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Lesson 5.3
Harmonic Waves
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson students will be able to
(i) describe the characteristics harmonic waves and derive a mathematical
expression describing harmonic waves.
(ii) describe and interpret interference of harmonic waves and solve problems
involving this concept.

1. Harmonic Waves:
A wave generated by the simple harmonic vibrations of the particles of a
medium is called a harmonic wave. You have seen in lesson 1 that the
displacement y (in lesson 1 we used x for displacement) of a particle in
simple harmonic motion is given by the equation
y = A cos(
t )
..(i)
This equation is obtained by assuming that the particle is at the extreme
position when t = 0. This assumption means that y = A when t = 0. On the
other hand if the particle is at the equilibrium position when t = 0, then y = 0
at t = 0. This situation is more appropriate to describe a wave. This condition
will be satisfied if we replace the cosine function by a sine function in the
above equation. Therefore, the equation for a harmonic wave can be
represented as
y = A sin(
t)
.(ii)

y = A cos t

y = A sin t

We have seen from our wave model that the state of vibration of a particle
is a function of how far the wave has advanced. If the particle vibration
along the y-axis causes the propagation of the wave along the x-axis, then
the displacement y of the particle is a function of x, the distance the wave
has reached
In equation (ii) above,

2
v
= 2f = 2
T

where v is the wave velocity and the wavelength of the wave. Therefore,

t=

vt

But vt = x.
Therefore, the equation for a harmonic wave can be written as:
2
y = A sin
x = A sin kx
.(iii)

Here

k=

and is called the wave number of the wave.

In order to describe a wave that is travelling with a velocity v in the positive

x-direction, we replace x by (x vt) in the above equation. Similarly in order
to describe a wave that is travelling to the left (in the negative x-direction)
with a velocity v, we replace x by (x + vt). We will continue describing a
wave that is advancing to the right.
Thus the equation of a harmonic wave advancing to the right with a velocity
v is given by
y = A sin{k(x vt)} = A sin(kx kvt)
(iv)

kv =

f = 2f = .

Therefore, the equation of a harmonic wave advancing to the right can be

written as a function of x and t as:

y(x,t) = A sin(kx - t)

(v)

similarly the equation of a harmonic wave advancing to the left can be

written as:
y(x,t) = A sin(kx + t)
..(vi)
We can also write other forms to this equation as k =

2
x t
2
y = A sin x
t = A sin 2
T

and =

(vi)

2
T

Example 1:

The wave y(x,t) = A cos k(x + 34 t) represent a traveling

wave where x is in meters and t in second. What are the direction and the
speed of the wave?

Solution:
The wave y(x,t) = A sin k(x + vt) is a wave traveling to the left. Remember,
sine function or cosine function only determines the initial state of the wave
and not the direction. Therefore, this function represents a wave traveling to
the left at 34 ms-1.

Example 2: At time t = 0,the shape of a wave pulse on a string is given by

the function:

0.20m3
y ( x,0) =
2.50m 2 + x 2
where x is in meters. Plot y(x,0) versus x and give the general wave function
y(x,t) at any time t if (i) the pulse is moving in the positive x-direction with
a speed of 10 m/s and (ii) the pulse is moving in the negative x-direction
with a speed of 10 m/s.

Solution:
(a)

The figure above represents the wave pulse at time t = 0.

(b) For a wave that is traveling to the right, x is replaced by x vt where
v = 10 ms-1
0.2
y ( x, t ) =
2.5 + ( x 10t )2
(c) In this case x is replaced by x + vt. So the function becomes
0.2
y ( x, t ) =
2.5 + ( x + 10t ) 2

Example 3: A harmonic wave with a frequency of 60 Hz and an

amplitude of 0.02 m travels along a string to the right with a speed of 10

m.s-1. Write a suitable wave function for this wave.

Solution:
f = 60 Hz, A = 0.02 and v = 10 ms-1

Given:

The general wave function for a wave traveling to the right is

y(x,t) = A sin k(x vt)
v = f .
v 10 ms -1
= =
= 0.167 m
f
60 Hz
2
2
k=
=
= 37.6 m -1
0.167 m
Therefore, the wave equation is:
y(x,t) = 0.02 sin 37.6(x 10t)
y(x,t) = 0.02 sin(37.6x 376 t)

Example 4: The wave function for a harmonic wave in a string is

y(x,t) = 0.001 sin(62.8x +314 t) where y and x are in meters and tin seconds.
(a) In what direction does the wave travel, and what is its speed? (b) Find the
wavelength, frequency and period of this wave. (c) What is the maximum
displacement of any string segment?

Solution:
(a)

This wave travels in the negative x-direction.

This wave equation can be written in the standard form as
y(x,t) = A sin k(x + v t) = 0.001 sin 62.8(x + 5 t)
Therefore, the speed of the wave 5 m.s-1

(b)

k=

= 62.8 or, = 2/62.8 = 0.1 m

v = f or, f = v/ = 5/0.1 = 50 Hz
period T = 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 s
(c)

The maximum displacement of any string segment is the amplitude of

the wave which is 0.001 m.

Example 5: A harmonic wave with a frequency of 80 Hz and amplitude

0.025 m travels along s string to the right with a speed of 12 m.s-1.

(a) Write a suitable wave function for this wave.
(b) Find the maximum speed of a point on the string.
(c) Find the maximum acceleration of a point on the string.

Solution:
(a)

(b)

(c)

2.

The standard equation for a harmonic wave advancing to the right is

given by
y(x,t) = A sin k(x v t)
We have, f = 80 Hz, v = 12 m.s-1 and A = 0.025 m
v 12 ms 1
= =
= 0.15 m
f
80 Hz
2
2
k=
=
= 41.9 m 1
0.15
The equation of the wave is:
y(x,t) = 0.025 sin 41.9(x 12t)
= 0.025sin(41.9x - 503t)
The maximum velocity is given by:
vmax = A = A . 2f
= 0.025 2 12
= 12.6 m.s-1
The maximum acceleration is:
amax = -A 2
= -0.025 (2 12)2
= -6317 m.s-2.

Interference of Harmonic waves:

In this section we shall discuss the case where particles in a medium are
subjected to two displacements at the same time. If two disturbances are
created in a medium at the same time, the energy of these disturbances will
be propagated through the medium simultaneously, and each particle will
have these two disturbances superimposed on them. We would assume that
the amplitude, frequency and period of the waves generated by these
disturbances are the same. In other words, these two waves are homogenous.
The displacement produced by the first wave can be written as

y1 = A sin(kx t)

. (vii)

Similarly, the displacement produced by the second wave can be written as

y2 = A sin(kx t + ) ...(viii)
Where is the phase difference between the two waves. If = 0, the two
waves are in the same phase, and the two amplitudes will add up. As a result
the particles will vibrate with a larger amplitude given by:

y = y1 + y2 = 2A sin(kx t).(ix)
On the other hand, if = , the two waves will be completely out of phase,
and the displacement due to one will be equal and opposite to the
displacement produced by the other, and they will cancel. As a result, the
particles will stay at rest and there will be no wave.

y = y 1 + y2
Constructive
interference

y = y 1 - y2 = 0
Destructive interference

The phenomenon of superposition of two waves is called interference.

When the waves are in phase, their amplitudes add up and the interference is
constructive. Fig. 6a illustrates the constructive interference. If the waves are
completely out of phase, the amplitudes cancel each other, there will be no
wave, and the interference is destructive.
If has a value other than 0 or , there will be a resultant displacement
given by:
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx t) + A sin(kx t + ) (x)
This can be simplified by using the trigonometric identity:
1
1
sin 1 + sin 2 = 2 cos (1 2 ) sin (1 + 2 )
2
2
In this case 1 = kx t and 2 = kx t + . Therefore,
1
1
1
1
(1 2 ) =
( 1 + 2 ) = kx t +
and
2
2
2
2
Therefore, equation (x) above will become:

1
y1 + y2 = 2 A cos sin(kx t + )
2
2

....( xi)

1
The amplitude of this resultant wave is 2 A cos
2

Example 6: Two waves having the same frequency, wavelength and

amplitude are traveling in the same direction. If they differ in phase by /2

and each has an amplitude of 0.05 m, what is the amplitude of the resultant
wave?

Solution:
The equation of the resultant wave is given by:
1

y1 + y2 = 2 A cos sin kx t +
2
2
2A cos(/2) is the amplitude of this resultant wave. Here = /2 and A =
0.05 m. Therefore, the amplitude of the resultant wave is given by:
2
2A cos(/2) = 2 0.05 cos(/4) = 0.1
= 0.07 m
2

Example 7: A transverse wave of frequency 40 Hz propagates down a

string. Two points 5 cm apart are out of phase by /6.

(a) What is the wavelength of the wave?
(b) At a given point, what is the phase difference between two
displacements for times 5 ms apart?
(c) What is the wave velocity?

Solution:
(a) Wavelength is the distance between two nearest particles which are in
the same phase of vibration. A phase difference of 2 between two particles
means that they are in the same phase of vibration. Here a length of 5 cm
corresponds to a phase difference of /6. Therefore, the length of the string
that will correspond to a phase difference of 2 is given by:
5 cm
l=
2 = 60 cm
/6
This is the wavelength of the wave. Or, = 0.6 m
(b)

The frequency of the wave f = 40 Hz

Therefore, period
T = 1/40 = 0.025 s. = 25 ms
This means that pulses take 25 ms to travel between points that differ
in phase by 2. Therefore, when a pulse travel for 5 ms, which is
1/5th of the period, it will reach a point which will differ in phase by
2/5 from the point where it started. Therefore, the phase difference
between two displacements 5 ms apart is 2/5.

v = f = 40 0.6 = 24.0 ms 1

(c)

3. Standing Waves on a String.

Advancing wave
t =0

reflected wave
t = T/4

t = 2T/4

antinode node
stationary waves

When an advancing wave on a string reaches the fixed point, it gets

reflected and travels back on the string. The segments of the string are now
subjected to both these waves. The segments on a crest are moving down
and those on a trough are moving up. So if the crest of the advancing wave
falls on the trough of the reflected wave, the segments of the string will have
equal and opposite displacements , and so these segments will stay at rest.
This is shown in the above figure corresponding to time t = 0. But this
situation is momentary because the advancing wave is moving to the right
and the reflected wave is moving to the left. After one quarter of a period,
each wave has advanced in their respective direction a distance equal to one
quarter of a wavelength, and the crest of the advancing wave falls on the
crest of the reflected wave and the trough of the advancing wave falls on the
trough of the reflected wave. This is shown in the figure corresponding to t =
T/4. At this instant the displacement caused by each wave on a segment is in
the same direction, and so it will have maximum displacement. But the
magnitude of this maximum displacement will change from segment to
segment. Some segments will be permanently at rest while others will have
maximum and minimum displacements at regular intervals of time.

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A point on the string where a segment is permanently at rest is called a

node. A point where a segment has maximum displacement is called an
antinode. These are illustrated in fig. 8 above.

One wavelength contains two full loops

The nodes and the antinodes divide the length of the string into a number of
loops. The number of loops depend on the frequency of vibration of the
string. Notice here that a full wavelength contains a crest and a trough and so
is made up of two full loops as is illustrated in the figure above. The distance
between a node and an antinode is one half of a wavelength.
You have seen the wave equation v = f . If the velocity of wave
along a string remain the same, then a large value of f should mean a small
value for and a small value of f means a large value of . So if the
frequency of vibration is low, then the loops will be longer and vice versa. If
l is the length of a loop, then = 2l.
If a string is fixed at both ends, it vibrates with nodes at the fixed ends
and an antinode at the middle. In this case the length of one loop is the
whole length of the wire. The frequency of vibration of the string
corresponding to this is called the fundamental frequency or the first
harmonic. If the wire vibrates in two full loops, the length of the wire will
contain a full wavelength and the frequency corresponding to this is called
the first overtone or the second harmonic. Similarly, when the length of
the wire contains three full loops, the frequency of vibration is called the
second overtone or the third harmonic.
When the stretched wire of a piano is struck, it vibrates with nodes at
the fixed ends and an antinode at the center, emitting its fundamental
frequency. Along with the string vibrating in its fundamental mode, it can
also vibrate in higher modes at the same time emitting higher harmonics. It
is this combination of the higher harmonics with the fundamental that gives
a musical note its quality that distinguishes a note from a guitar with that
from a piano.

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Fundamental

= 2l

=l

= 2l/3

First
overtone

Second
overtone

4. Standing Wave Functions

Standing waves or stationary waves are formed by the superposition of two
homogenous waves, one advancing to the right and the other advancing to
the left. These two harmonic waves can be represented as
yR = A sin(kx t)
And
yL = A sin(kx + t)
Where k = 2/ and = 2f, the angular frequency.
The sum of these two waves is:
y(x,t) = yR + yL = A sin(kx - t) + A sin(kx + t)
Again, we use the identity

1
1
sin 1 + sin 2 = 2 cos (1 2 ) sin (1 + 2 )
2
2
If 1 = kx + t and 2 = kx t, we get:
1
1
(1 + 2 ) = kx and
(1 2 ) = t
2
2
Then y(x,t) = 2A cos t sin kx will describe a standing wave on a
stretched string.

Example 8: A string fixed at both ends is 3.0 m long. It resonates in its

second harmonic at a frequency of 60 Hz. What is the speed of transverse
waves on the string?

Solution:

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L=

second harmonic

A string vibrating in its second harmonic vibrates in two loops as shown in

the figure above. Since the length of two loops is a wavelength, here the
wavelength is the same as the length of the string.
Therefore, we have = 3.0 m, f = 60 Hz
v = f = 60 3 = 180 m.s-1.

Example 9: The wave function y(x,t) for a certain standing wave

on a string fixed at both ends is given by:
y(x,t) = (0.05 m)sin(2.5x) cos(500t)
(a) What are the speed and amplitude of the two waves that result in the
standing wave?
(b) What is the distance between successive nodes on the string?
(c) What is the shortest possible length of the string?

Solution:
The general equation of a standing wave on a stretched string is:
y = 2A sin (kx) cos (t) where
A = amplitude of each traveling wave
= 2f, where f is the frequency of the wave, and
k = 2/
(a)

(b)
(c)

Comparing the general equation to the equation of the given wave,

2A = 0.05. Therefore, A = 0.025 m
k = 2.5 Or, 2/ = 2.5. This gives = 2/2.5 = 2.51 m
= 500, or 2f = 500. This gives f = 500/2
v = f = (500/2)(2/2.5) = 200 ms-1
Distance between successive nodes is one-half the wavelength = 1.26
m
Since the fundamental is the lowest mode of vibration, the string must
have a minimum of two nodes. Therefore, the shortest possible length
of the string is the distance between two successive nodes = 1.26 m.

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5. Laws of Transverse Vibrations of a String.

You are familiar with the wave equation:
v = f .
You also know that the velocity v of a transverse wave along a string is
given by:
v=

Combining these two we get:

T
f =

For the fundamental mode of vibration of a string = 2l. Therefore, an

equation for the fundamental frequency can be written as:
f1 =

1 T
2l

This equation describes the laws of fundamental vibration of a stretched

string as follows:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The fundamental frequency of a stretched string is inversely

proportional to its length.
The fundamental frequency of a stretched string is directly
proportional to the square root of its tension.
The fundamental frequency of a stretched string is inversely
proportional to the square root of its linear density (mass per unit
length).

When the string vibrates in its second harmonic, the string will contain two
full waves and therefore, = l. Thus the frequency of the second harmonic is
1 T
f2 =
= 2 f1
l
Similarly the frequency of the nth harmonic fn = n f1

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Example 10: A steel wire having a mass of 5 g and a length of 1.4 m is

fixed at both ends and has a tension of 968 N.
(a) Find the speed of transverse waves on the wire.
(b) Find the wavelength and frequency of the fundamental.
(c) Find the frequencies of the second and third harmonics.

Solution:

We have m = 5.0 g = 0.005 kg, l = 1.4 m. Therefore, = 0.005/1.4 = 0.0036

kg.m-1. T = 968 N.
T
968
(a)
v=
=
= 520.7 m s 1

0.00357
(b) Wavelength of the fundamental is given by 1 = 2L = 2 x 1.4 = 2.8 m
The frequency of the fundamental is given by:

f1 =
(c)

520.7
= 186 Hz
2.8

Wavelength of the second harmonic, 2 = L = 1.4 m

The frequency of the second harmonic is:
v 520.7
f2 =
=
= 372 Hz
2
1.4
Wavelength of the third harmonic, 3 = 2L/3 = 0.933 m
The frequency of the third harmonic is:
v 520.7
f3 =
=
= 558 Hz
3 0.933

Example 11: The length of the B string on a certain guitar is 60 cm. Its
fundamental is at 247 Hz.
(a) What is the speed of transverse waves on this string?
(b) If the linear mass density of the guitar string is 0.01 g.cm-1, what
should the tension be when it is in tune?

Solution:
(a)

The wavelength of the fundamental, 1 = 2L = 2 60 cm = 1.2 m.

The frequency of the fundamental, f1 = 247 Hz
v = f = 247 1.2 = 296.4 ms-1

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(b)

v=

T = v 2
= 0.01 g.cm-1 = 0.001 kg.m-1
T = v2 = 296.42 0.001 = 87.9 N