Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Chapter 8
Fluid Dynamics-I
[Equation of motion and Energy Equation]
There are a few instances (of the order of ten) when Science had the greatest impact on
peoples life.
Fluid Dynamics provided at least one of them.
The list of greatest impacts could include, for example,
Telecommunications (Electromagnetic theory)
Nuclear energy (Quantum mechanics)
Airplanes (Fluid mechanics)
Fluid dynamics is the key to our understanding of some of the most important phenomena
in our physical world: ocean currents, floods and weather systems.

1 Introduction
Fluid dynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with fluid in motion as a
consequence of pressure and such agents.
A fluid motion can be completely analyzed by the application of following fundamental
equations:
The continuity equation
The energy equation
The momentum equation
These equations are based on three fundamental laws, namely:
The law of conservation of mass flow
The law of conservation of energy
The law of conservation of momentum
Continuity equation has already been dealt in previous chapter. In this chapter we will
deal with the remaining two.

2 Two Types of Forces in Fluids

(i) Long-range forces (decrease slowly with distance).
Examples:
1

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

(1) Gravity,
(2) Electromagnetic forces (when the fluid contains charged particles, like
plasma),
(3) Inertial forces (when the fluid dynamics is considered from a non-inertial
frame).
These forces can penetrate into the interior of the fluid. They are called volume or body
forces.
A body force is characterized by the force density g ( x, t ) per unit mass.
The force acting on the fluid particle with volume d surrounding a point x at any
instant t = g ( x, t ). ( x, t ).d
(ii) Short-range forces (decrease rapidly with distance).
These refer to local dynamic stresses developing within the fluid itself as it moves;
specifically, the forces acting on a given element of fluid by the surrounding fluid.
They are negligible, unless there is a direct mechanical contact between the interacting
fluid elements.
Example: Two marbles do not interact, unless they are in contact, i.e. within the distance
of intermolecular forces.
If we consider a fluid, we can think of it as consisting of two parts (with some imaginary
boundary in between). These two parts are in a direct mechanical contact, and so should
act on each other with some short-range force.
How to describe such a force?
It is determined not only by the point x and instant t, but also by the orientation of the
surface, passing through that point, i.e. by the unit normal vector n . Consider Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Force on a surafce

Here, force F ( n, x, t ) is exerted by the fluid element which
element which n points away from.
This force is proportional to the surface area, A .
The force per unit area, F ( n, x, t ) , is called stress.

points to, on the fluid

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

3. Energy possessed by a fluid body

A fluid body possesses the following energies, namely:
potential energy,
pressure energy,
kinetic energy.
3.1 Potential Energy or Datum Energy: This is the energy possessed by a fluid body by
virtue of its position or location in space.
Consider W Newtons of a fluid at a height of zm above a datum plane.
The potential energy of W Newtons of the fluid = Wz (N-m or joule)
Thus the potential energy per Newton of the fluid = z (N-m/N)
Or we say, the potential head = Z m.

(1)

3.2 Pressure energy: This is the energy possessed by a fluid body by virtue of the
pressure at which it is maintained.

Fig. 2 Liquid chamber

Fig. 2 (a) shows a large chamber containing a liquid at a pressure intensity p.
If now a piezometer tube be fitted to the chamber as shown in Fig. 2 (b), we know the
liquid will rise in the tube by a height h metres.
Now consider the fluid particles at the surface in tube.
Let the weight of these particles be W Newton.
Obviously these particles now have a potential energy of Wh Newton metre or joule.
When these particles were inside the chamber, they had only pressure energy. Hence as
these particles left the chamber and reached the surface in the tube, the pressure energy is
converted into potential energy.
Therefore, pressure energy of W Newton of the fluid in the chamber = Wh Newton metre
or joule
Also, we know p = h,
where is the specific weight of the fluid.
p

Pressure energy of W Newton of the fluid in the chamber = W Newton metre or

joule

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Pressure energy per Newton of the fluid in the chamber =

Newton metre per

Newton
p

Or we say the pressure head = m.

.
(2)

3.3 Kinetic energy. This is the energy possessed by a fluid body by virtue of its motion.
Suppose W Newton of a fluid be moving at a velocity of V metres per second.
Kinetic energy of W Newton of the fluid = W

V2
N-m or joule.
2g

Therefore, kinetic energy per Newton of the fluid body =

Or we say the kinetic head is

V2
N-m/N
2g

V2
m.
2g

(3)

Thus we find that if a fluid body of weight W Newton be at a height of Z metres above a
datum, and at a pressure intensity of p Newton / metre 2, and at a velocity of v m/s, then
the total energy of W Newton of the fluid body;

p V2

N-m
W
Z

=
2 g

p V2
Nm/N
:. Total energy per Newton of the fluid body = Z
2 g

p V2
m
Or we say the total energy head = Z
2 g

(4)

4. Newtons Laws
Newtons laws are relations between motions of bodies and the forces acting on them.
First law: a body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion remains in motion at the
same velocity in a straight path when the net force acting on it is zero.
Second law: the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass. i.e.
the net force Fx acting on a fluid element in the direction of x is equal to mass m of the
fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in the x -direction. i.e.
Fx m.a x
(5)
Third law: when a body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first.
In a fluid flow, the following forces are present:
1. Fg , gravity force.
2. F p , the pressure force.
3. F , force due to viscosity.
4. Ft , force due to turbulence.
5. Fc , force due to compressibility.
So that:
4

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Fx ( Fg ) x ( F p ) x ( F ) x ( Ft ) x ( Fc ) x

(6)

(i) If the force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, the resulting net force:
Fx ( Fg ) x ( F p ) x ( F ) x ( Ft ) x

(7)

These equations of motions are called Reynold's equations of motion.

(ii) For flow, where Ft is negligible, the resulting equations of motion are known as
Navier-Stokes Equations.
Fx ( Fg ) x ( F p ) x ( F ) x
(8)
(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force F is zero and equation of motions
are known as Euler's equation of motion.
Fx ( Fg ) x ( F p ) x
(9)

5. Euler's equation of motion

In this equation of motion, only forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration.
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in S-direction as shown in Fig. 3.
Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS.
The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:
(i) Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.

Fig. 3 Stream tube element

I

(ii) Pressure force , p

p
ds dA opposite to the direction of flow.
s

(iii) Weight of element gdAds

Let is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of
element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to the mass of
fluid element acceleration in the direction S.

Basic Fluid Mechanics

pdA - p

Dr. V. K. Sarda

p
ds dA - gdAds cos = dAds a s
s

(10)
Where as is the acceleration in the direction of S,
Now as =

dv v ds v dt
v v

=
=v
dt
s dt
t dt
s
t

Where v is a function of s and t.

If the flow is steady,
as = v

v
s

v
= 0.
t

Substituting this in (10) and simplifying the equation, we get

v
p
dsdA - gdAds cos = dAds v
s
s
1 p
v
- gcos = v
Or,
s
s
1 p
v

+ gcos + v
=0
s
s
dz
Also, cos
ds
1 p
+ v v = 0
s + g dz
ds
s

p +
gdz + vdv = 0

(11)

Total change in energy per unit mass is equal to zero.

(11) is known as Euler's equation of motion.

6. Bernoulli's equation from Euler's equation

Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of motion (11) as:

dp

gdz + vdv = constant

For incompressible flow, =constant

p

v2

+ gz +
=constant

2
p

v2

Or, g + z +
=constant
2g
Which is Bernoullis equation.

(12)

p
= pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head
g
v2
= kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head
2g

z = potential energy per unit weight or potential head

6

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

4. Bernoulli's theorem
This theorem is a form of the well known principle of conservation of energy.
The theorem states that:
In a steady continuous flow of a frictionless incompressible fluid, the sum of the
potential head, the pressure head and the kinetic head is the same at all points.
4.1 Assupmtions
(i)
Flow is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero
(ii)
Flow is steady
(iii)
Flow is incompressible
(iv)
Flow is irrotational
4.2 Proof of Bernoulli's theorem.
Consider the case of water flowing though a smooth pipe (Fig. 4). Such a situation is
depicted in the figure below.

Fig. 4 Flow through pipe

We examine a fluid section of mass m traveling to the right as shown in the schematic
above. The net work done in moving the fluid:
W W1 W2 = P1 x1 P2 x 2

(13)

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

where P denotes a force and an x a displacement.

The second term picked up its negative sign because the force and displacement are in
opposite directions.
Pressure is the force exerted over the cross-sectional area, or p =

P
A

Rewriting this as F = PA and substituting into (13) we find that:

W p1 A1 x1 p 2 A2 x 2

(12)

The displaced fluid volume is the cross-sectional area A times the thickness x. This
volume remains constant for an incompressible fluid, so
(14)

A1 x1 A2 x 2
Using 13 and 14, we have
W ( p1 p 2 )

(15)

Since work has been done, there has been a change in the mechanical energy of the fluid
segment (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Change in mechanical energy

The energy change between the initial and final positions is:
E E 2 E1 = (U 2 K 2 ) (U 1 K 1 )

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

mv 22
mv 2
- mgh1 1
Or, E mgh2
2
2

Here, the kinetic energy, K

(16)

mv 2
, where m is the fluid mass and v is the speed of the
2

fluid.
The potential energy U = mgh where g is the acceleration of gravity, and h is average
fluid height.
The work-energy theorem says that the net work done is equal to the change in the
system energy.
W E

(17)

Substitution of Eq.(15) and Eq.(16) into Eq.(17) yields:

mv22

mgh

( p1 p 2 )V =
2
2

mv 22
- mgh1
2

(18)

Dividing Eq.(18) by the fluid volume, V gives:

v 2
v 2
( p1 p 2 ) = gh2 2 - gh1 2
2
2

(19)

Reorganize Eq.(19),
p1 gh1

v12
v 2
p 2 gh2 2
2
2

(20)

Finally, note that Eq.(20) is true for any two positions. Therefore,
p gh

v 2
constant
2

(21)

Equation (21) is commonly referred to as Bernoulli's equation. Keep in mind that this
expression was restricted to incompressible fluids and smooth fluid flows.

5. Applications of Bernoulli theorem (Flow Measurement)

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

The Bernoulli equation can be applied to several commonly occurring situations in which
useful relations involving pressures, velocities and elevations may be obtained.
A very important application in engineering is fluid flow measurement.
Measurement of flow rate:

Venturi meter
Orifice meter

Measurement of velocity:

Pitot-static tube

5.1 Measurement of flow rate:

Basic principle: Increase in velocity causes a decrease in pressure.
Fluid is accelerated by forcing it to flow through a constriction, thereby increasing
kinetic energy and decreasing pressure energy. The flow rate is determined by
measuring the pressure difference between the meter inlet and a point of reduced
pressure.
Desirable characteristics of flow meters:
Reliable, repeatable calibration
Introduction of small energy loss into the system
Inexpensive
Minimum space requirements
5.2 Generalized flow obstruction in a pipe

Fig. 6 Obstruction in a pipe

For Fig. 6, Continuity equation between (1) and (2)
A
Q A1V1 A2V2
V1 2 V2
A1
Bernoulli equation between (1) and (2)

p 2 p1

V
+

2
2

V12
=0
2

V
V 1 1

V2
2
2

2( p1 p2 )

10

Basic Fluid Mechanics

V2, ideal

Dr. V. K. Sarda

2( p1 p2 )
2

A
1 2

A1

In above equation, frictional losses have not been taken into account
To account for frictional losses we use a discharge coefficient, Cd:
2( p1 p2 )
Cd
2

V2 C d V2,ideal =
A2

A1

The volumetric flow rate can be easily calculated as, Q A2V2

5.3 The Venturi Meter
This device consists of a conical contraction, a short cylindrical throat and a conical
expansion as shown in Fig. 7. The fluid is accelerated by being passed through the
converging cone. The velocity at the throat is assumed to be constant and an average
velocity is used.
The venturi tube is a reliable flow measuring device that causes little pressure drop. It is
used widely particularly for large liquid and gas flows.

11

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Fig. 7 Venturi meter

In the venturi meter the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle 1520o and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat is
measured and provides a signal for the rate of flow.
The fluid slows down in a cone with smaller angle (5 - 7o) where most of the kinetic
energy is converted back to pressure energy.
Because of the cone and the gradual reduction in the area there is no "Vena Contracta".
The flow area is at a minimum at the throat.
2( p1 p2 )
Cd
2

V2 =

A
2
1

A1

As ( p1 p2 ) = h = gh
Where h is the difference in level between two piezometers at 1 and 2 in venturimeter.
2 gh
Cd
A1
2

= Cd
2 gh
V2 =

A
Hence,
2
2
1 2
A

1
2

A1

Q A2V2 = C d

A1 A2
A12 A22

2 gh

Where the discharge coefficient, Cd = f(Re), can be found in Figures available in

textbooks.
High pressure and energy recovery makes the venturi meter suitable where only small
pressure heads are available.
A discharge coefficient Cd = 0.975 can be indicated as standard, but the value varies
noticeably at low values of the Reynold number.

12

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

The pressure recovery is much better for the venturi meter than for the orifice
plate.
The venturi tube is suitable for clean, dirty and viscous liquid and some slurry
services.
Pressure loss is low
Typical accuracy is 1% of full range
Required upstream pipe length 5 to 20 diameters
Viscosity effect is high
Relative cost is medium
It may be noted that there will be no change in the result
whether the venturimeter is horizontal, vertical or inclined
5.4 The Orifice Plate
This type of meter consists of a thin flat plate with a circular hole drilled in its center as
shown in Fig. 8. It is very simple, inexpensive and easy to install, but it can cause
significant pressure drops.
The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it.
The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may
vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

13

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Fig. 8 Orifice meter

There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just downstream.
There are in general three methods of placing the taps. The coefficient of the meter
depends upon the position of taps.
Flange location - Tap location 1 inch upstream and 1 inch downstream from face
of orifice
"Vena Contracta" location - Tap location 1 pipe diameter (actual inside) upstream
and 0.3 to 0.8 pipe diameter downstream from face of orifice
Pipe location - Tap location 2.5 times nominal pipe diameter upstream and 8 times
nominal pipe diameter downstream from face of orifice

V2 =

Cd

2( p 2 p1 )
2

A2

A1

The discharge coefficient, Cd, varies considerably with changes in area ratio and
the Reynolds number.
A discharge coefficient Cd = 0.60 may be taken as standard, but the value varies
noticeably at low values of the Reynolds number.
Discharge Coefficient - Cd
Diameter
Ratio
d = D2 / D1

Reynolds Number Re
104

105

106

107

0.2

0.60

0.595

0.594

0.594

0.4

0.61

0.603

0.598

0.598

14

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

0.5

0.62

0.608

0.603

0.603

0.6

0.63

0.61

0.608

0.608

0.7

0.64

0.614

0.609

0.609

The pressure recovery is limited for an orifice plate and the permanent pressure loss
depends primarily on the area ratio. For an area ratio of 0.5, the head loss is about 70 75% of the orifice differential.
The orifice meter is recommended for clean and dirty liquids and some slurry
services.
The pressure loss is medium
Typical accuracy is 2 to 4% of full scale
The required upstream diameter is 10 to 30
The viscosity effect is high
The relative cost is low
5.5 The Nozzle or nozzle meter
The nozzle meter uses a contoured nozzle as shown in Fig. 9 . The resulting flow pattern
for the nozzle meter is closer to ideal.

Fig. 9 Nozzle meter

Discharge Coefficient - cd
Diameter Reynolds Number - Re
Ratio
4
105
d = D2 / D1 10
0.2
0.968
0.988
0.4
0.957
0.984
0.6
0.95
0.981
0.8
0.94
0.978

106

107

0.994
0.993
0.992
0.991

0.995
0.995
0.995
0.995

The flow nozzle is recommended for both clean and dirty liquids
The relative pressure loss is medium
Typical accuracy is 1-2% of full range
Required upstream pipe length is 10 to 30 diameters
15

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

The viscosity effect high

The relative cost is medium

5.6 Rotameter
Also known as variable-area meter is shown in Fig. 10.
It consists of a vertical transparent conical tube in which there is a rotor or float having a
sharp circular upper edge. The rotor has grooves on its head which ensure that as liquid
flows past, it causes the rotor to rotate about its axis.
The rotor is heavier than the liquid and hence it will sink to the bottom of the tube when
the liquid is at rest. But as the liquid begins to flow through the meter, it lifts the rotor
until it reaches a steady level corresponding to the discharge.
This rate of flow of liquid can then be read from graduations engraved on the tube by
prior calibration, the sharp edge of the float serving as a pointer. The rotating motion of
the float helps to keep it steady.
In this condition of equilibrium, the hydrostatic and dynamic thrusts of the liquid on the
under side of the rotor will be equal to the hydrostatic thrust on the upper side, plus the
apparent weight of the rotor.

Fig. 10 Rotameter

5.7 Elbow Meter (or Pipe-bend Meter)

An elbow meter (or pipe-bend meter) consists of a simple 90 o pipe bend provided with
two pressure taps, one each at the inside and the outside of the bend, as shown in Fig. 11.

16

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Fig. 11 Elbowmeter
Its operation is based on the fact that as liquid flows round a pipe bend its pressure
increases with the radius, due to approximately free vortex conditions being developed in
the bend.
As such a pressure difference is produced on the inside and outside of the bend which is
used as a measure of the discharge.
The pressure taps are connected to a differential manometer to measure the differential
pressure head h. The discharge Q may then be computed as:
Q C D A 2 gh

where CD is the coefficient of discharge of the elbow meter and A is its cross-sectional
area.
The coefficient of discharge CD depends mainly on the ratio R/c (where R is the radius of
the axis of the bend and c is the radius of the pipe), and its value can be obtained by
calibration.
The main advantage associated with an elbow meter is that it entails no additions or
alterations to an existing pipe system, except for the drilling of pressure taps, and if
suitably calibrated it can be used for precision measurements. ..

5.7 Pitot static Tube

A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity.
The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 1700s and
was modified to its modern form in the mid 1800s by French scientist Henry Darcy.
It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft and to measure air and gas
velocities in industrial applications.
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow as shown in
Fig. 10.

(a) Simple Pitot tube

17

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

(b) Pitot tube in flow

Fig. 10 Pitot tube
As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to
rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue.
This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or
(particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.
The measured stagnation pressure cannot of itself be used to determine the fluid velocity.
However, Bernoullis equation at (1) and (2) in Fig. 10:
p1 V12
p 2 V22

Z1

Z2
2g

2g

(i)

Since, Z1 = Z2 and V2 = 0, (i) can be simplified as:

p2
p V2
1 1

2g

(ii)

Stagnation Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and
the static pressure.
The static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the tube as
shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Static Pressure tube

p 2 h2
Now p1 h1 and
So that (ii) becomes:

18

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

V12
p
p
2 1 = (h2 h1 ) = y
2g

V1

2 gy

Which is theoretical velocity at a point in a flow.

If CV is the coefficient of pitot tube, then actual velocity at any point will be:
V1 CV

2 gy

(iii)
Or,
Instead of static ports, a pitot-static tube (Fig. 12) (also called a Prandtl tube) may be
employed, which has a second tube coaxial with the pitot tube with holes on the sides,
outside the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure.

19

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

Fig. 12 Pitot static tube

The disadvantages of the Pitot tube:
Do not give the averaged velocity;
Its readings for gases are extremely small;

Summary
The mechanical energy equation (or generalized Bernoulli equation) is an
expression of the energy balance equation for steady flow and constantdensity fluids.
The mechanical energy equation can be applied with negligible error to almost
all steady flows of liquids and for steady flows of gases at low velocities.
A special case of the mechanical energy equation, the Bernoulli equation, can
be derived if we assume frictionless flow and absence of shaft work.
A large number of devices for the measurement of fluid velocity and flow rate
are based on the conservation of energy. The Bernoulli equation can be
conveniently used to make the appropriate calculations.

20

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Dr. V. K. Sarda

21