % for both surge impedance and propagation transfer function.
Employing the model for ac cable generally requires accuracy at fundamental (assumed
50 Hz) and higher frequencies for transient analysis. This range is emphasised for accurate
calculation by setting up a constant value of 1000 for the weighting factor.

51
The time domain current transient results are as shown in Figure 4.7. In Figure 4.7,
the simulated blue, white and red phase current magnitudes are 751 A, 513 A and 1077 A
respectively. Accuracy in applying switching times ensures the blue phase peak is larger
than white phase peak in the simulation. Comparing these values to the experimental
data, especially of the blue and white phases, gives amplitudes of similar order for the
corresponding phases. The difference from measured values are around 5.1 % and 2.7 %
respectively for blue and white phases. Slight differences in the simulated and actual pointon-wave at which each CB contact closes is one of the major criteria that governed the
behaviour of these transient peaks.
However, the transient envelope times varied significantly. The model approximated
the transient envelope to last 20 ms for blue phase and 15 ms for white and red phases
respectively. This indicates that system damping plays a significant role in dissipating the
energy arising from transients in cable energisation. For the case of measurement data, it
appears that there is still some amount of resistive load near the switching point (sending
end) which help the transients to decay faster. On the other hand, for simulated results,
no resistive components (loads) were added to the simulation model. As a consequence,
the magnitude of oscillation transients was diminishing naturally as a result of system
impedances mostly from the cable, overhead lines and other power system components.
Incorporating system loads is difficult due to their varying characteristics and often detailed
parameters are unavailable.
The consistency of this model is further verified by comparing frequency domain response
as illustrated in Figure 4.8. In this figure, the frequency spectrum seems very poor and
only several dominant peaks can be seen for each phase compared to the measured data
in Figure 4.4. The dominant peaks of blue, white and red phases only occur at 1.5 kHz,
2.2 kHz and 8.7 kHz which is clearly inconsistent with the dominant peaks of the measured
data.

52
Simulated current transients of FDMode model ( [T] = 15 kHz )
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

1
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Current (kA)

1
0.5
0
0.5

Figure 4.7: Simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom) phase time domain
current transients using FD-Mode model
Frequency spectrum of current transients of FDMode model
0.4

0.2

Magnitude

0 2
10
0.3

10

10

10

0.2
0.1
0 2
10
0.5

10

10

10

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 4.8: Frequency spectrum of simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom)
phase current transients using FD-Mode model

53

4.4.2 Simulation using FD-Phase Model

The FD-Phase model is more general and suitable for a wider range of frequencies. It
may be used for modelling underground dc and ac cables, and is theoretically suitable to
be used for overhead lines of asymmetrical configuration. The advantage of this model
over the FD-Mode model is its flexibility as no constant transformation matrix needs to be
specified. It is directly formulated in the phase domain and assumes frequency dependence
of the internal transformation matrix [16]. Therefore, only the curve fitting (CF) algorithm
parameter needs to be carefully specified for consistent operation of this model.
For the CF controls, this model is set to operate between the range of 0.5 Hz to 1 MHz
(default). Within this range, the cable constant (CC) routines calculate around 500 frequencies spaced evenly on a log scale. A weighting factor is specified to emphasise calculation
around fundamental and higher frequencies which is the same values set for the FD-Mode
model. The maximum fitting error for approximating the surge admittance and propagation function is set to be as low as 0.8 %. An attempt has been made to set a lower error,
however the model resulted in a significant error in numerical calculations due to unstable
poles [58]. Furthermore, considerably longer run times were required for the solution. The
current transient plots approximated using this model are depicted in Figure 4.9.
The waveforms as seen in Figure 4.9, exhibit identical shape, amplitudes and transient
envelope times compared to the simulated results from FD-Mode model. This implies
good agreement of the modal transformation setting for FD-Mode model at 15 kHz. From
Figure 4.9, the transient envelope times of blue and white phases are around 20 ms and
15 ms respectively. Consequently, the transient peak magnitudes predicted are 736 A,
514 A and 1086 A for blue, white and red phases respectively. This reveals the consistency
of this model, which is only slightly different to amplitudes obtained from measured data,
specifically of the blue and white phases. Only around 3.1 % (blue phase) and 2.5 %
(white phase) deviation to the peaks is observed compared to measurement data. This
discrepancy is explained by the dissimilarity of the point-on-wave closure of CB contacts
between simulated and what actually occurs under experimental test.

54
Simulated current transients of FDPhase model
1
0.5
0
0.5

Current (kA)

1
0
1

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.5
0
0.5
1
0
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

Figure 4.9: Simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom) phase time domain
current transients using FD-Phase model
Frequency spectrum of current transients of FDPhase model
0.4

0.2

Magnitude

0 2
10
0.3

10

10

10

0.2
0.1
0 2
10
0.5

10

10

10

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 4.10: Frequency spectrum of simulated blue (top), white (middle) and red (bottom)
phase current transients using FD-Phase model

55
Referring to the frequency response of this model based on the frequency domain plots
displayed in Figure 4.10, it again reveals an inconsistency of this model in predicting dominant peaks for simulated current signals. The resonant peaks are at 1.5 kHz, 2.2 kHz and
8.7 kHz, which are similar to the case approximated by FD-Mode model. Again, there
would appear to be no commonality regarding dominant peaks relative to the measured
data. The discrepancies observed from simulated data of FD-Mode and FD-Phase models
are further discussed in Section 4.4.3.

4.4.3 Implication from Measured and Simulated Data

The simulated data from both models have been practically compared with measured current transients resulting from energisation of a 3-phase underground cable. Two major
parameters have been considered for the comparison in the time domain to asses the ability
of models to predict transient amplitudes and the corresponding transient envelope times.
In general, both models give a stable and consistent current transient (especially the peak
magnitudes) with no numerical instabilities for the 30 ms simulation as shown in Figures 4.7
and 4.9. Both models, especially the FD-Phase model, demonstrated a good agreement for
the steady state charging current which is approximately between 19 A and 21 A as illustrated in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Steady-state 50 Hz charging current predicted by FD-Phase model for the
cable under test (5651 m long)
However, the wave-shape of simulated data differed considerably from those observed
in the measurement data. The frequency response is also very poor with small number of
dominant frequencies as seen in simulated data. These discrepancies can be explained using

56
several considerations.
Firstly, the strong coupling effects between cables at high frequencies exist, for example,
the impact of cable sheath and conductor on the system transients. At high frequencies,
a cable exhibits strong capacitive behaviour due to the distributed capacitances between
sheath and conductor. Furthermore, when it comes to energising a 3-phase cable, the
conductors and sheaths of all cables are mutually coupled. Increasing the frequency, results
in strong electromagnetic coupling which, as a result, affects the evaluation of the impedance
(z) and admittance (y) matrices of the cable.
The second factor may be due to the existing trapped charges in the cable. As described
in Section 4.2.1, before the cable was energised, it had been isolated for approximately 10
minutes to allow capacitive discharge. In this case, the capacitive energy may not be
completely diminished. This would alter the overall behaviour of transients as seen in
measurement data.
There are also influences from the CB, for example, the arc between the CB contacts.
In this case, there is a tendency for arc to occur at any time between the contact start to
close and its final closure. This phenomena is also known as pre-strike which depends on
the closing speed of CB contacts. Further information regarding this factor can be found
in [49]. Another possibility is the mechanical influences. However, it is beyond the scope of
this study and is not of interest in this work.
Finally, another possible factor is the impact of the frequency-dependent nature of distribution transformers. It is difficult to model the frequency-dependent transformer behaviour. Complexities are pronounced at higher frequencies as the non-linear characteristics
significantly increase due to an increase in frequency. Therefore, transient behaviour affected
by transformers in the vicinity can be modelled provided that both non-linear behaviour
and its frequency-dependent effects are taken into account. These approaches unfortunately
have been neglected due to the unavailability of data such as the nameplate information.
Figure 4.12 shows a useful example of a high frequency transformer model. Using this
model, the winding lumped stray capacitance and the phase to ground capacitance values

57
can be obtained using frequency scan features in PSCADr /EMTDCTM [16].

Please see print copy for image

Figure 4.12: High frequency transformer model suitable for 50 Hz - 20 kHz frequency
intervals [56]
The factors discussed greatly influence the measured current transients in Figure 4.3.
In reality, a large number of frequency components exist, particularly within the first 1 ms
following the energisation. When closely analysed the behaviour of current transients seen
in Figure 4.3, the blue phase current tends to respond and rise quickly at the instant of
white phase contact closure. Such phenomena unfortunately failed to be duplicated by the
simulation model. However, based on the comparison from available data, it is apparent
that the FD-Phase approach is more suitable to simulate energisation transient of the cable.
This is purely because of the ability to predict transient magnitudes more accurately.

4.5

Overvoltage Transient Behaviour for the System Under Study

The short duration current transient produced, as in the case of cable energisation, might
also produce corresponding voltage transients. Considerable transient stress can be felt
across the main insulation of the cable and also the outer casing due to induced voltages.
Transients introduced along cable sheath are also severe which, in many cases, requires
the use of sheath voltage limiters. Suitable surge arresters are normally installed at either
sending or receiving end of cable and sheath or both. Similarly, they are also found in cross-

58
bonded link boxes to divert the travelling surges in sheaths of a long cross-bonded cable
systems. The selection of rating of surge arrester and sheath bonding or grounding design
on cables are dictated by parameters set by either manufacturer or the relevant electricity
authority.
To enable analysis of overvoltage behaviour, instantaneous voltages are measured at certain points within the power system network under study. The simulation was performed
using FD-Phase cable model. Figure 4.13 depicts the voltages across main insulation measured at sending and receiving ends of the cable near the circuit breakers.
Simulated sending end overvoltage transients
Voltage (kV)

200
100
0
100
200
0

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
0.025
Time (s)
Simulated receiving end overvoltage transients

0.005

0.01

0.03

Voltage (kV)

200
100
0
100
200
0

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure 4.13: Overvoltage transients at sending and receiving end terminals

From Figure 4.13, once the cable is energised, the surge impedance and the open circuit
end of the cable result in heavily modal reflections causing a large increase in the sheath
voltages. Insulation systems near the switching point (sending end) are subject to a transient voltage magnitude of the red phase of approximately 181 kV (1.68 pu), whereas at
the receiving end, the voltage rises to a peak of 190 kV (1.76 pu). The travelling surge
continuously propagates within the network up to several kilometres away from switching
point. As can be seen in Figure 4.14, significant amounts of transient also can be measured
at Blacktown and Carlingford transmission substations. However, they are completely attenuated before arriving at Sydney West.

59
SWTS busbar voltage
Voltage (kV)

200

200
0

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
Time (s)
BTTS busbar voltage

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.025

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.025

0.03

Voltage (kV)

200

200
0

0.015
0.02
Time (s)
CFTS busbar voltage

Voltage (kV)

200

200
0

0.015
0.02
Time (s)
BHTS busbar voltage

Voltage (kV)

200

200
0

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

Figure 4.14: Busbar voltages during cable energisation

Voltages are also induced within the cable sheath. Figure 4.15 shows an example of
instantaneous sheath voltages. In this example, without arresters, the charging current from
main conductor (red phase at approximately 1000 A) causes the induced voltages to rise to
nearly 10 kV. With arresters (rated at 3 kV), some current has been conducted to ground,
thus minimising the voltages to around 6 kV. The magnitude depends on the instant on the
voltage waveform at which the CB contacts close electrically. The higher the instantaneous
voltage, the higher the overvoltage amplitude that will be induced. In practice, evaluation
of insulation co-ordination, and protection schemes is studied by performing a number of

60
energisations over the entire voltage cycle so that the actual peak values can be determined.
Depending on the specific requirement, statistical approaches may be used to evaluate the
required parameters. This method will be further studied in Chapter 5.
Sheath voltages with SVL turned off
Voltage (kV)

10
5
0
5
10
0

0.002

0.004

0.006
0.008
Time (s)
Sheath voltages with SVL turned on

0.01

Voltage (kV)

10
5
0
5
10
0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

Time (s)

Figure 4.15: Sheath voltages during switching with and without surge arresters

4.6

Summary

The general behaviour of transient due to energisation of a 132 kV underground cable

considered in this work was studied. A primary issue was to assess the relative merits and
suitability of the frequency-dependent cable models in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . The existing
power system network used for simulation, has been extensively modified to account for the
sensitivity of CB poles during the switching operation. FD-Mode and FD-Phase models
were then included in the replicated network to represent the underground systems.
Inclusion of both cable models has revealed the difficulty in incorporating FD-Mode
model compared to FD-Phase approach. In other words, when incorporating FD-Mode
model to represent the transmission system, the user should know the operating frequency
intervals in order to achieve better accuracy. In this work, it is a straightforward task
since such data are available. However, in the case of limited access to actual measurement

61
data, particularly the expected frequency range, FD-Phase model can be an alternative.
Furthermore, the FD-Phase model was found to give better performance when comparing
the time domain results with measured data. This reveals the suitability of FD-Phase model
especially for studying the high frequency transients on underground cables.
However, inconsistencies have been found in both models in predicting the actual wave
shapes as well as the frequency domain response. Possible discrepancies that contributed
to this situation have been raised and discussed. Apparently in this case, accurate power
system modelling in studying high frequency transients phenomena requires detailed knowledge of system parameters. However, often such details are unavailable and in some cases
impractical to obtain such as the system load values during the test. The issues discussed
in Section 4.4.3 are to be further improved in future work.
The impact of energising underground HV cables is of primary interest in electric power
insulation co-ordination and designing protection schemes. Simulation data (based on results from FD-Phase model) has revealed the direct impact of induced transients on the
insulation systems within the network under study. The behaviour of overvoltages (magnitudes) developed are influenced by many factors, but strongly dependent on the point-onwave closing of the circuit breaker. The related issues regarding the evaluation of switching
overvoltages are to be presented in Chapter 5.

Chapter 5

Analysis of Overvoltage Stress due

to Cable Energisation
5.1

Introduction

The switching problems associated with cable energisation involve studies that account for
large bandwidth of frequency variations where the cable parameters significantly vary within
that range. Therefore, a detailed model for the cable, such as the distributed parameter
travelling wave model with frequency-dependent approach, should be incorporated in the
simulation. Such models are assessed by practical means as presented in Chapter 4. In general, FD-Phase model can be reliably used for instances when the behaviour of overvoltage
magnitudes are intended to be analysed statistically.
It has been established, from the literature, that the behaviour of transients depends
strongly on the network configuration and the characteristics of the switching operation.
The latter is of interest and to be further analysed in this chapter. The study of the sensitivity of the distribution of transient magnitudes as a function of circuit breaker (CB) characteristics is practically carried out according to a probability approach. Statistical methods
are applied to the switching data following the guidelines such as those given by IEEE
PES Switching Transients Task Force [53]. Useful information is then provided accordingly
62

63
following the recommendations given by the insulation co-ordination standards [17, 18].
This chapter first provides an overview of statistical switching studies. The approaches
used in this work are also introduced. Then, network refinement is presented to incorporate
multiple run features to the existing test system. Finally, the results obtained from the
approaches used are analysed, especially the relevant data that may be useful for distribution
system engineers as well as researchers for future planning and design of possible protective
levels related to this class of cable systems.

5.2

An Overview of Switching Transient Evaluation Methods

Switching of a 3-phase CB involve some degree of uncertainty since all poles do not close
simultaneously. In addition, the poles do not always close in the same sequence but are
randomly distributed for every single switching action. The transient voltage magnitudes
generated are also based on the point-on-the-voltage-wave where the contacts initiate a close.
With the help of digital computers and available mathematical tools, several approaches
can be used in the evaluation of switching surges. Common practices found so far can be
categorised as:
Statistical study approach
Statistical maximisation approach
Optimisation approach
The first approach is the most preferred method based on probability concepts and
is adopted in this work. Detailed explanation of the other two approaches can be found
in [50]. In the statistical study approach, statistics are used to evaluate the switching
surges to obtain relevant data such as those suggested by IEC standards for insulation
coordination [18]. The range of values required include the maximum value, 2 % probability
value, mean amplitude as well as the standard deviation. Scattering characteristics of CB
poles, normally assumed as normal distribution (Gaussian), are applied over the full cycle

64
(20 ms) on the voltage wave. The statistical study has proven to be reliable in many
cases including studies on large scale networks [13, 14]. Martinez et al. [51] provide a
comparison of statistical switching results evaluated using several statistical methods such
as the Systematic switching and Gaussian distribution. The latter is an available feature
in PSCADr/EMTDCTM that can be used readily. However, a similar approach to the
systematic switching technique can be applied manually and is detailed in Section 5.3.1.

5.3

Simulation Approaches

5.3.1 First Approach (Deterministic)

In this approach, closing time is varied sequentially from a minimum to a maximum instant
in uniform increments of time. In other words, the pole closing times from each set of
experimental energisation tests are applied uniformly over the duration of one 50 Hz cycle
(full cycle of power frequency voltage). Table 5.1 summarises the four sets of CB pole closure
schemes extracted from measurement data. Total number of overvoltage data generated
will be based on the incremental time step settings. In this case, with incremental time of
0.1 ms, each set of test will generate 200 overvoltage data sequences for a complete cycle of
the power frequency voltage.
Table 5.1: CB pole switching times and maximum span from each test
Tests Phase-A (ms) Phase-B (ms) Phase-C (ms) Max. pole span (ms)
Test 1
0.0095
0.0655
0.1295
0.12
Test 2
0.0168
0.5288
0.5968
0.58
Test 3
0.0174
0.3894
0.4574
0.44
Test 4
0.0173
0.7652
0.8332
0.82
There is also the uncertainty of the pole closing sequence. 3-phase energisation results
in up to six combinations of phase A, B and C poles of each test in Table 5.1. In general,
at least 100 simulations, each using a different set of CB closing times are recommended for
the statistical evaluation of overvoltages [48].

65

5.3.2 Second Approach (Probabilistic)

The randomness of CB poles can be described practically using a probabilistic technique.
This approach is similar to the statistical switches [51], defined as the variation of closing
times applied randomly according to a given probability distribution. In this case, randomnormal distribution (Gaussian) [16] is employed with the curve truncated within the range
of 3 and 3 as illustrated in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Gaussian distribution curve [51]

In this technique, there are two steps involved before the final energisation samples
(data) can be obtained. Firstly, the aiming point is established from a random number
(voltage magnitude) generated from simultaneous closure ( = 0.0) of CB poles over the
full cycle. Assuming closing times are sectionalised by 1 ms, around 20 random number
of peak magnitudes are obtained. Secondly, a new generation is applied in the specified
aiming point to obtain the statistical overvoltage data according to a normal distribution.
The energisation at this aiming point is assumed to generate over 100 samples of peak
magnitudes from random closing times (of each contact). The maximum spans, which is
the time between the first and final contact to close on 3-phase, are varied for the case of
1 ms, 2 ms and 3 ms. These values correspond to nominal span found mostly in high voltage
circuit breakers.

66

5.4

Model Refinement and Simulation

The parameters of the system components and underground systems of the existing power
system network model remain unchanged. However, a larger solution time step is used (1 s)
to avoid excessive simulation times. This is reasonable since only voltage magnitudes are
of interest. As given in Table 5.2, less than a 1 % deviation (slightly lower) of overvoltage
magnitudes is obtained compared to the 0.1 s time step setting.
Table 5.2: Red phase magnitudes for different simulation time step
Simulation time step (s)
0.1
0.5
1
Magnitude (pu)
1.6822 1.6788 1.6700
Deviation (%)
0
0.321
0.725
The CB contact timings in Figure 4.6 (Chapter 4) are modified in such a way to make
use of the multiple run component. The multiple run system is programmed to generate
and process the energisation samples. In general, the system allows up to 6 input variables
that can be modified according to a user preference such as the sequential, list, random-flat
or random-normal distribution [16]. It is possible to record up to 6 channels for every run
and a maximum of 10,000 samples can be saved. Auto processing of output data also can
be applied such as the maximum or minimum values.

5.4.1 Implementation of Deterministic Approach in Simulation

Implementing the deterministic approach, requires a sequential run of a fixed time variable
(input V 1 of Figure 5.2) representing pole closing times for each test in Table 5.1. Each
set of pole closing scheme is applied over the full cycle of the power frequency voltage (for
20 ms starting from snapshot time). A total of 6 combinations of pole closing sequence will
generate 1200 energisations for each test. This results in 4800 overvoltage peak magnitudes
(absolute values) recorded for all four set of energisation schemes. Both sending (Vk ) and
receiving (Vm ) end voltages are measured as illustrated in Figure 5.2.

67

Figure 5.2: An example of implementation of deterministic approach for 3rd energisation

scheme

5.4.2 Implementation of Probabilistic Approach in Simulation

In general, it is an unrealistic and time consuming procedure to carry out energisations
anywhere within the full cycle. This is due to peak magnitudes only being produced at
particular point on the voltage wave for each phase [51]. Therefore, the first step in this
technique is to identify the worst switching time (defined as aiming point) for further
analysis. Sequential run (Figure 5.2) is firstly performed by setting up breaker poles to
close simultaneously (2nd and 3rd pole times equal to zero). The simulation is run from
snapshot file at t = 0.0375 s being set as offset with incremental time of 1 ms. The resulting
overvoltage distribution is presented in Table 5.3. From Table 5.3, it is obvious that the
maximum overvoltage magnitudes are produced when the CB is closed at 1 ms, 8 ms, 11 ms
and 18 ms respectively. Therefore, based on this result, 1 ms is chosen as the aiming point
for further analysis.
Also, in this approach, the input signal is not fixed. Three input variables (V 1, V 2
and V 3) are used to represent phase-A (blue), phase-B (white) and phase-C (red) poles
respectively. The input signals are randomly applied within the specified aiming point
according to random-normal distribution. In the simulation, a total of 125 energisations
are generated from each pole span setting.

68
Table 5.3: Sending end voltage magnitudes from simultaneous closure of CB
Magnitudes (pu)
Closing time (ms) Phase-A Phase-B Phase-C Maximum (pu)
1
1.069
1.261
1.719
1.719
2
1.120
1.356
1.615
1.615
3
1.153
1.570
1.373
1.570
4
1.151
1.691
1.088
1.691
5
1.263
1.659
1.081
1.659
6
1.509
1.472
1.206
1.509
7
1.691
1.139
1.308
1.691
8
1.708
1.086
1.385
1.708
9
1.559
1.044
1.503
1.559
10
1.257
1.114
1.680
1.680
11
1.069
1.261
1.719
1.719
12
1.120
1.356
1.615
1.615
13
1.153
1.570
1.373
1.570
14
1.151
1.691
1.088
1.691
15
1.263
1.659
1.081
1.659
16
1.509
1.472
1.206
1.509
17
1.691
1.138
1.308
1.691
18
1.708
1.086
1.385
1.708
19
1.559
1.044
1.503
1.559
20
1.257
1.114
1.680
1.680

5.5

Analysis of Overvoltage Data from Simulation

A three phase energisation produces switching overvoltages on all three phases of the cable.
Every single switching operation produces three phase-to-ground with the corresponding
phase-to-phase overvoltages. Based on the guidelines given by IEC 60071-2 [18] standard,
there are two methods currently used in practice:
Phase-peak method: The highest peak value of the overvoltage of each phase-to-ground
or between each combination of phases is taken into account.
Case-peak method: Only the highest peak value of peak magnitudes (either phase-toground or phase-to-phase) generated from all three phases is collected.
In this study, only phase-to-ground overvoltages have been measured at both the sending
and receiving ends of the cable being energised. Both recommended methods are feasible
since the voltage is measured at each individual phase. The data are statistically calculated
by means of multiple run systems and then processed in MATLABr to obtain the statistical
plots. The following section provides results based on the approaches considered.

69

5.5.1 Results from Deterministic Approach

Figure 5.3 compares frequency of occurrence of overvoltage magnitudes obtained from each
energisation scheme. In general, according to [48], the larger the pole span, the more prone
the overvoltage peaks at the CB terminals are to increase up to the high levels. In contrast,
simultaneous close of circuit breaker poles is likely to introduce relatively lower overvoltage
peaks. However, from Figure 5.3, the trend is seen to be distinctly different. Smallest pole
span of Test 1 produces higher overvoltage peaks rather than the larger gap applied in the
case of Test 4. This deficiency is expected due to the inaccuracy of power system model
used to simulate the high frequency phenomena, particularly, the strong coupling effects
between phases, which has been detailed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.4.3). However, only 1.5 %

Sending end peaks (Test 1)

Receiving end peaks (Test 1)

20

20

10

10

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Sending end peaks (Test 2)

10
0

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Sending end peaks (Test 3)

20
10
0

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Receiving end peaks (Test 3)

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Sending end peaks (Test 4)

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Receiving end peaks (Test 4)

10
0
20
10
0

20

20

10

10

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Receiving end peaks (Test 2)

20
Frequency of occurrence (%)

Frequency of occurrence (%)

20

1.2

1.4 1.6 1.8

Magnitude (pu)

1.2

1.4 1.6 1.8

Magnitude (pu)

Figure 5.3: Frequency of occurrence of overvoltage peaks from deterministic approach

(phase-peak method)

70
difference of sending end overvoltage peaks between the first and the fourth case can still
be considered as a small deficiency.
Based on the overall results of Figure 5.3, the significant overvoltage peaks for each
phase at sending and receiving ends are summarised in Table 5.4. At the sending end,
the highest overvoltage peak is 1.84 pu generated from the third case. Travelling wave
phenomena causes the most severe overvoltage peaks at receiving end when no loads are
connected. This is due to the superposition of voltage waves. For instance, the overvoltage
peak magnitudes, especially in the case of Test 1 and Test 2 energisation schemes, all fall
in the range of 2 pu. Overall, in all of the cases, the sending and receiving ends overvoltage
peak values fall between the range of 1.74 pu to 1.84 pu and 1.84 pu to 2.06 pu respectively.

Table 5.4: Significant overvoltage peaks from deterministic approach

Sending end peaks(pu)
Receiving end peaks (pu)
Tests Phase-A Phase-B Phase-C Phase-A Phase-B Phase-C
Test 1
1.80
1.76
1.77
2.04
2.06
2.01
Test 2
1.79
1.80
1.82
2.01
1.97
2.00
Test 3
1.84
1.80
1.78
1.96
1.95
1.88
Test 4
1.77
1.75
1.74
1.86
1.84
1.88

5.5.2 Results from Probabilistic Approach

In the probabilistic approach, a more realistic method has been applied. In theory, the
random-normal distribution considered for the scattering effect of CB poles is more suitable
over the uniform or the systematic switching approaches. The frequencies of maximum
value of voltage magnitudes obtained are described using the probability density functions
(PDF) for each case of CB pole span as shown in Figure 5.4. From Figure 5.4, sending
end peak magnitudes fall in the average of 1.85 pu, 1.79 pu and 1.79 pu which occur at
the frequencies of 0.8 %, 1.6 % and 4 % respectively for the corresponding 1 ms, 2 ms
and 3 ms spans. Similarly at the receiving end, 1.6 %, 10 % and 16 % of the time, the
magnitudes tend to vary in the order of 2.05 pu, 1.98 pu and 1.99 pu for 1 ms, 2 ms and

71

0.8

40

0.8

30

0.6

30

0.6

20

0.4

20

0.4

10

0.2

10

0.2

50

0
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
Receiving end (2 ms span)
50
1

40

0.8

40

0.8

30

0.6

30

0.6

20

0.4

20

0.4

10

0.2

10

0.2

Occurrence (%)

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Sending end (2 ms span)

50

0
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
Receiving end (3 ms span)
1
50

40

0.8

40

0.8

30

0.6

30

0.6

20

0.4

20

0.4

10

0.2

10

0.2

0
1.4

0
1.4

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Sending end (3 ms span)

1.5

1.6 1.7 1.8

Magnitude (pu)

1.9

0
2

0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Magnitude (pu)

CDF

40

CDF

50

0
1.4

Occurrence (%)

Receiving end (1 ms span)

1

CDF

Occurrence (%)

Sending end (1 ms span)

50

0
2.1 2.2

Figure 5.4: Sending and receiving ends probability density and the corresponding cumulative distribution curves for 1 ms, 2 ms and 3 ms pole spans studied based on probabilistic
approach (case-peak method)
3 ms spans respectively. It is obvious that higher magnitudes are obtained from smaller
pole span but the occurrences are very low. Inversely, larger pole spans are more prone to
produce a higher frequency of occurrences of relatively lower voltage magnitudes. Overall,
peak magnitudes are decreasing with increasing pole span settings. However, there is only
a very small percentage difference (overvoltages at sending end) in terms of the 1 ms span
and 3 ms span.
It is apparent that the results observed in Figure 5.4 are more realistic compared to the
deterministic approach as different pole span of CB can be considered. The consistency of
results from simulation can be increased by increasing the number of energisations for each
case. However the variation of pole span studied are based on maximum possible span of
CB in EHV and UHV systems [12]. In this case, the nominal pole span of the CB under

72
study (132 kV CB) is not certain due to unavailability of data from manufacturer. Based
on the data displayed in Table 5.1, the maximum span tends to vary between around 0.1 ms
to around 0.8 ms for each case respectively. Therefore, it is also crucial to consider the pole
span within the range quoted by measurement data since it represents the real situation.
Section 5.5.3 provide the results simulated using smaller pole span.

5.5.3 Results for the Pole Span below 1 ms

In this section, the data provided are based on the simulation of the probabilistic approach
using different breaker pole span ranging among 0.2 ms, 0.4 ms, 0.6 ms and 0.8 ms. It
postulates that the nominal span for the CB under study will vary within this range.
Otherwise, the information from Section 5.5.2 should be considered instead. The results
are as illustrated in Figure 5.5. In Figure 5.5, the sending and receiving end magnitudes are
found to vary between the range of 1.81 pu to 1.88 pu and 2.01 pu to 2.05 pu respectively
with higher frequency of occurrences. These ranges are distinctly higher than the data
quoted in Figure 5.4. Since, the pole span of 0.8 ms is considered close to the Test 4
energisation schemes of the first (deterministic) approach, comparing the related results of
this case gives a very small difference between the two approaches which is around 6 %.
However, the data from second technique (probabilistic) are recommended since they are
based on the approach which is closer to reality.
Based on the statistical information displayed in Figures 5.4 and 5.5, the relevant data
such as mean magnitudes, maximum magnitudes, standard deviation as well as 2 % probability values are deduced and summarised in Table 5.5.

73

Sending end (0.2 ms span)

Receiving end (0.2 ms span)

0.4

10

Occurrence (%)

10

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Sending end (0.4 ms span)

0
2
1

0.6
0.4

10

0.8
20
10

0.2
0
1.4

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Sending end (0.6 ms span)

30

0
1

0.6
0.4

10

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Sending end (0.8 ms span)

30

0
1

0.8
20
10

0.6
0.4

10

1.5

1.6 1.7 1.8

Magnitude (pu)

1.9

0.4
0.2

0.8
20
10

0.2
0
1.4

0.6

0
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
Receiving end (0.8 ms span)
30
1

0.8
20

0.4
0.2

0.2
0
1.4

0.6

0
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
Receiving end (0.6 ms span)
30
1

0.8
20

0.4

0
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
Receiving end (0.4 ms span)
30
1

0.8
20

0.6
0.2

0.2

30

Occurrence (%)

0.8
20

CDF

0.6

CDF

0.8
20

0
1.4

Occurrence(%)

30

CDF

0.6
0.4

CDF

Occurrence (%)

30

0.2
0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Magnitude (pu)

0
2.1 2.2

Figure 5.5: Sending and receiving ends probability density and the corresponding cumulative distribution curves for the pole span below 1 ms (case-peak method)

74
Table 5.5: Relevant statistical
Mean (pu)
CB pole span (ms) SE
RE
0.2
1.69 1.90
0.4
1.65 1.85
0.6
1.67 1.86
0.8
1.67 1.85
1
1.65 1.85
2
1.64 1.84
3
1.62 1.82

information for different cases of pole span

Max. (pu) Std dev. (pu) 2 % value (pu)
SE
RE
SE
RE
SE
RE
1.90 2.07 0.09
0.12
1.88
2.15
1.82 2.06 0.1
0.12
1.85
2.10
1.85 2.08 0.09
0.10
1.86
2.08
1.88 2.03 0.08
0.09
1.84
2.05
1.87 2.07 0.09
0.10
1.85
2.05
1.81 2.00 0.08
0.10
1.81
2.04
1.82 2.02 0.11
0.13
1.84
2.09

Of all the results obtained, the 2 % probability values show that the overvoltages due
to cable energisation under current network are at the average level compared to common
cases indicated by IEC standard as displayed in Figure 2.3 (Chapter 2). Therefore, further
studies (to limit the transients) may not be required as the magnitudes, particularly at the
receiving end are not high enough to cause a problem.

5.6

Summary

The energisation of an unloaded cable system causes high overvoltage transients and stresses
the insulation systems. The worst scenario may be experienced for switching of a cable
which is located at the transition point of the overhead to underground system such as the
networks under study. The level of overvoltage experienced is governed by many factors, in
particular, the problems underlying sensitivity of CB contacts as well as the characteristics
of switching operation. In this case, attention has been given to the CB maximum pole
closing span as well as the point-on-wave where the contacts initiate their closure. Due
to statistical characteristics of these variables, it is important to calculate the overvoltage
values by means of statistical methods. Such studies are feasible by manipulating the
multiple run component in PSCADr/EMTDCTM .
Based on two approaches studied, the range of overvoltage magnitudes produced at
sending and receiving ends fall in similar order with slightly higher overvoltage magnitudes
obtained using the probabilistic technique. This revealed the consistency of two methodolo-

75
gies applied. However, probabilistic techniques are more practical as the random nature of
CB contacts can be assumed. It is also flexible because higher number of energisations can
be used to achieve more reliable and optimised overvoltage values. Thus, the data from this
technique are recommended.
According to the data from probabilistic technique, every single energisation at the point
of 1 pu (peak voltage magnitude), will generate approximately 2 pu overvoltage magnitudes
at the receiving end of unloaded cable. Overall, for the cases studied using different pole
spans, all produce transient overvoltage magnitudes at the average level compared to the
values indicated by IEC standard for particular cases of the field results and studies. In
other words, the range of values obtained are within acceptable level and considered to
comply with the standards.

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1

Conclusions

Switching problems have been a general concern among utilities in ensuring a consistent
quality of supply, reliability as well as continuous prevention from transients and protection
of system components in the networks. Energising a HV cable system introduces significant
voltage and current transients due to its complex construction, comprising sheath and other
semiconducting layers. Strong electromagnetic coupling among these layers and among the
conductors of 3-phase cable system causes cable parameters to vary significantly as frequency
increases. The impact of transients on insulation systems is vital when considering switching
operation at the transition point of overhead to underground transmission. Therefore,
studies on the switching transient behaviour should be carried out using an accurate model
to represent the cable system. Despite a number of frequency-dependent travelling wave
models provided, all of which can be used for modelling of an underground cable, they are
not always suitable for all cases. Such problems are addressed in two stages of studies of
major interest in analysing the behaviour of transients due to cable energisation.
Firstly, an investigation of the suitability of FD-Mode and FD-Phase models for underground cable under study has been presented by comparing their ability to predict accurately the energisation current transient in terms of magnitude, duration and the spectral

76

77
content. A power system network model that replicates the system under study has been
carefully crafted in PSCADr /EMTDCTM electromagnetic transient simulation platform.
Careful treatment of power system components including the underground cable to cater
for frequency-dependent nature of system transients has been given. In cable modelling,
detailed dimensions and calculation of its layered construction and material properties has
been presented. Cable system was then represented by FD-Mode and FD-Phase models.
The curve fitting (CF) parameters were adjusted for better accuracy for both frequencydependent cable models. The simulated results from these models have been compared with
the measurement data. It has been found that there is a very small difference in the performance of two models as both are able to predict the current transient magnitude accurately
with fairly good agreement of the transient envelope times. However, no identical dominant
peaks are observed from both models when comparing their performance in the frequency
domain. Overall, of the results studied, the FD-Phase model showed several advantages
over the FD-Mode model. Specifically, the ability to simulate current transient magnitudes
more accurately. Furthermore, the difficulty in incorporating the FD-Mode model becomes
pronounced because a constant frequency for operation of the modal transformation matrix
required to be identified accurately. Conversely, such a problem does not exist for FD-Phase
counterparts as a frequency-dependent internal transformation matrix is assumed.
Secondly, the impact of transients introduced in a HV underground cable has been
further analysed, particularly the statistical distribution of peak magnitude overvoltages at
the sending and receiving ends of the cable respectively. This has been motivated by the
needs for analysis of the impact of circuit breaker (CB) contact closure which are random
in nature. The magnitudes of overvoltages depend strongly on the point-on-wave where the
CB closed and the influence of 3-phase CB pole span which is the time between the first and
the third pole to close. The existing model has been refined according to deterministic and
probabilistic simulation approaches. These approaches are constructed by manipulating the
multiple-run feature in PSCADr /EMTDCTM . The FD-Phase model has been incorporated
to represent the cable system. Results from both approaches revealed that energisation of

78
an unloaded cable at the point of 1 pu of power frequency voltage results in approximately
2 pu of overvoltages at the receiving end of the cable. At the sending end, the magnitudes
may increase to levels as high as approximately 1.8 pu. However, the data particularly of
the receiving end magnitudes obtained from both deterministic and probabilistic techniques
are still at the average level compared to typical values indicated by IEC standard. These
values are not high enough to cause a problem and further studies to limit the transients
may not be required. The data from probabilistic techniques are recommended as their
approach is closer to a realistic scenario.
The accuracy of results obtained depends on the accuracy of the system model as well
as the accuracy of available input data. In some situations, access to specific data of the
system components is limited. Therefore, the assumptions used are critical in gaining higher
accuracy in modelling and simulation.

6.2

Recommendations

Most of the problems arising from the network modelling were addressed in Chapter 4
(Section 4.4.3). It is apparent that one of the problems with the cable modelling is the
significant electromagnetic coupling effects between phases as well as between conductor
and sheath. To get rid of such effects, comparison of results for the case of single phase
energisation may be performed as an alternative. The problem in relation to the existing
trapped charges prior to energisation tests may be avoided by allowing longer time (more
than 10 minutes) when isolating the cable. Finally, a more improved and accurate model
of system components should be developed particularly for the distribution transformers at
the sending end busbars. References [5456] may be useful as a guideline for such purpose
provided that the required details such as the nameplate data are obtained.

Appendix A

Fundamental Equations in Cable

Modelling
A.1

The General Transmission Lines or Wave Equations

The transmission line equations govern general two conductor uniform transmission lines,
including parallel plates, two-wire lines and coaxial lines. A cable section of x (x 0)
shown in Figure A.1 is described by the parameters representing; r-resistance per unit
length, l-inductance per unit length, g-conductance per unit length and c-capacitance per
unit length. Consequently, rx and lx represent series elements, while gx and cx
represent the corresponding shunt parameters. These parameters are distributed along the
length of the conductor. In general, the line parameters are frequency-dependent where the
series impedance and shunt admittance can be represented as

z = r + jl

(A.1)

y = g + jc

(A.2)

where is the angular frequency. The frequency domain equation for voltage and current
drop along x section at any point of x can be written as (applying Kirchhoffs voltage
79

80

Figure A.1: A x section of a coaxial cable

and current laws)

dV
= zI
dx

(A.3)

dI
= yV
dx

(A.4)

where V = V (x, ) and I = I(x, ). Equations (A.3) and (A.4) are referred to as Telegraphers equations. Combining these equations yields a set of coupled wave equations

d2 V
= zyV = 2 V
dx2

(A.5)

d2 I
= yzI = 2 I
dx2

(A.6)

where is the propagation constant which is a complex number defined as

= + j =

(r + jl)(g + jc) =

zy

(A.7)

The real part, , is the attenuation constant in nepers/m and the imaginary part, , is the
phase constant in radian/m. The wave propagation velocity is the fraction of frequency and
the phase constant given by
u=

(A.8)

81
According to Dlamberts solution, (A.5) and (A.6) can be given in the form;

V (x) = V0+ ex + V0 e+x

(A.9)

I(x) = I0+ ex + I0 e+x

(A.10)

where ex and e+x terms represent wave propagation in the positive and negative x directions respectively. Solving for the unknown voltage (V0 ) and current (I0 ) wave amplitudes
in (A.9) and (A.11) results in the definition of characteristic impedance, ZC , which is the
ratio of the voltage to the current amplitude of the travelling waves for each direction as
V+
V
ZC = 0+ = 0 =
I0
I0

A.2

r + jl
g + jc

(A.11)

Coaxial Cable Electrical Parameters

The basic geometry, comprising a series of concentric conductor and insulation sections,
are depicted in Figure A.2 where the second conducting element (sheath) is represented as
a third layer of the conductor [26]. For zero frequency, currents are uniformly distributed

Figure A.2: A simplified coaxial cable cross-sectional area

throughout the conductor. Simply, the resistance per unit length can be expressed as

Rdc =

c
A

(A.12)

82
where c is the resistivity of conductor and A is the cross-sectional area. However, for
ac, as the frequency increases, the non-uniformity becomes greater where the skin effect
becomes prevalent. With skin effect taken into account, the combined resistance, r (/m)
and inductance, l (H/m) of both conductors per unit length of a coaxial cable in Figure A.2
are described as [26]
r=

Rs 1 1
( + )
2 a b

(A.13)

b
ln
2 a

(A.14)

l=

where Rs = c /s is the intrinsic resistance (surface resistance) that is varying with frequency and inversely proportional to their skin depth (s ). Consequently, the permeability, , of the conductor is based on the free space permeability (0 = 4 107 H/m) and
the relative permeability (r ) of the material (i.e. = 0 r ).
At higher frequencies, there is a possibility of the current flow from inner conductor
through the insulator to the sheath. In the other words, the shunt conductance (g of the
insulation medium in S/m) may be taken into account because of the existence of shunt
resistance across the insulator. Similarly, there exists shunt capacitance (c of the two
conductors in F/m) as the inner and outer conductor work as two parallel plates along the
coaxial cable. Equations (A.15) and (A.16) describe these shunt quantities per unit length
respectively as [26]
g=

2
i ln ab

(A.15)

2
ln ab

(A.16)

c=

where i is the resistivity of the insulation material. The electrical permittivity, , is

influenced by free space permittivity (0 = 8.854 1012 F/m) and the relative permittivity
(r ) of the material (i.e. = 0 r ).

83

A.3

Impedance and Admittance Matrices

The parameters of mutually coupled conductors in general are represented as N xN matrices

as given by (A.17) and (A.18) [16]. The conductors refer to both the core and sheath,
which are treated as concentric conductors.

z11 z12

z
21 z22

z= .
.

.
.

zN 1 zN 2

y11 y12

y
21 y22

y= .
.

.
.

yN 1 yN 2

. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .

z1N

z2N

zN N

(A.17)

y1N

y2N

yN N

(A.18)

The diagonal term represent the self impedance per unit length of the loop formed by
conductors and concentric neutrals with ground return. The off-diagonal elements are the
mutual impedances between the respective conductors.

Appendix B

Power System Component Data

B.1

Input Parameter Calculation of Surrounding Components

In this section, calculation of input parameters for 132 kV source, overhead lines, transformers and capacitor banks is given. The original data for these components has been
obtained from the TransGrid Electrical Databook [52] for the corresponding 132 kV systems
commissioned by Integral Energy (IE). Some additional data for cable and transmission lines
are based on the data provided in [15].
To establish the source model, three types of 3-phase voltage source models are available
in PSCADr/EMTDCTM . However, only source model-1 and model-2 are suitable because
source model-3 requires external control of voltage. The main difference between model-1
and model-2 is the connection of sequence impedances (positive and zero sequence) which is
represented in series and parallel form respectively. Table B.1 provides conversion of source
impedance values from the data book [52].

84

85
Table B.1: Calculation of sequence impedances for voltage source model-1 and model-2
Parameter
Values
Remarks
System base values: SLLrmsBase (MVA)
100
VLLrmsBase (kV )
132
ZBase ()
(rad/s)
Positive/Zero sequence impedance: Z+% (% on 100 MVA), Angle, (deg)
Z0% (% on 100 MVA), Angle, (deg)
Physical values: Z+ ()
Z0 ()
Series impedance values (source model-1): R+ ()
L+ (mH)
R0 ()
L0 (mH)
Parallel impedance values (source model-2): R+ ()
L+ (mH)
R0 ()
L0 (mH)

174.24
314.16

2
VLLrmsBase
SLLrmsBase

2f

0.0159, 86.4
0.0183, 84
0.0277
0.0317

Z+%
100 ZBase
Z0%
100 ZBase

0.0017
0.0880
0.0033
0.1004

Z+ cos
Z+ sin

Z0 cos
Z0 sin

0.4513
0.0883
0.3048
0.1015

refer
refer
refer
refer

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.1)
(3.2)

The impact of using either of these two source models on the system transients has been
verified. As can be seen from Figure B.1, only a small difference is noted between the current
transients obtained using the source models. The difference in the peak magnitudes is less
than 1 %. Therefore, either model-1 or model-2 can be used in the simulation. It is also
evident that the source impedance parameters have little impact on the current transients.
This can be attributed to the location of the upstream source which is more than 15 km
away from the origin where the switching takes place.

86

Current (kA)

Blue phase current transients simulated using source model1 and model2
1
model1 (series)
model2 (parallel)

1
0

0.002

0.004
0.006
Time (s)

0.008

0.01

Figure B.1: Energisation current transients of the blue phase of FD-Phase model at sending
end using different source models
Input data for overhead lines are given in Tables B.2 and B.3. Figure B.2 illustrated
the coordinates of all conductors and ground wires.
Table B.2: 132 kV overhead line general data
Feeder name
93A/93Z
9J1/9J2
9J3/9J4
Total length (km)
10.243
10.219
5.470
From
SWTS
SWTS
BTTS
To
BTTS
BTTS
BHTS
Owner
IE
IE
IE
Phase conductor type olive/moose olive/moose
moose
Earth conductor type
opal
opal
opal

Table B.3: Conductor and ground

Specification
Conductor name
Number of conductors
Conductor radius (m)
Conductor DC resistance (/km)
Number of sub-conductor in bundle
Bundle configuration
Bundle spacing (m)
SAG for all conductors (m)
Ground wire name
Number of ground wires
Ground wire radius (m)
Ground wire DC resistance (/km)
SAG for all ground wires (m)

wire data
Input data
moose/olive
6
0.013
0.1
2
symmetrical
0.38
5
opal
2
0.00653
2.9
5

930/931
7.370
BHTS
CFTS
IE
moose
opal

87

Figure B.2: Overhead line conductor co-ordinates

There are four (132/33/11 kV) 3-phase three winding transformers with star-star-delta
configuration at Baulkham Hills transmission substation which are connected in parallel to
the busbars. Conversion of data is made to represent all parallel connected transformers
into only one transformer with equivalent leakage impedance (positive sequence leakage
reactance). The original reactance data from the data book (in percent on 100 MVA) have
been converted into pu values required by the simulation program. The final data are as
given in Tables B.4 and B.5.
Table B.4: Transformer general data
HV (#1) MV (#3) TV (#2)
Sbase (MVA)
100
100
100
Vbase (kV)
132
33
11
VLN (kV)
76.21
19.05
11
174.24
10.89
1.21
Zbase
Winding
star
star
delta

Table B.5: Transformer positive sequence leakage reactance data

X#1#3 X#1#2 X#2#3
X% 4T r (%)
31
98.6
67.6
Xpu 1T r (pu) 0.0775
0.2465
0.169

88
Another component included near the Baulkham Hills busbar is the equivalent capacitor
to represent the capacitor banks installed at 33 kV side of the transformers. Rated at
20 MVAr, value of each capacitor is calculated as

C3 =

Q3
20
2 = 3(314.16)(19.05)2 = 58.47 F
3VLN

(B.1)

89

B.2

Underground Cable Data

The original data from manufacturer were adopted from [15] and given in Table B.6

Table B.6: Cable data from manufacturer

No.
1

Description

Details

Manufacturer

Iljin Electric Co Cable Division

Manufacturer address

112-88 Annyoung-Ri, TaeanEuf, Hwasung-Si Kyunggi-Do,

Korea

Cable type

Cu/XLPE/CWS/PVC/HDPE

Conductor material

Copper

Conductor stranding

61/3.9

Conductor cross-sectional area (mm2 )

630

Degree of compression or compaction of con-

92

ductor (%)
8

Shape of conductor

round

Overall conductor diameter (mm)

30.5

10

Details of conductor bedding

Semiconducting tape

11

Insulation material details

XLPE

12

Radial thickness of insulation (excluding

Nom. 18.5

semiconducting layers) (mm)

continued on next page

90
Table B.6 continued from previous page
No.

Description

Details

13

Details of insulation semiconducting layer

semiconducting PE and semiconducting tape

14

Curing method

Dry curing

15

Details of longitudinal water blocking system

See attachment 1

16

Details of copper wire screen:-

17

a) Wire stranding (No./mm)

63/2.0

b) Cross-sectional area (mm2 )

Approx. 198

Details of serving:a) Inner serving:

Material

PVC

Minimum thickness at any point (mm)

Color

Orange

b) Outer Serving:
Material

HDPE

Minimum thickness at any point (mm)

Color

Black

18

Cable overall diameter (mm)

Approx. 90.3

19

Cable mass (kg/m)

Approx. 12.8

20

Method of sealing cable ends

Steel cap

21

Impulse withstand voltage 1.2/50 s full wave

650

(kV peak)
continued on next page

91
Table B.6 continued from previous page
No.

Description

Details

22

Power frequency withstand voltage five minu-

190

tes (kV rms)

23

PD routine test. Expected level of discharge

at 2.00 U0 (pC)
24

Insulation megger readings. 500 metre section

tested with 2.5 kV megger:

25

a) Expected value (M)

200000

b) Minimum acceptable value (M)

100000

Maximum DC resistance of conductor of completed cable at 20 C (/km)

26

Zero sequence impedance of completed cable

at 20 0 C, metallic sheath return only;
resistive and reactive components (R+jX

0.16+j0.082

/km)
27

Positive and negative sequence impedance of

complete cable; resistive and reactive components (R+jX /km)
a) at 20 C

0.03+j0.63

b) at normal maximum operating tempera-

0.06+j0.63

ture
28

Core to screen capacitance (F/km)

29

Design

maximum

operating

0.19

temperature

(R+jX /km)
continued on next page

92
Table B.6 continued from previous page
No.

30

Description

Details

a) Normal ( C)

90

b) Emergency (2 hour)( C)

105

c) Short circuit ( C)

250

Maximum continuous current rating with single point earthing or fully cross bonded:
a) Air (40 C ambient)(A)

1047

b) Buried direct (25 C ambient) (A)

Trefoil, ie touching (A)

798

Flat, 150 mm spacing (A)

893

c) Ducted (25 C ambient) (A):

31

Trefoil, 200 mm spacing (A)

839

Flat, 200 mm spacing (A)

815

Cable loses at full load (kW/km)

29.1

Emergency current rating factor

a) Two hourcable at 70 % load prior to emer-

2.57

gency
b) Four hourcable at 75 % load prior to emer-

2.07

gency
32

Maximum short circuit rating for 1 second

a) Core (A)

90.8
continued on next page

93
Table B.6 continued from previous page
No.

Description

Details

b) Screen (A)

26.0

c) Maximum temperature at this rating ( C)

250

33

Dielectric loss angle of insulation (degrees)

max 0.057

34

Maximum dielectric stress at the conductor

6.1

(kV/mm)
35

Sheath voltage (to earth) induced per 100 A

0.5

of load current (V/Am) per 100 m of cable

36

Details of factory serving test

According to IEC60840

37

Minimum bending radius adjacent to joints

1.8

and termination (m)

38

Minimum bending radius during installation

1.8

(m)
39

Maximum allowable pulling tension via stock-

43218

inette (Newtons)
40

Maximum allowable pulling tension via stock-

43218

inette (cable under stocking to be disposed of

after installation) (Newtons)
41

Caterpillar hauling machine:

a) Maximum allowable pulling tension (New-

68600

tons)
b) Maximum allowable cable gripping pres-

9.8

sure (kPa)
continued on next page

94
Table B.6 concluded from previous page
No.

Description

Details

42

Maximum side wall bearing pressure during

2.94

installation (kPa)
43

Maximum cable drum length that can be sup-

1000

plied (m)
44

Type test copies attached (Yes/No)

Yes

Appendix C

Measurement Data
C.1

Current Transients from Experimental Energisation Tests

Figures C.1 to C.6 depict measured current transients and frequency domain plots recorded
for 30 ms following the cable energisation.
Measured blue phase current transient (test 1)

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
0.025
Time (s)
Measured white phase current transient (test 1)

0.005

0.01

0.03

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure C.1: Blue and white phase current transients from first measurement

95

96
Measured blue phase current transient (test 2)

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
0.025
Time (s)
Measured white phase current transient (test 2)

0.005

0.01

0.03

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure C.2: Blue and white phase current transients from second measurement
Measured blue phase current transient (test 4)

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.005

0.01

0.015
0.02
0.025
Time (s)
Measured white phase current transient (test 4)

0.005

0.01

0.03

Current (A)

1000
500
0
500
1000

0.015
Time (s)

0.02

0.025

0.03

Figure C.3: Blue and white phase current transients from fourth measurement

97
Frequency spectrum of measured blue phase current transient (test 1)

Magnitude

30
20
10
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)
Frequency spectrum of measured white phase current transient (test 1)

Magnitude

60
40
20
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure C.4: Frequency spectrum of current transients from first measurement

Frequency spectrum of measured blue phase current transient (test 2)

Magnitude

60
40
20
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)
Frequency spectrum of measured white phase current transient (test 2)

Magnitude

15
10
5
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure C.5: Frequency spectrum of current transients from second measurement

98
Frequency spectrum of measured blue phase current transient (test 4)

Magnitude

30
20
10
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)
Frequency spectrum of measured white phase current transient (test 4)

Magnitude

30
20
10
0 2
10

10

10

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure C.6: Frequency spectrum of current transients from fourth measurement

99

C.2

CB Pole Closing Times from Experimental Energisation Tests

Figure C.7 is the instantaneous line voltage plots measured at secondary of VT during the
energisation test.

Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

Instantaneous line voltage (Vredwhite) at secondary of VT (test 1)

400
200
0
200
400
0.5

400
200
0
200
400
0.5

400
200
0
200
400
0.5

6.55E5
1.295E4
9.502E6

0.5

1.5
2
2.5
3
3
Time (s)
x 10
Instantaneous line voltage (Vredwhite) at secondary of VT (test 2)
1.675E5
5.968E4
5.288E4

0.5

1.5
2
2.5
3
3
Time (s)
x 10
Instantaneous line voltage (Vredwhite) at secondary of VT (test 4)
1.725E5
8.332E4
7.652E4

0.5

1.5
Time (s)

2.5

Figure C.7: CB pole closing times for each test

3
3

x 10

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