Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
An Overview
of Disaster
Management
An Overview
of Disaster
Management
2nd Edition
1992
PART
Table of Contents
Foreword......................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................... 9
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
PART
Q. Before you go on, write down two or three key reasons why you are
studying this course on disaster management.
A.
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
10
PART
Training methods
This module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the
participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are planned
for use in workshops and are simulated in the written module. For the self-study
learner the text is as close to a tutor as can be managed in print.
Workshop training methods include
group discussions
" simulations/role plays
" supplementary handouts
" videos
" review sessions
" self-assessment exercises
"
11
PART
PART
After reading the material and completing the exercises you should be able to:
! define the key terms of disaster management
! describe the causes of disaster vulnerability
! reproduce the disaster management continuum diagram
! identify the most important hazards and how they affect society
! distinguish between natural and human made hazards
! identify at least two ways that development can lead directly to a disaster
! describe at least four ways that disasters disrupt development
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
!
CHAPTER 1
Intr
oduction to disaster
s
Introduction
disasters
13
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Definition of hazard
A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environment
that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a
disaster.
Definition of disaster
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing
widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of
affected society to copy using only its own resources. Disasters are often
classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), or according to their
cause (natural or man-made).
Definition of emergency
Another term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module is
emergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of an
emergency. Disaster suggests an intense time period and level of urgency.
Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential
property are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general
period in which
! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or
community, or
! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or
community or by external intervention.
14
PART
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
todisasters
The disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced to
settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic eruption. It
is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize
that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the
societys vulnerability.
The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces.
Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:
1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together
form and maintain vulnerability.
2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a
negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of
basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces
3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property are
exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is one
element; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels.
Figure 1.1
15
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Poverty
The most important single influence on the
impact of a disaster is poverty. All other factors
could be lessened if the affected population were
not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster
studies show that the wealthiest of the population either survive the disaster unaffected or are
able to recover quickly. Across the broad spectrum of disasters, poverty generally makes
people vulnerable to the impact of hazards.
Poverty explains why people in urban areas are
forced to live on hills that are prone to landslides, or why people settle near volcanos or
rivers that invariably flood their banks. Poverty
explains why droughts claim poor peasant
farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and
why famines more other than not are the result
of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather
than an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty
also explains why many people are forced to
move from their homes to other parts of their
countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration poses
considerable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displaced
and of longer-term development.
Population growth
There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster and
the increase in population. If there are more people and structures where a
disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growth of
population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will be
affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas.
Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources
(such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. This
conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predominantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters.
Figure. 1.2
Population growth
1750-2100
Source: Thomas Merrick,
et. al., World Population in
Transition, Population
Bulletin, Vol. 42, No.2
(1986).
16
PART
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
to disasters
Rapid urbanization
Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of
rapid urbanization. This process is also accelerated in developing countries. It is
characterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving to
metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. These
massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availability
of safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for
scare resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead to
human-made disasters.
Figure 1.3
Population
projections for some
disaster-prone cities
Figure 1.4
As population
continues to grow,
settlements spread to
marginal and even
unsafe areas.
unstable slope
river
river
17
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Figure 1.5
Environmental degradation
Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation.
Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. The
destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast lines ability to resist tropical
winds and storm surges.
18
PART
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
to disasters
Figure 1.6
Deforestation for
development
19
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
20
PART
CHAPTER 2
Disaster terminology
and phases
!
CHAPTER 2
Disaster ter
minolo
gy and phases
terminolo
minolog
Disaster terms
Some terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in this
module. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions.
This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draft
of A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to be
included in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary prepared by
UNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However,
consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners or
academicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universally
accepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist within
the next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort
toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials are
encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and to
be tolerant of other groups definitions.
Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Write
your example in the space below each definition.
Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions and
operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.
A.
Disaster
management
Human-made
disaster
A.
An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all
disasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason,
to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people.
A.
21
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Risk
Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and
disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product
of hazard and vulnerability.
A.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
A.
The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their
impact on populations.
Population
displacements
A.
Complex emergencies
Figure 2.1.
A.
Phases of a disaster
Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time
continuum. Identifying and understanding these phases
helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptualize appropriate disaster management activities.
22
PART
CHAPTER 2
Disaster terminology
and phases
Relief phase
A.
Rehabilitation is the operations and decisions taken after a disaster with a view
to restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by the
disaster.
Rehabilitation
A.
Reconstruction is the actions taken to reestablish a community after a period of
rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of
permanent housing, full restoration of all services, and complete resumption of
the pre-disaster state.
Reconstruction
A.
Mitigation is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to
the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and
long-term risk reduction measures. (Mitigation has been used by some institutions or authors in a narrower sense, excluding preparedness.)
Mitigation
A.
Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimize loss of life and
damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location, and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation.
Preparedness
A.
23
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Early warning
A.
Emergency phase
The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have to
be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support
human needs, sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset of
disaster. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and
recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in a slow onset
disaster such as a famine. It can also be relatively short-lived, as after an
earthquake.
A.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention must
be given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly for
people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic
collapse.
A.
Q. Test your recall of the two disaster continuum diagrams. Label each
circles below with the phases of a rapid onset and slow onset disaster.
A.
24
PART
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development
!
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
s and de
velopment
disasters
dev
Introduction
This training module provides a new conceptualization of the relationship
between disasters and development. This new conceptualization has been
growing in the development community over the last few years and is a major
philosophical underpinning of the United Nations Disaster Management
Training Programme. Rarely a week goes by when a major disaster is not
reported in the mediaa disaster that results in death and destructiona
disaster that frequently wipes out years of development programming and sets
the slow course of improvement in third world countries further behind, wasting
precious resources.
For a long time the cause and effect relationship between disasters and social
and economic development was ignored. Ministries of Planning and Finance and
other development planners did not concern themselves with disasters. At best,
development planners hoped that disasters would not occur and, if they did,
were most effectively handled by relief from donor countries and relief
organizations. Development programs were not assessed in the context of
disasters, neither from the effect of the disaster on the development programs nor
from the point of whether the development programs increased either the
likelihood of a disaster or increased the potential damaging effects of a disaster.
Disasters were seen in the context of emergency responsenot as a part of
long term development programming. When a disaster did occur, the response
was directed to emergency needs and cleaning up. Communities under disaster
distress were seen as unlikely places to institute development. The post-disaster
environment was seen as too turbulent to promote institutional changes aimed at
promoting long term development.
Sources for this chapter are Disasters and Development, a UNDP/UNDRO training module
prepared by R.S. Stephenson and Disasters and Development: a study in institution-building
prepared for UNDP by INTERTECT, January 1991.
Figure 3.1
This figure charts
aspects of a communitys
development and
vulnerability to disaster.
It shows the various
orientations with
which you may analyze
the field of development and disaster
vulnerability.
The field is divided into
positive and negative
aspects of the disaster/
development relationship
by the vertical axis. The
right half reflects the
positive or optimistic
side of the relationship
and the left side of the
diagram deals with the
negative aspects of the
relationship. The statement in each quadrant
sums up the basic concept derived from the
overlap of the two
realms.
25
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
26
PART
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development
Loss of resources
Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of
investmentit shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect
development through:
" Impact on capital stock and inventory
"
"
"
Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a countrys debt position
could be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has less
resources available to invest in productive enterprises
"
"
There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility
recovery activitya diversion from long-term to short-term needs.
Interruption of programs
Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally
planned uses.
Political destabilization
The stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilization of
the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, the
government may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading to
discontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have had
unmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form of
protest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyond
its control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very common for a
government to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a major
disaster.
27
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
1
Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Based
on that experience, respond to the following.
A.
1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out of
service.
4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost because
disaster relief displaced the need for it.
28
PART
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development
A.
Watershed erosion
Deforestation
29
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Table 3.1
Examples of
development
leading to
disasters or
increased
vulnerability
From Disasters and
Development: A Study
in Institution Building,
Intertect, January, 1991.
30
DISASTER AND
ECONOMICS
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
!
CHAPTER 4
Na
tur
al hazar
ds
Natur
tural
hazards
In earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resulting
from natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms.
However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significance
and implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basic
understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type.
The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a
very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in
areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.
However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful to
distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of
limited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog,
frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest is
less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the
countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in
place to respond without external assistance.
There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. They
can be categorized as follows:
Sudden onset hazards(geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides
31
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
2
Q.
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows.
Geological Hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunamis
Volcanic eruptions
Landslides
Climatic Hazards
Tropical cyclones
Floods
Drought
Environmental Hazards
Environmental pollution
Deforestation
Desertification
Pest Infestation
Epidemics
Industrial Accidents
The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from the
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
32
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Figure 4.1
Legend
# Volcanic eruptions
# Seismic belts
33
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
2
Ear
thquak
es
Earthquak
thquakes
34
Causal
phenomena
Slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new
alignment.
General
characteristics
and effects
Shaking of earth caused by waves on and below the earths surface causing:
Surface faulting
Aftershocks
Tsunamis
Tremors, vibrations
Liquefaction
Landslides
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction
measures
Hazard mapping
Public awareness programs and training
Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability
Land use control or zoning, building codes
Insurance
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical
post-disaster
needs
Impact
assessment
tools
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Tsunamis
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km
between wave crests
May consist of ten or more wave crests
Move up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as the
wave approaches shore
May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land
Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tides
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Physical damageThe force of water can raze everything in its path but the
majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding.
Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse ports
and buildings and batter boats.
Casualties and public healthDeaths occur principally by drowning and injuries
from battering by debris.
Water supplyContamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make
clean drinking water unavailable.
Crops and food suppliesHarvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements and
fishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water
incursion.
Possible risk
reduction
measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; conduct disaster
assessment, provide food, water and shelter
Impact
assessment
tools
35
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Volcanoes
36
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Casualties and healthDeath from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possibly
lava flows and toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock, burns; respiratory
difficulties from gas and ash.
Settlements, infrastructure and agricultureComplete destruction of everything in
the path of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows; collapse of structures under weight of
wet ash, flooding, blockage of roads or communication systems
Crops and food suppliesDestruction of crops in path of flows, ash may break
tree branches, livestock may inhale toxic gas or ash; grazing lands may be
contaminated.
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and rescue; provide food,
water and shelter; relocate victims; provide financial assistance
Impact
assessment
tools
Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation plan and
emergency response
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Landslides
Causal
phenomena
General
charasteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction
measures
Hazard mapping
Legislation and land use regulation
Insurance
Specific
preparedness measures
Community education
Monitoring, warning and evacuation systems
Impact
assessment tools
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
2
Tropical c
yclones
cy
38
Causal
phenomena
Mixture of heat and ,moisture forms a low pressure center over oceans in tropical
latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees C.
Wind currents spin and organize around deepening low pressure over
accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.
Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117 km
per hour
General
characteristics
When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges
cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.
Predictability
Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall
forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes
in course can occur.
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific preparedness
measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; water
purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disaster
assessment; provision of seeds for planting.
Impact
assessment tools
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
F
loods
Floods
Causal
phenomena
Naturally occurring flash, river and coastal flooding from intense rainfall or
innundation associated with seasonal weather patterns
Human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and floodplains
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific preparedness
measures
Search and rescue; medical assistance; disaster assessment; short term food and
water supplies; water purification; epidemiological surveillance; temporary
shelter
Impact
assessment tools
39
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Dr
oughts
Droughts
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and
hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in
predicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible.
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
40
Typical post-disaster
needs
Impact
assessment tools
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
En
vir
onmental pollution
Envir
vironmental
Causal
phenomena
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Impact
assessment tools
41
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Def
or
esta
tion
Defor
oresta
estation
42
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Underdevelopment
Dependence on wood for fuel and income
Unregulated logging and land clearance
Rapid population growth
Rapid expansion of settled or industrialized areas
Typical
adverse
effects
Deforestation results in loss of free products from the forest such as fruits and
medicines, and decline in traditional cultures. It stresses economies which import
forest products and are dependent on wood products. It contributes to other
hazards, such as:
Flooding Deforestation of watersheds can increase severity of flooding, reduce
streamflows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase sediment entering
waterways.
Drought Removal of roots and leaf canopy can alter moisture levels drying soil
and decreasing precipitation.
Famine Decrease in agricultural production due to erosion of topsoil and
collapse of hillsides may lead to food shortages.
Desertification Deforestation and removal of vegetation lead to soil compaction
and reduction of land productivity.
Environmental pollution Increases contamination of soil and water and reduces
carbon dioxide absorption capacity. Burning of forests and decay of trees releases
carbon dioxide to the air, possibly contributing to global warming.
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Impact
assessment tools
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Deser
tif
ica
tion
Desertif
tifica
ication
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Impact
assessment tools
43
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
P
est inf
esta
tions
Pest
infesta
estations
44
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Typical
adverse
effects
Crop losses could lead to food shortages, even famine, and stress economic
systems.
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Impact
assessment tools
PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards
Epidemics
Definition: Exposure to a toxin resulting in pronounced rise in number of
cases of parasitic or infectious origin.
Causal
phenomena
General
characteristics
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Poverty
Lack of immunity (or vaccination) to diseases
Poor nutrition, poor sanitation, poor water quality, crowding
Poorly organized health care delivery
Drug resistant diseases
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Typical post-disaster
needs
Impact
assessment tools
45
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
46
Causal
phenomena
Predictability
Factors contributing
to vulnerability
Those persons, structures, livestock, crops, and environment closest to the scene
of an accident are most vulnerable, however, large scale releases of airborne
pollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometres.
Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.
Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger.
Typical
adverse
effects
Possible risk
reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures
Hazard mapping
Hazardous materials identification
Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities
Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures
Improve fire fighting capacity
Monitoring pollution levels
Prepare and practice evacuation plans
Test warning sirens
Typical post-disaster
needs
Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative sources of water; cleanup;
monitor environmental effects.
Impact
assessment tools
PART
CHAPTER 5
Compound and
complex disasters
!
CHAPTER 5
1
The material from this chapter is drawn from the DMTP special topic module Displaced Persons in
Civil Conflict by Frederich Cuny; General Assembly Resolution 46/182; The Executive Summary of
the 1992 Consolidated Appeal for the Horn of Africa; and the Themes of Emergencies stated in the
First SEPHA Situation Report.
47
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Displaced persons
One of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies is
the creation of populations of displaced persons. The example of the Horn of
Africa refers to many of the displaced populations but there are millions more in
other parts of the world.
The term displaced person applies in several contexts. These include
people who are:
! forced to leave their homes as a result of drought, famine, or other disaster,
usually in search of food
! non-combatant individuals and families forced to leave their homes because
of the direct or indirect consequences of conflict but who remain inside their
country
! forcibly resettled by their government if the resettlement is ethnically,
tribally or racially motivated
! expelled from a country, especially as an ethnic or national group, forced out
for economic or political reasons.
48
PART
CHAPTER 5
Compound and
complex disasters
49
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
50
PART
PART
CONTENTS
DISASTER PREP
AREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS
Introduction................................................................................................ 52
Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53
The UN Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 53
Country Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 54
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ........................................................... 55
Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies ................ 55
Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ........................... 60
74
74
75
75
76
77
79
51
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
DISASTER PREP
AREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS
Introduction
Part One of this module introduced background information regarding hazards,
disasters, and the disaster continuum. The rest of the module will address each
of the phases of the disaster continuum with a special focus on preparedness,
response and mitigation.
The framework for studying these disaster phases is disaster management which
has been defined as
the body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which
pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.
The scope of disaster management, therefore, can include all disaster-related
activities. These activities become so inclusive that no one individual is responsible for the entire range. Instead the responsibility is divided according to job
descriptions and limited by the organizations primary functions. The Red
Cross/Red Crescent Societies, for example, work mainly in preparedness and
emergency response phases and less often in reconstruction. Some NGOs work
only in reconstruction. Even government, with its broad responsibility for
overall aspects of disaster management, breaks down these components to be
managed by several of its agencies. The UN has similar allocations of responsibility as a function of its agencies mandates and sectoral expertise.
The following chapters will discuss the component activities of disaster
management. You will be asked to examine your individual and organizational
responsibilities in relation to each phase of activity.
After reading this part of the text and completing the exercises, you should know
the basic concepts, aims and elements of disaster and emergency management.
You will be able to:
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
52
describe the UN and country disaster management teams and the role of each
member
! identify the components of disaster preparedness planning
! describe the role of vulnerability and risk assessment as a prerequisite to disaster
mitigation
!
PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team,roles
and resources
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.1
The UN disaster
management team
53
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Country disaster
management team
Most disaster prone countries already have a formal or informal disaster management team. It is typically headed by a national disaster focal point body. This
body functions in liaison with the
Office of the President or Prime
Minister, with civil defense organizations, key government ministries, the Red Cross/Red Crescent,
and other NGOs and major donors.
The UN-DMT needs to interface
with this team and, where practical, to be a team member.
Where national officials do not
participate in UN-DMT meetings
or activities, the resident coordinator should ensure that they are
consulted and briefed on all
relevant matters. In practice it is
vital that the policies of the DMT
relate to those approved by the
Government even under the
pressure of event.
A.
54
PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
Government
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
3
In addition, UNDP provides administrative and operational support to
the resident coordinator function, particularly at country level, but also at
headquarters.
In the event of a disaster, UNDP may grant a maximum of $50,000 from SPR
funds to provide immediate relief. UNDP is not otherwise involved in the
provision of relief using any of its own resources or other funds administered
by the Program.
Where a major emergency substantially affects the whole development
process within a country, IPF resources may be used to provide technical assistance to plan and manage the operation, with the agreement of the Government.
Technical and material assistance in support of long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures is included in the country program, and may be funded
from IPF resources or from other UNDP-administered funds. The same can also
be used to assist rehabilitation and reconstruction. Special additional grants (up
to $1.1 million) may be made from SPR funds for technical assistance to such
post-disaster recovery efforts following natural disasters.
The particular responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative are
summarized in the following panel.
Disaster management responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative
The resident representative is responsible for:
a) Ensuring that all concerned in planning development programs are aware of
any known or potential hazards and their likely effects, and that these are
appropriately taken into account in the country program.
b) Designating a disaster focal point, and ensuring that the field office is
adequately prepared to respond to an emergency.
c) In the event of a disaster:
"
Mobilizing UNDP staff and technical assistance personnel and other
resources that meet the needs of the situation, particularly those needed
for the initial assessment and immediate response.
"
Ensuring that UNDP assistance is used to good effect, and the capacity
of the office is strengthened if necessary to ensure effective response.
56
PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
staffed by persons seconded from sister UN agencies that are operational in that
country.
In the event of a sudden influx of refugees into a country in which there is no
UNHCR representation, the resident representative immediately notifies
UNHCR and initiates the assessment process on behalf of the UNHCR. (See
section 4A.5 of the manual.)
57
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
3
"
UNDP/UNDRO collaboration
UNDP and UNDRO complement each other. UNDP has a wealth of experience
in development planning and administration, and well-established field offices.
UNDRO has specific knowledge and experience in disaster management, and
established contacts with relevant specialist bodies. The fact that the UNDP
resident representative also represents UNDRO helps to ensure fruitful cooperation between the organizations.
At the country level UNDP field offices generally administer funds and
resources channelled through UNDRO, following normal inter-agency procedures. This includes the local procurement of supplies and services, and the
recruitment and appointment of temporary staff.
;
58
PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
59
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Coordination
Coordination as used in the manual, means:
" The intelligent sharing of information and the frank, constructive
discussion of issues and possible courses of action.
" Achieving consensus on objectives and an overall strategy.
" The voluntary adoption by those concerned of specific responsibilities
and tasks in the context of the agreed objectives and strategy.
Coordination is based on mutual respect for the competencies and
agreed responsibilities of each party, and willingness to co-operate in
addressing and solving problems in pursuit of a common aim.
60
PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster management team, roles
and resources
A.
61
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
FIN
ANCING
FINANCING
OPCIONS
CHAPTER 7
Disaster pr
epar
edness
pre
paredness
The concept of disaster preparedness is quite straightforward. Its objective is to
ensure that in times of disasters appropriate systems, procedures and resources
are in place to assist those afflicted by the disaster and enable them to help
themselves.
The aims of disaster preparedness are to
minimize the adverse effects of a hazard through
effective precautionary actions, and to ensure
timely, appropriate and efficient organization and
delivery of emergency response following the
impact of a disaster.
This definition establishes the broad
framework for disaster preparedness, but it is
worth dwelling on some of the points implicit in
the definition.
to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard
It is important to note that the term used is precautionary actions, for all
too often the end product of disaster preparedness is seen as a static plan to be
devised and then filed until it is needed. Disaster preparedness, to the contrary,
must be seen as an active and continuing process. Of course, both plans and
strategies are required, but they both must be dynamic ventures, which are
frequently reviewed, modified, updated and tested.
to ensure timely, appropriate, and efficient organization and delivery
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
63
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Planning
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
Fujieda, Japan
School children
practicing an
earthquake safety drill.
From Nature on the
Rampage. Photo by Paul
Chesley.
Rehearsals (drills)
As military maneuvers cannot fully portray the
reality of battle, neither can disaster preparedness rehearsals portray the full
dynamics and potential chaos of a disaster
relief operation. However, that fact should
provide no excuse for avoiding the need to
rehearse the disaster preparedness plan. Not
only will rehearsals reemphasize points made
in separate training programmes, but they
will also test the system as a whole and,
invariably, reveal gaps that otherwise might
be overlooked.1
65
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
4
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters
Preparedness activities for slow onset disasters often vary from those of sudden
onset. Slow onset disasters may require more active involvement on the part of
planners, especially in terms of monitoring early warning systems, for famine,
war, and civil strife. The remedial response to problems indicated by the early
warning (of potential disasters) is an extension of preparedness.
Preparedness for sudden onset disasters include the monitoring of the
predictions and warnings of disasters that may occur within a matter of days or
hours. The emergency may develop over a very brief time frame and depend on
a very different set of procedures and resources than the slow onset emergency.
A.
Assessing vulnerability
Planning
Institutional framework
Information systems
Resource base
Warning systems
Response mechanisms
Rehearsals
66
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
A.
Disaster preparedness components
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Vulnerability assessment
Planning
Institutional framework
Information systems
Resource base
Warning systems
Response mechanisms
Public education and training
Rehearsals
Examples
Updates to vulnerability assessments
Assessment teams and search and rescue
A map showing a population living in a flood zone
Practice
Designing the activities promoting disaster preparedness
The required material and logistical support for an emergency
Organizational arrangements to maximize coordination
A poster explaining what to do when an earthquake hits
Communications procedures as part of the system
The remainder of this chapter is from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
ANSWER
1-C
2-E
3-G
4-A
5-F
6-I
7-B
8-H
9-D
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
67
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
The history of the incidence and magnitude of particular types of disasters in different
areas, their impacts on the population and the economy.
The types of emergency and post-disaster assistance provided from all sources in the
past; the effectiveness of that assistance given the problems faced the lessons
learned.
The kinds of needs which can therefore be anticipated in particular areas and
circumstances, and the kinds of assistance interventions which might be required.
National
policies
68
From UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual, Appendix 3B
Policies with regard to the soliciting, acceptance and use of international assistance,
including external personnel.
The authority delegated to local institutions, and the possible roles of national NGOs
and outside assistance agencies.
Policies and criteria for any distribution of relief: whether to be on a free, for-sale or
on-credit basis; what, if any, differentiation should be encouraged within and between
different population subgroups.
The particular objectives and standards which should be applied to ration scales for
food and water, and any distribution of shelter materials and household supplies.
Specifications of the kinds of food and other commodities which are appropriate and
acceptable as donations, and those which are not.
General specifications for the kind of energy sources normally preferred for vehicles
(diesel or petrol) and generators and pumps (diesel or electric).
$
$
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
"
"
"
"
"
Water supplies
"
Environmental sanitation
"
"
Communications
"
"
"
Security
DMT
CHECKLIST
$ Role of the national armed forces and relationship between the civil and military
authorities in directing operations.
communities, including average family size, sources and levels of income, and any
traditional patterns of seasonal migration.
Formal and informal leadership structures, any particular social or religious
considerations, traditional community support processes at times of disaster,
and any taboos.
General climatic conditions, including day and night temperatures at different times of
year.
Local food habits, including weaning practices, of the various socio-economic groups.
Normal nutritional status of children, including any normal seasonal variations.
Diseases endemic to the area, including prevailing patterns of mortality and morbidity.
Normal sources of water: sources and methods of extraction; treatment;
and distribution.
69
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
$ Food supply systems and local production: types, seasonal production cycles and
$
$
normal yields of both major crops and small gardens, and average on-farm stock
retention levels.
Services operating (official and non-official): health, education, rural development,
public works, and social welfare. This should include the location and specific nature
of the services provided and the personnel employed.
Coverage and general condition of the infrastructure, including roads,
telecommunications, and electricity supplies.
Medical/health care4
$ Hospitals, clinics and other health facilities: number of beds, ambulances, availability
$
of special equipment, number of trained doctors, nurses and nurses aides, contacts at
all facilities.
Stocks and sources of medical supplies: names, addresses, and telephone/fax/telex
numbers of all medical supply stores; manufacturers of pharmaceuticals and supplies;
and laboratories producing vaccines and serums.
Food supplies
$ Location, capacities, and normal stock levels of food stores, telephone/fax/telex
$
"
"
"
"
"
"
Information should be assured by WHO staff in the context of preparedness profiles issued by
WHO headquarters.
Nutrition aspects may not be a priority concern in the immediate aftermath of a sudden natural
disaster, but are crucial in all emergency situations of extended duration, especially droughts,
famines, and in all cases involving population displacements.
70
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
$ The availability of mobile water treatment units and generators through the military or
major contractors.
$ Sources of trained personnel and tools to undertake rapid repairs or to construct new
or temporary installations.
DMT
CHECKLIST
"
Blankets
"
Cooking pots and utensils (household size, and institutional size for communal
kitchens)
Construction equipment
$ Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of road and building contractors,
$
Communications
$ Contacts within the responsible authorities for establishing telecommunications
$
service, including the repair of normal systems and the installation of temporary radio
networks, where needed.
Policies concerning the use of communications equipment by international teams and
aid organizations.
"
"
Mark potential constraints on truck traffic (such as bridge load capacities and ferry
movement capacities), and any points vulnerable to occurrences such as flooding
or landslides
$ Trucking capacity
"
Government fleets: the number and condition of trucks of specified types and
capacities in different departments and locations which might be available to
transport relief supplies
"
71
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
$ Railways
"
Track gauges, wagon capacities, and any loading constraints on various lines
"
Daily movement capacities on various lines, and the numbers of locomotives and
wagons which might be available during each season
"
"
"
Size of covered and open storage areas, and amount normally available at
different seasons
"
Government craft: the numbers and condition of boats, tugs and barges (of
specified types and capacities) in different locations which might be available for
rescue operations or to transport relief supplies
"
The precise locations and the length, width, surface and load classification of
runways in the affected areas
"
"
"
"
"
National airline and other companies: number and types of aircraft and helicopters
likely to be available to transport personnel and relief supplies; approximate
charter costs
Government warehouses: the location, size, and type of stores in different areas
which might be available for relief supplies; the general condition of the sores,
level of security, access to road and rail transport, the availability of pallets, hand
trucks, and forklifts, and the adequacy of staff and record systems
"
72
The locations, capacities, and normal stock levels of government and commercial
fuel storage deports; the arrangements by which fuel can be drawn or delivered
from those depots.
PART
CHAPTER 7
Disaster
preparedness
A.
Disaster profile of country
National policies, objectives and standards
Govt structures for warning/post-disaster response
Other external and national assistance organizations
Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area
Human and material resources:
Medical/health care
Food supplies
Nutrition and epidemiology
Water supplies, hygiene and environmental sanitation
Emergency shelter and relief materials
Construction equipment
Communications
Logistics systems and facilities:
Roads
Trucking capacity
Railways
Sea and river ports
Coastal and river craft
Airports and air-strips
Aircraft and air transport
Storage and handling
Fuel supplies
A.
73
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
!
CHAPTER 8
Vulner
ability and risk assessment1
ulnera
This chapter considers the nature of risk; discusses the techniques by
which natural hazards and the accompanying risk of future losses can be
estimated; and it discusses the ways in wich future risk estimates can be
used to assist the choice of the optimum disaster mitigation strategy.
First, let us review the definitions of the key terms. Risk is the
expected lives lost, persons injured, property damaged, and economic
activity disrupted due to a particular hazard. Risk is the probability of a
disaster occurring and resulting in a particular level of loss.
Risk assessment determines the scale of the estimated losses which can be
anticipated in particular areas during a specified time period.
Risk management
One of the underlying principles of this training module is that most
people working in development are involved in disaster management at
one time or another. Even if you, as a generalist or a sectoral specialist, do
not have an active role to play in some of the other disaster phases, you
do play an important role when it comes to risk management. The design
of development projects should include an exercise in risk management.
The overall task of risk management must include both an estimation
of the magnitude of a particular risk and an evaluation of how important
to us the risk is. The process of risk management therefore has two parts:
risk assessment and risk evaluation. Risk assessment requires the
quantification of the risk from data and understanding the processes
involved. Risk evaluation is the judgement that a society places on the
risks that face them in deciding what to do about them.
Risk probability
Risks are often quantified in generalized ways. For example, there is a
probability of an individual dying in any one year of : 1 in 200 if he or she
smokes 10 cigarettes a day; 1 in 23,000 in an earthquake in Iran; and 1 in
10,000,000 of being hit by lightning in the USA. Such gross risk estimates
can be useful for comparative purposes, but usually conceal large
variations in the risk to individuals or different regions. In the case of
Iran, people who live closer to an earthquake fault are at greater risk than
those that live far away. Similarly, people who live in poorly constructed
masonry houses near a fault are more at risk than those who may live
nearby in well built wood structures.
74
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Vulnerability and Risk
Assessment written by A.W. Cobum, R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis
PART
CHAPTER 8
Vulnerability and
risk assessment
75
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Table 1
76
PART
CHAPTER 8
Vulnerability and
risk assessment
Vulnerability evaluation
Vulnerability is the propensity of things to be damaged by a hazard. Peoples
lives and health are at risk directly from the destructive effects of the hazard.
Their incomes and livelihood are at risk because of the destruction of the
buildings, crops, livestock or equipment which these depend on. Each type of
hazard puts a somewhat different set of elements at risk. Most of disaster
mitigation work is focused on reducing vulnerability, and in order to act to
reduce vulnerability, development planners need an understanding of which
elements are most at risk from the principal hazards which have been identified.
Vulnerability assessment is the process of estimating the vulnerability to
potential disaster hazards of specified elements at risk. For general socioeconomic purposes it involves consideration of all significant elements in society,
including physical, social and economic considerations, and the extent to which
essential services will be able to continue functioning.
As we have noted in Chapter 1 the root causes of vulnerability to disasters
in developing countries are poverty and inequitable development. Rapid population
growth, urban or mass migration, inequitable patterns of land ownership, lack of
education, and subsistence agriculture on marginal lands lead to vulnerable
conditions such as unsafe siting of buildings and settlements, unsafe homes,
deforestation, malnutrition, unemployment, underemployment, and illiteracy.
77
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Figure 8.1
1HAZARD
2ELEMENTS AT RISK
(population)
3VULNERABILITY
4CASUALTY RISK
(potential loss of life)
78
PART
CHAPTER 8
Vulnerability and
risk assessment
79
80
ANSWER
Step one: Review the
history of tropical storms to
estimate the probablity of
one occurring during the
lifetime of your project.
Step two: Inventory the
elements at risk.
Step three: Determine the
vulnerability of the elements
at risk by estimating
a) how badly damaged
the buildings might be,
b) the number of people
potentially killed or injured
c) the level of disruption
of employment or the
economic base of your
project.
A.
economic development of a community in an area where tropical storms
occur. You want to do an analysis of the most appropriate types of
projects to achieve economic development. As part of your analysis how
would you conduct a risk and vulnerability assessment?
Q. Imagine that you are working for an agency responsible for the
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
PART
CONTENTS
DISASTER RESPONSE
81
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
DISASTER RESPONSE
After reading the material and completing the exercises in Part 3 you should be
able to:
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
identify the objectives of disaster assessment and how assessment data is used
describe the role of your UN organization in the various disaster response activities
!
CHAPTER 9
Disas
ter rresponse
esponse
Disaster
Disaster response is the sum total of actions
taken by people and institutions in the face of
disaster. These actions commence with the
warning of an oncoming threatening event or
with the event itself if it occurs without warning. Disaster response includes the implementation of disaster preparedness plans and procedures, thus overlaping with disaster preparedness. The end of disaster response comes with
the completion of response comes with the
completion of disaster rehabilitation programmes.
This chapter identifies the principal activities of
disaster response. Each activity is, formally or
informally governed by a set of policies and
procedures, and each activity is typically under
the auspices of a lead agency. In the end,
disaster response activities are implemented by
a myriad of government organizations, international and national agencies, local entities and
individuals, each with their roles and responsibilities.
A full discussion of disaster response would, for each activity, identify:
!
!
!
!
!
82
PART
CHAPTER 9
Disaster
reponse
Warning
SUDDEN ONSET
SLOW ONSET
Evacuation/migration
SUDDEN ONSET Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones
at risk of an imminent disaster to a safer location. Evacuation is most commonly
associated with tropical storms but is also a frequent requirement with technological or industrial accidents. For evacuation to work there must be a timely and
accurate warning system, clear identification of escape routes, an established
policy that requires everyone to evacuate when an order is given, and a public
education programme to make the community aware of the plan.
SLOW ONSET
The movement of people from the zone where they are at risk to a
safer site is not, in fact, evacuation but crisis-induced migration. This movement
is usually not organized and coordinated by authorities but is a spontaneous
response to the perception by the migrants that food and/or security can be
obtained elsewhere.
83
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Post-disaster assessment
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET
Emergency relief
SUDDEN ONSET Emergency relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of
material aid and emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve
human lives. It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and
health care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare
food). Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the
days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster.
SLOW ONSET
84
PART
CHAPTER 9
Disaster
reponse
Security
SUDDEN ONSET
SLOW ONSET
85
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Q. In the following matrix of disaster response activities and agencies, select a disaster type of interest to
you and fill in the matrix with the agency that has primary responsibility for that activity. Indicate agencies
with secondary responsibilities.
86
PART
CHAPTER 10
Disaster
assessment
!
CHAPTER 10
Disaster assessment1
Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society.
The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to
save and sustain the lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the
possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and
involving on-the-spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation of
information from various sources. These surveys concern both direct and indirect
losses as well as the short- and long-term effects. Assessment involves
determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed,
but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided
to the victims.
Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They
include the preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage
resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment may also include
recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of
structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities.
Objectives of assessment
The first objective of a post-disaster assessment is to determine when an
emergency exists. Next, define the actions and resources needed to reduce
immediate threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems.
A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or
survival needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead
the assessment must also identify the local response capacity, including
organizational, medical, and logistical resources. The assessment must help
decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the
priorities of the affected people themselves.
Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the
disaster area may have a difficult time distinguishing chronic needs from
problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to
identify the starting point for post-disaster needs. This information is
established in the preparedness checklist in Chapter 7.
If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster
response program, then the response agency must also know the policies of the
government with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the
estimate for the additional support required from national and international
sources for relief.
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Disaster
Assessment by Rob Stephenson of the Relief and Development Institute.
87
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Figure 10.1
Evolving objectives
of assessment
Warning Phase
!
!
Emergency Phase
!
!
!
!
!
!
Rehabilitation Phase
!
!
!
!
Recovery Phase
!
!
!
88
PART
CHAPTER 10
Disaster
assessment
Figure 10.2
Disaster
Identify information,
needs and resources
Report conclusions
Collect data
89
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
ANSWER
Review Figure 10.1
for sample answers.
90
rehabilitation:
recovery:
PART
CHAPTER 10
Disaster
assessment
Sample assessment
format
By Intertect for the Office
Of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance.
91
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
!
CHAPTER 11
UN rresponse
esponse to disaster
s1
disasters
Principal elements and actions in response to a
sudden disaster
The vast majority of international emergency and post-disaster assistance is
funded by special contributions to the UN agencies, or is delivered bilaterally or
through NGOs. Action by UNDRO, the resident coordinator/representative and
the UN-DMT is therefore extremely important: information management and
exchange, coordination, preparation of appeals, and the mobilization of
resources. The extent to which the resident coordinator/representative and the
UN-DMT are involved in these activities, and in the provision of direct
operational support to the Government, will depend on the nature and scale of
the emergency situation, on the capacity and wishes of the national authorities,
and on the resources which can be mobilized.
The above applies in emergency situations which require action by a number
of UN organizations/agencies (possibly including UNDP) and, in consequence,
coordination by the resident coordinator and UNDRO. In situations which fall
entirely within the mandate of one specific organ of the UN system (e.g. and
epidemic or crop pest attack), primary responsibility rests with the appropriate
agency (e.g. WHO, FAO) although the country-level UN Disaster Management
Team may, if required, play a role in support of that agency. (The information
dissemination services of UNDRO may also be made available to the agency
concerned at the international level.)
The following is a list of the principal actions to be taken by the resident
coordinator/representative and the UN-DMT immediately before and during a
disaster.
%
%
%
%
1
92
This chapter is condensed from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual, Chapter 4
PART
%
%
CHAPTER 11
UN reponse to
disasters
93
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
" Help
94
PART
CHAPTER 11
UN reponse to
disasters
or
(4122)-7332010
(4122)-7346011
Telex
414242 DRO CH
Fax
(4122)-7335623
Electronic mail
UNX008
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Fig.11.1
Sitreps and
international
information flows
General situation
National response
Country-level international response
Requirements for international assistance
Channels for delivery of international aid
International pledges and contributions
Other information
PART
CHAPTER 11
UN reponse to
disasters
Compiling and analyzing information and preparing reports on needs for and use of international
assistance
"
Establishing and operating more comprehensive management information systems in support of the
responsible government authorities
"
Convening information and co-ordination meetings involving government bodies, donors, NGOs, and
the UN organizations and agencies.
# Ensure the convening of regular, broad-based co-ordination meetings (probably weekly); encourage
constructive discussion; promote consensus on actions by all concerned; provide secretariat service, if
required.
# Specify the information management functions to be fulfilled by the resident co-ordinator and UN-DMT,
and the resources (staff, equipment, office space, budget) required.
# Initiate the needed information systems and services using existing staff facilities; inform UNDRO,
the regional bureau, and local donor representatives of requirements to develop and continue.
# Establish and emergency information and co-ordination (EIC) support unit, where needed, as a
collaborative UN-DMT effort; encourage all UN-DMT members to second staff, co-operate in mobilizing
other needed resources, and use the facilities.
# Disseminate information regularly to all concerned government departments, donors and NGOs; fax
copies to UNDRO.
# Encourage all concerned to be consistent in the use of agreed criteria, standards, and terminology, and
to harmonize reporting periods to the extent feasible.
# Help direct the attention of NGOs to areas and activities where they can make the greatest contribution
(not necessarily in the most affected areas).
Do you know the UN personnel security plan? What would you do?
97
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
!
CHAPTER 12
Reha
bilita
tion and rreconstr
econstr
uction
ehabilita
bilitation
econstruction
Rehabilitation and reconstruction comprise most of the
disaster recovery phase. This period following the
emergency phase focuses on activities that enable
victims to resume normal, viable lives and means of
livelihood. It also includes the restoration of
infrastructure, services and the economy in a manner
appropriate to long-term needs and defined
development objectives. Nevertheless, after some
disasters, there also may be a need for continuing
humanitarian assistance for selected vulnerable
groups.
This chapter provides brief guidelines concerning
assistance to rehabilitation and reconstruction
following a disaster. Although presented here as a
separate chapter, rehabilitation and reconstruction
must, in fact, be planned for either at the same time as
relief, or built up during the relief operations.
Rehabilitation
For some agencies it is important to distinguish between rehabilitation and
reconstruction. Specifically, rehabilitation is the actions taken in the aftermath of
a disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, assist victims self-help
efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and facilitate the revival of
economic activities (including agriculture).
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and
local communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life.
It may be considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii)
more major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely
damaged physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local
infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy (including agriculture).
Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing long-term development
plans, taking account of future disaster risks. It must also consider the
possibilities of reducing those risks by the incorporation of appropriate
mitigation measures. Damaged structures and services may not necessarily be
restored in their previous form or locations. It may include the replacement of
any temporary arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or
rehabilitation.
Under conditions of conflict, however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may
not be feasible. For obvious reasons of safety and security, activities in
rehabilitation and reconstruction may need to wait until peace allows them.
98
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
1
2
The rest of this chapter is taken from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
Frederick C. Cuny, quoted by lan Davis in "Disasters and the small dwelling, progress in the past
decade and key issues for IDNDR," outline position paper, September 1990.
99
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
100
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
This case study has been adapted from Disasters and Development by Frederick C. Cuny, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1983.
101
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
The setting
The Republic of Zenon is a small, heavily populated country situated on the
coast of a major landmass in the Tropics. The land bulges out into a shallow gulf,
and coastline forms 60 percent of its border. Isolated fishing villages dot the
coast, but most of the fertile coastal plain is inhabited by farmers who work small
subsistence rice paddies. The remainder of the countryside is mountainous, and
here small farmers strive to eke a living from eroded hillsides denuded by years
of deforestation.
The poverty of the mountains has driven thousands of families to the capital,
which lies on the south coast of the country. Many families live in squalid shanty
towns scattered throughout the city, and many have recently been moved to Port
Sound, a controversial new town built on a marshy area several kilometers from
the capital. Port Sound, touted by the government as a model community and
criticized by the opposition as an instant slum, is less than one meter above the
high-tide level.
August 28
Satellite observation and aircraft monitoring indicate that
the depression has become a tropical storm.
In Zenon, the chief weather service forecaster follows procedure and notifies the
director of the Emergency Preparedness Committee (EPC). The forecaster also
reviews the difference between a hurricane watch (a first-stage alert given 48
hours before a hurricane is expected to strike) and a hurricane warning (posted
when the hurricane is only 24 hours away). The director of the EPC notifies a few
key government personnel and suggests that preliminary actions be taken in case
a hurricane should develop. One hour later, a synopsis of the storm is broadcast
over the national radio system.
The public takes little notice of the storm, which is still more than
1200 kilometers away.
August 29
Satellite photos and reconnaissance flights through the storm indicate that it is
now a full-fledged hurricane. The IHTN alerts governments of the countries in
the region and various international organizations.
At 2:00 p.m., the director of the EPC calls a meeting for 7:00 p.m. to bring
members up-to-date on the hurricanes progress and projected direction.
102
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
Later the meeting convenes with only seven of the twelve members present. The
weather service forecaster repeats the briefing. The committee asks the forecaster
to predict the hurricanes path, but the request is refused. One of the committee
members goes into another room and telephones the International Hurricane
Tracking Network (IHTN). She is given a more detailed briefing and a
description of the projected hurricane track. The briefer at the IHTN adds that in
his own estimate the hurricane is not likely to strike Zenon because it is moving
in a direction that will take it north of the country. The committee member
returns and tells the committee what she has learned. The committee decides not
to issue a statement because it would alarm the public.
Elsewhere, the monthly meeting of the Association of Humanitarian Agencies in
Zenon (AHAZ) is being held. At the end of the meeting, one of the members asks
what plans are being made to prepare for the hurricane. The chair replies,
Zenon doesnt have hurricanes.
August 30
The hurricane intensifies and begins to move in a westward direction. The radio
gives hourly reports on its position and notes that it has changed direction and is
now moving toward the north eastern coast of Zenon.
At 10:00 a.m., another meeting of the EPC is called. The weather service has
indicated that it will issue a hurricane watch that afternoon unless the storm
changes direction. The committee begins to draw up its operational plans. The
first item is to find a strong building with good communications to use as an
emergency operations center.
During the afternoon, meetings are held at various government ministries to
prepare for the hurricane. The protection of equipment critical to the operation of
each ministry is given a high priority. Building materials and sandbags are
requested from the public works department to protect installations in the lowlying and exposed areas, but available supplies are soon exhausted.
Precautionary measures along the coast are fairly extensive; little attention is
given to areas further inland.
The Zenon Red Cross reviews its plans for dealing with the disaster. It has a
series of guides issued by the League of Red Cross/Red crescent Societies to
serve as a model for its own activities. As staff review the guides, it becomes
clear that most are for actions that should have been taken long ago, and there is
little that can be done before the disaster strikes. Nevertheless, at the end of its
meeting, the director notifies the government that the Red Cross is ready.
August 31
At 1:00 a.m., the storm intensifies again. At 1:15 a.m., the weather service issues a
hurricane warning.
The prime minister calls the EPC to check on its activities. The director assures
the prime minister that everything possible is being done. At the same moment,
the EPC is trying to develop an evacuation plan and to find a list of buildings
designated as hurricane shelters to give to the news media.
At dawn, the citizens of Zenon awake to hear the radio announce the hurricane
warning. The newspaper publishes the newly found list of buildings designated
as hurricane shelters, some of which no longer exist. The EPC later goes on the
103
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
radio with a new list of shelters and urges persons in low-lying areas along the
coast to evacuate.
By noon the only signs of the approaching hurricane are the rising tides along
the upper portions of the eastern coast. Winds are now gusting, and there are
intermittent rain showers.
Members of the EPC are running out of time. Hundreds of details remain, and
each minute someone thinks of some new precautionary measure that should be
taken.
At 4:30 p.m., the foreign news teams arrive and begin their live televised reports.
The first story describes the profiteering in the sale of emergency supplies and
shows pictures of several well-armed store owners defending their property
against looters.
At 5:00 p.m., the weather service announces that the hurricanes course has
now changed, putting it on a track for the central and southern portions of the
country. The impact is predicted for the early morning hours of the following
day. Winds are now gusting up to 60 kilometers per hour.
The EPC receives the news with great anxiety. Most of the preparedness
activities have focused on the northern regions, not the south. Warnings are
quickly issued to evacuate Port Sound.
Twenty minutes later, the prime minister goes on the national radio and
television to issue a plea to all persons in low-lying areas to evacuate as quickly
as possible. He suggests that those who cannot escape should seek shelter in
churches and schools.
In Port Sound, the sea level is one meter above normal. Water is coming across
the road that separates the community from the sea, and large breakers are
quickly eroding the roadbed. Vehicles attempting to evacuate have stalled. The
residents of Port Sound begin moving away from the sea on the only other road
that links the area with higher ground, but this road is
also low and crosses two streams that are now flooding.
At 10:00 p.m., a bridge collapses and the people are
stranded.
Word of the plight of Port Sound is flashed to the EPC.
It orders an army engineering battalion to attempt to
evacuate the people. The army sends a truckload of
small boats to the fallen bridge but, by the time it arrives,
the surface is too rough and the plan is abandoned. Twenty-five hundred
families begin scrambling to their rooftops. Two thousand people will not make
it to safety.
September 1
Communication from the capital to outlying areas is lost.
At 2:00 a.m., passage of the eye of the hurricane is recorded at Port Williams, 45
kilometers north of the capital. Winds in the capital reach a peak of 200
kilometers per hour.
104
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
Aftermath
By dawn on September 1, the winds have subsided to 100 kilometers per hour,
and a few people are beginning to venture outside to see the damage. By 10:00
a.m., winds are still gusty, but it is possible to leave shelters and other structures
without too much danger.
In the capital, wind damage is severe. Almost every house has been damaged
somewhat. The slums have suffered heavily, with total destruction of buildings
as high as 85 percent in some areas. Casualties exceed the capacity of the hospital
by 200 percent. A major disaster is reported at Port Sound, but has not yet been
verified.
At noon, the prime minister orders a helicopter to take him, the director of the
EPC, the Red Cross chair, and several cabinet ministers over the affected area. In
their flight over the capital, the prime minister is shocked at the extent of the
damage. As the helicopter moves over Port Sound, the extent of the devastation
and loss of life is shockingly apparent. The few survivors cling to the tops of the
few buildings that have survived the storm. As the helicopters of the prime
ministers party swoop low overhead, all aboard see frantic gestures for help.
At the Emergency Operations Center, reports are fragmented and confused.
The death toll and damage are reported high in all parts of the affected area.
It is difficult to discern a pattern because the reports are not submitted in
any standard form or classified according to priority. The Emergency
Preparedness Committee is barraged by reporters clamoring for information.
Members of the EPC decide that their first action should be to conduct an
extensive survey of the damage. Their second action is to appoint the Red Cross
as coordinator for all emergency relief.
By nightfall, more contingents of foreign press arrive. By the next day, their
reports will have made Zenon the number one news story in the world.
At 8:00 p.m., the EPC meets with representatives of the voluntary agencies and
the foreign embassies. The director of the EPC reports on casualties and damage
and lists the pledges of aid and assistance that have been received from other
governments. The agencies ask for instructions, but it soon becomes clear that
no reconstruction plans or activities have been prepared. The EPCs apparent
indecision and lack of leadership is reported to the prime minister.
All through the night, casualties continue to arrive at hospitals and aid stations
in the affected zones.
September 2
At 7:00 a.m., the prime minister announces that he has taken personal command
of the emergency operations and reconstruction and has appointed a new
Disaster Relief Committee to take over from the EPC.
In the foreign ministry, offers of assistance are pouring in. At the airport, the first
flights of relief goods arriving. They consist of tents, medicine, blankets, and
military ration packs.
At 10:00 a.m., a local doctor reports a possible case of cholera. The prime minister
orders mass inoculation of all persons in the disaster area.
Churches report that spontaneous donations of clothing are heavy and ask the
Red Cross to arrange for helicopters to carry the donations to the mountains. The
105
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
September 3
The airlift of aid continues. The majority of aid is provided by foreign
governments, many of which have stockpiles of relief goods. Shipments from
nongovernmental agencies also begin to arrive. Some of these materials,
especially aid from governments, come from stockpiles, and these are sorted,
bundled, and well-marked. Other materials are simply packed according to size,
with each bundle containing a hodgepodge of different materials, which must be
sorted upon arrival in Zenon.
By noon, groups of villagers from remote highland areas begin to filter into aid
stations to report massive destruction and heavy loss of life due to landslides and
flooding in the denuded mountains. Overseas, more news stories arrive daily
with scenes of death and destruction in Zenon.
September 4
Now that certain roads have been re-opened, the government begins distribution
of relief goods outside the capital. Supplies had been confined to deliveries of
food and medicine by helicopter, but now truck convoys are able to take larger
amounts and a wider variety of aid to the rural areas.
At the airport, a call goes out for
volunteers to help sort relief
materials. The sheer volume
of the material and the
confusion caused by poor
packaging require several
thousand people working at
the airport and at other
sorting centers.
106
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
Throughout the affected area, a tremendous salvage effort is taking place. People
are busy trying to gather up as much building material as possible, especially the
tin roofs found wrapped around trees, curled on the ground, or lying intact.
Thousands of makeshift shelters have been built out of the rubble. Several
foreign press correspondents assigned to do a story about the need for tents ask a
group of victims to stop hammering so that their sound technician can record an
interview with a relief official arriving with a shipment of tents.
September 5
Helicopters arrive from the overseas military bases of a friendly government.
Their first activity is to airlift a complete field hospital to the delta region.
In the capital, the Disaster Relief Committee (DRC) calls a meeting of relief
agencies. To reduce duplication of effort, the government asks each agency to
take responsibility for relief and reconstruction in one particular sector. A list of
communities is placed on the board and each agency selects one to assist. Several
voluntary agencies that have worked in the country for many years are not
present at the meeting (later referred to as the lottery), and the areas where
they have had extensive experience are assigned to other agencies. No attempt is
made to verify the qualifications or capacities of any of the new agencies
present at the meeting.
September 6
Reports of corruption and favoritism in the distribution of relief supplies are
reported in the press. The prime minister asks the churches to form committees
to oversee the distribution of relief goods in each community.
During the day, three different voluntary agencies call coordination meetings in
separate locations.
September 7
At 10:00 a.m., the Disaster Relief Committee calls a coordination meeting
between the government and voluntary agencies to discuss housing
reconstruction.
107
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
108
PART
CHAPTER 12
Rehabilitation and
reconstruction
Housing reconstruction and agricultural recovery are proving difficult for some
of the volunteer agencies. They cable their headquarters for permission to hire
several noted specialists recommended by a local university. Fearful that the
hiring of consultants will add to overhead costs that donors would criticize, the
headquarters decide against hiring the specialists.
October-March
Aid continues to arrive. The local relief committees have been re-formed as
reconstruction committees. Food aid is now arriving in ever increasing
quantities. There is continuing opposition to the food program, however,
especially from the Agricultural Ministry. Its fears that farmers would not
replant are coming true. The ministry thus proposes a system of price supports,
but the only farms eligible are the larger farms along the coast.
As reconstruction progresses, the government realizes that its policy on
permanent housing is unrealistic and agrees to permit reconstruction programs
to rebuild traditional housing as long as the resulting construction is safe. The
Housing Bank, however, refuses to grant loans to people working with
traditional materials.
At a meeting of the NRC, the secretary reports on a survey of housing
reconstruction programs. Forty-five nongovernmental organizations are
involved in housing reconstruction. Twenty-nine are located in the capital or the
immediate vicinity, ten are located along the highway connecting the capital and
the delta, and the other six are located in the mountains. The report also shows
that only 35 percent of the total area affected by the hurricane is receiving
reconstruction assistance. Therefore the government must establish a housing
program to fill the gaps.
Midyear
Six months after the disaster, all but a few foreign agencies have departed,
claiming to have completed reconstruction of their assigned areas. The NRC
surveys indicate that work is incomplete. Sixty percent of the urban residents
and 85 percent of the people in the rural areas are still without replacement
housing.
109
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Midyear marks the end of the first post-disaster harvest. Observers notice a
resurgence in housing demand, as people now have the time and capital to
rebuild. However, only a few agencies remain to provide technical or financial
assistance. Even among those agencies that want to stay, funds for continued
operations are not available. To help meet the new demand, the government
seeks a loan from the International Bank to finance other reconstruction
activities. After two months, the loan is approved in principle, but funds cannot
be made available until the next fiscal year, further delaying reconstruction.
In the agricultural sector, surveys indicate that decreased agricultural production
necessitates continued food aid for another year. A report by the Agricultural
Ministry that the number of small farmers has declined by seven to ten percent,
and that a significant portion of the land formerly devoted to growing rice in
the delta region is now used to produce cotton and other cash crops, goes
unnoticed.
A.
110
PART
PART
CONTENTS
DISASTER MITIGA
TION
MITIGATION
111
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
DISASTER MITIGA
TION
MITIGATION
After reading Part Four and completing the exercises, you should know the basic
concepts, aims and elements of disaster mitigation. You will be able to describe:
!
!
!
!
!
!
CHAPTER 13
Mitig
ation1
Mitiga
Mitigation is one of the positive links between disasters
and development. Agencies, communities, and
individuals can use their development resources to
reduce the risk of hazards through mitigation projects.
They can also ensure that their other development
initiatives contain components that mitigate against
future disaster.
In its broadest usage, mitigation has become a
collective term used to encompass all actions taken
prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster
measures). This includes long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures.
Many individuals and institutions, however, apply
a narrower definition to mitigation. They use mitigation
to mean actions taken to reduce both human suffering
and property loss resulting from extreme natural
phenomena. The concept of mitigation accepts the fact
that some hazard event may occur but tries to lessen the
impact by improving the communitys ability to absorb
the impact with minimum damage or disruptive effect. More simply stated, for
this group, mitigation is risk reduction.
Mitigation applies to a wide range of activities and protection measures that
might be instigated: from the physical, like constructing stronger buildings or
agricultural diversification, to the procedural, like standard techniques for
incorporating hazard assessment in land-use planning.
In the 1990s, a major effort is underway to encourage the implementation of
disaster mitigation techniques in development projects around the world. The
General Assembly of the United Nations has adopted the decade of the 1990s as
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The aim is to make a
significant reduction in the losses of life and material damage caused by disasters
by the end of the decade.
1
112
Adapted from the UNDP/UNDRO training module, Disaster Mitigation by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S.
Spence, and A. Pomonis, Cambridge, June 1991.
PART
CHAPTER 13
Disaster
mitigation
Disaster have, until recently, been seen in much the same way as disease
was in the early 19th century: unpredictable, unlucky and part of the everyday
risk of living. Concentrations of people and rising population levels across the
globe are increasing the risk of disasters and multiplying the consequences of
natural hazards when they occur. However, the epidemiology of disasters
the systematic science of what happens in a disastershows that disasters are
largely preventable. There are many ways to reduce the impact of a disaster and
to mitigate the effects of a possible hazard, accident, or conflict.
Just like the fight against disease, the fight against disasters has to be fought
by everyone together. It must involve public and private sector investment,
changes in social attitudes and improvements in the practices of individuals.
Governments can use public investment to improve their countries
infrastructure and to promote a physical environment where a disaster is less
likely to occur. Individuals must also learn how to act to protect themselves.
Just as public health depends on personal hygiene, so public protection depends
on personal safety.
The type of cooking stove an individual uses, and their awareness that a
sudden earthquake could tip it over is more important in reducing the risk of a
disastrous fire than having the community maintain a large fire brigade. The
type of house individuals build and where they consider a suitable place to live
affects the potential for disaster in a community more than large engineering
projects to reduce flood risk, or landslide stabilization efforts or sophisticated
typhoon warning systems.
113
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Q. In Chapter 4, you identified the most likely disaster that could occur
in your community or country. In the discussion on vulnerability in
Chapter 8, you identified a community at risk. Within that community,
what are the elements at risk?
A.
114
PART
CHAPTER 13
Disaster
mitigation
Engineering
Engineering measures are those that result in stronger individual structures that
are more resistant to hazards. This is sometimes referred to as hardening
facilities against hazard forces. Building codes are critical defensive measures for
achieving stronger engineered structures. Training techniques to teach builders
the practicalities of disaster resistant construction are now well understood and
form part of the menu of mitigation actions available to the disaster planner.
Spatial planning
Many hazards are localized with their likely effects confined to specific known
areas. For example, floods affect flood plains, and landslides affect steep soft
slopes. The effects can be greatly reduced if it is possible to avoid having
hazardous areas used for settlements or as sites for important structures. Urban
planning needs to integrate awareness of natural disaster risk mitigation into the
normal procedures of planning a city.
For populations displaced by hazards or conflict, opportunities to reduce
their risk include the identification of safe zones for resettlement in areas with
adequate security and resources to support displaced persons.
Economic
Economic development is key to disaster mitigation. A strong economy is the
best protection against a future disaster. A strong economy means more money
to spend on stronger buildings, safer sites, and larger financial reserves to cope
with future losses.
Mitigation measures can help a community reduce future economic losses.
They can help members withstand losses and improve their recoverability after
loss and measures that make it possible for communities to afford higher levels
of safety are important elements of an overall mitigation programme.
Economic activities which help a community which hosts displaced persons
to absorb this population can mitigate against the development of serious social
or political problems.
Some aspects of economic planning are directly relevant to reducing disaster
risk. Diversification of economic activity is an important economic principle. A
single-industry economy is always more vulnerable than an economy made up
of many different activities. The linkages between different sectors of an
economythe transportation of goods, the flow of information, and the labor
market may be more vulnerable to disruption from a disaster than the physical
infrastructure that is the means of production.
115
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Societal
The mitigation of disasters will only come about when there is a consensus that it
is desirable. In many places, the individual hazards that threaten do not result in
disasters, the steps that people can take to protect themselves are not known and
the mandate of the community to have itself protected is not forthcoming.
Mitigation planning should aim to develop a disaster safety culture, one in
which the general public is fully aware of potential hazards, chooses to protect
itself as fully as possible and can readily support protective efforts made on its
behalf.
Conflict reduction
In the disasters and emergencies created by conflict, mitigation must include
conflict reduction. Measures at conflict reduction must start with identifying and
addressing the root causes of the conflict. Although negotiation will often be the
primary tool of conflict reduction, the issues may arise over such causes as land
tenure, employment, access to resources, and intolerance of ethnic or religious
differences. These issues need to be anticipated through a form of early warning
and defused before conflict erupts.
116
PART
CHAPTER 13
Disaster
mitigation
Active and passive: For active measures, authorities promote desired actions by
offering incentives. For passive measures, authorities prevent undesired actions
by using controls and penalties.
Structural and non-structural: Structural mitigation involves physical measures
taken to reduce risk by erecting structures (such as dams). Non-structural
measures are policies and practices of development whose implementation
reduces the risks to development.
Short-term and long-term: Short-term measures are those which dare taken rapidly
and which have a short life or usefulness such as sand bag reinforcements of a
dyke. Long-term measures may include a process that is itself long in
implementation, consider an extended timeframe, and change public attitudes
through education.
Restrictive and incentive: Restrictive measures result in practices that promote
safety by making some actions or development unlawful or prohibitively
expensive. Incentive measures provide financial, legal or other advantages to
promote activities which are also beneficial in terms of mitigation.
Sectoral based activities: Sectoral based activities start from the vantage point of a
sector, such as agriculture, and ask: within this sector, what can be done to
reduce risk? A response might be to introduce hazard resistant crops, or to
diversify cropping patterns.
A.
117
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
!
CHAPTER 14
"
The country program cycle: in the preparation of the UNDP Advisory Note
and the Administrators Note, and in the country program document, review
and evaluation processes.
"
118
This chapter is adapted from Chapter 2 of the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
PART
CHAPTER 14
UN assistance to
disaster mitigation
Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy goals of UNDP and UNDRO
With the aim of ensuring that developing countries are fully aware of disaster risks
and take advantage of the most effective techniques for disaster mitigation,
UNDP and UNDRO seek to:
"
"
"
"
Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy
goals of UNDP and
UNDRO.
"
From UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual.
A.
119
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
Informed judgements must be made concerning the likely hazard effects, the
adequacy and cost-effectiveness of existing risk reduction and preparedness
measures, and on the capacity of all concerned to act on these measures.
Appendix 2B of the manual lists what to consider in this appraisal.
The appraisal will be the basis for the inclusion of disaster-related concerns in the
UNDP Advisory Note and Administrators Note, which draw on or address the
issues listed in panel 2B/1 of the manual. They may also refer to UNDPs policy
with respect to reaching the objectives of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction.
Panel 2B/1
Elements to be
explicitly considered
during the early
stages of country
programme
development.
Panel 2B/1
"
"
"
"
The options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and setbacks
to development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into
general development activities.
"
Specific possibilities for reducing risks and enhancing national and local-level
preparedness through technical assistance within sectoral programmes.
"
"
"
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Management Manual.
120
PART
CHAPTER 14
UN assistance to
disaster mitigation
Q. Choose one sector with which you are familiar, such as housing,
health, agriculture, etc. Then, with this sector in mind, analyze your own
experiences and responsibilities with the elements in Panel 2B/1.
A.
Identify the most recent major disaster in your country.
Is the extent of the relationship between hazards and socio-economic objectives explicitly addressed
in national development plan, sectoral or multi-sectoral studies?
What have been the effects of natural disasters on past development activities?
Are there discussions in World Bank Consultative Group meetings and UNDP-assisted Round Tables
that underscore the link between disaster and development?
What are the options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and setbacks to
development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into general development
activities?
Identify one specific possibility for reducing risks and enhancing national and local-level preparedness
through technical assistance within sectoral programs.
What is the possible usefulness of technical assistance to assess needs in disaster mitigation?
What institutional arrangements exist for inter-sectoral coordination of disaster mitigation activities?
121
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
PART
CHAPTER 14
UN assistance to
disaster mitigation
123
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
124
PART
CHAPTER 14
UN assistance to
disaster mitigation
Expected duration
Geographical location
The underlying and direct causes of the vulnerability of the society to the known hazards:
Effects which hazards could have on project structures and activities: how these have been taken into
account in project design. [Which elements are vulnerable and what will be done to reduce the
vulnerability]:
The effect the project will have on current vulnerability and risks:
Additional activities which could be promoted/undertaken within, or in parallel with, the project which
would contribute to reducing vulnerability and risks:
Disasters and
Development (DAD)
project review form
Signed
Date
Use this form during project formulation, at the time of approval, and for annual reviews and
evaluation for projects whose objectives, outputs and activities are set in disaster-prone areas.
Attach it to the corresponding documentation.
125
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
UNITED
NATIONS
Appendix
General Assembly
Distr.
LIMITED
A/46/L.55
17 December 1991
ORGINAL: ENGLISH
Forty-sixth session
Agenda item 143
STRENGTHENING OF THE COORDINATION OF HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCY
ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Sweden: draft resolution
1/ A/46/568.
91-49579
126
4069Z (E)
PART
A/46/L.55
English
Page 2
1.
Adopts the text contained it the annex to the present resolution for
the strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of
the United Nations system;
2.
Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General Assembly at
its forty-seventh session on the implementation of the present resolution.
127
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
A/46/L.55
English
Page 3
ANNEX
I. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
1.
Humanitarian assistance is of cardinal importance for the victims of
natural disasters and other emergencies.
2.
Humanitarian assistance must be provided in accordance with the
principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality.
3.
The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of States must
be fully respected in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. In
this context, humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of
the affected country and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the
affected country.
4.
Each State has the responsibility first and foremost to take care of the
victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its
territory. Hence, the affected State has the primary role in the initiation,
organization, coordination, and implementation of humanitarian assistance
within its territory.
5.
The magnitude and duration of many emergencies may be beyond the response
capacity of many affected countries. International cooperation to address
emergency situations and to strengthen the response capacity of affected
countries is thus of great importance. Such cooperation should be provided in
accordance with international law and national laws. Intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations working impartially and with strictly
humanitarian motives should continue to make a significant contribution in
supplementing national efforts.
6.
States whose populations are in need of humanitarian assistance are
called upon to facilitate the work of these opganizations in implementing
humanitarian assistance, in particular the supply of food, medicines, shelter
and health care, for which access to victims is essential.
7.
States in proximity to emergencies are urged to participate closely with
the affected countries in international efforts, with a view to facilitating,
to the extent possible, the transit of humanitarian assistance.
8.
Special attention should be given to disaster prevention and preparedness
by the Governments concerned, as well as by the international community.
9.
There is a clear relationship between emergency, rehabilitation and
development. In order to ensure a smooth transition from relief to
rehabilitation and development, emergency assistance should be provided in
ways that will be supportive of recovery and long-term development. Thus,
emergency measures should be seen as a step towards long-term development.
/...
128
PART
A/46/L.55
English
Page 4
10. Economic growth and sustainable development are essential for prevention
of and preparedness against natural disasters and other emergencies. Many
emergencies reflect the underlying crisis in development facing developing
countries. Humanitarian assistance should therefore be accompanied by a
renewal of commitment to economic growth and sustainable development of
developing countries. In this context, adequate resources must be made
available ot address their development problems.
11. Contributions for humanitarian assistance should be provided in a way
which is not to the detriment of resources made available for international
cooperation for development.
12. The United Nations has a central and unique role to play in providing
leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to
support the affected countries. The United Nations should ensure the prompt
and smooth delivery of relief assistance in full respect of the
above-mentioned principles, bearing in mind also relevant General Assembly
resolutions, including resolutions 2816 (XXVI) and 45/100. The United Nations
system needs to be adapted and strengthened to meet present and future
challenges in an effective and coherent manner. It should be provided with
resources commensurate with future requirements. The inadequacy of such
resources has been one of the major constraints in the effective response of
the United Nations to emergencies.
II. PREVENTION
13. The international community should adequately assist developing countries
in strengthening their capacity in disaster prevention and mitigation, both at
the national and regional levels, for example, in establishing and enhancing
integrated programmes in this regard.
14. In order to reduce the impact of disasters there should be increased
awareness of the need for establishing disaster mitigation strategies,
particularly in disaster-prone countries. There should be greater exchange
and dissemination of existing and new technical information related to the
assessment, prediction and mitigation of disasters. As called for in the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, efforts should be
intensified to develop measures for prevention and mitigation of natural
disasters and similar emergencies through programmes of technical assistance
and modalities for favourable access to, and transfer of, relevant technology.
15. The disaster management training programme recently initiated by the
Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator and the United
Nations Development Programme should be strengthened and broadened.
16. Organizations of the United Nations system involved in the funding and
the provision of assistance relevant to the prevention of emergencies should
be provided with sufficient and readily available resources.
/...
129
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
A/46/L.55
English
Page 5
17. The international community is urged to provide the necessary support and
resources to programmes and activities undertaken to further the goals and
objectives of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.
III. PREPAREDNESS
18. International relief assistance should supplement national efforts to
improve the capacities of developing countries to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters expeditiously and effectively and to cope efficiently with
all emergencies. The United Nations should enhance its efforts to assist
developing countries to strengthen their capacity to respond to disasters, at
the national and regional levels, as appropriate.
Early warning
19. On the basis of existing mandates and drawing upon monitoring
arrangements available within the system, the United Nations should intensify
efforts, building upon the existing capacities of relevant organizations and
entities of the United Nations, for the systematic pooling, analysis and
dissemination of early-warning information on natural disasters and other
emergencies. In this context, the United Nations should consider making use
as appropriate of the early-warning capacities of Governments and
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.
20. Early-warning information should be made available in an unrestricted and
timely manner to all interested Governments and concerned authorities, in
particular of affected or disaster-prone countries. The capacity of
disaster-prone countries to receive, use and disseminate this information
should be strengthened. In this connection, the international community is
urged to assist these countries upon request with the establishment and
enhancement of national early-warning systems.
IV. STAND-BY CAPACITY
(a)
21. Organizations and entities of the United Nations system should continue
to respond to requests for emergency assistance within their respective
mandates. Reserve and other contingency funding arrangements of these
organizations and entities should be examined by their respective governing
bodies to strengthen further their operational capacities for rapid and
coordinated response to emergencies.
22. In addition, there is a need for a complementary central funding
mechanism to ensure the provision of adequate resources for use in the initial
phase of emergencies that require a system-wide response.
/...
130
PART
A/46/L.55
English
Page 6
23. To that end, the Secretary-General should establish under his authority a
central emergency revolving fund as a cash-flow mechanism to ensure the rapid
and coordinated response of the organizations of the system.
24. This fund should be put into operation with an amount of 50 million
United States dollars. The fund should be financed by voluntary
contributions. Consultations among potential donors should be held to this
end. To achieve this target, the Secretary-General should launch an appeal to
potential donors and convene a meeting of those donors in the first quarter of
1992 to secure contributions to the fund on an assured, broad-based and
additional basis.
25. Resources should be advanced to the operational organizations of the
system on the inderstanding that they would reimburse the fund in the first
instance from the voluntary contributions received in response to consolidated
appeals.
26. The operation of the fund should be reviewed after two years.
(b) Additional measures for rapid response
27. The United Nations should, building upon the existing capacities of
relevant organizations, establish a central register of all specialized
personnel and teams of technical specialists, as well as relief supplies,
equipment and services available within the United Nations system and from
Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, that can
be called upon at short notice by the United Nations.
28. The United Nations should continue to make appropriate arrangements with
interested Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations to enable it to have more expeditious access, when necessary, to
their emergency relief capacities, including food reserves, emergency
stockpiles and personnel, as well as logistic support. In the context of the
annual report to the General Assembly mentioned in paragraph 35 (i) below,
the Secretary-General is requested to report on progress in this regard.
29. Special emergency rules and procedures should be developed by the United
Nations to enable all organizations to disburse quickly emergency funds, and
to procure emergency supplies and equipment, as well as to recruit emergency
staff.
30. Disaster-prone countries should develop special emergency procedures to
expedite the rapid procurement and deployment of equipment and relief
supplies.
/...
131
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Mana
gement
Manag
A/46/L.55
English
Page 7
V. CONSOLIDATED APPEALS
31. For emergencies requiring a coordinated response, the Secretary-General
should ensure that an initial consolidated appeal covering all concerned
organizations of the system, prepared in consultation with the affected State,
is issued within the shortest possible time and in any event not longer than
one week. In the case of prolonged emergencies, this initial appeal should be
updated and elaborated within four weeks, as more information becomes
available.
32. Potential donors should adopt necessary measures to increase and expedite
their contributions, including setting aside, on a stand-by basis, financial
and other resources that can be disbursed quickly to the United Nations system
in response to the consolidated appeals of the Secretary-General.
VI. COORDINATION, COOPERATION AND LEADERSHIP
(a) Leadership of the Secretary-General
33. The leadership role of the Secretary-General is critical and must be
strenthened to ensure better preparation for, as well as rapid and coherent
response to, natural disasters and other emergencies. This should be achieved
through coordinated support for prevention and preparedness measures and the
optimal utilization of, inter alia, an inter-agency standing committee,
consolidated appeals, a central emergency revolving fund and a register of
stand-by capacities.
34. To this end, and on the understanding that the requisite resources
envisaged in paragraph 24 above would be provided, a high-level official,
emergency relief coordinator, would be designated by the
Secretary-General to work closely with and with direct access to him, in
cooperation with the relevant organizations and entities of the system
dealing with humanitarian assistance and in full respect of their
mandates, without prejudice to any decisions to be taken by the General
Assembly on the overall restructuring of the Secretariat of the United Nations.
This high-level official should combine the functions at present carried out in the
coordination of United Nations response by representatives of the
Secretary-General for major and complex emergencies, as well as by the United
Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator.
35. Under the aegis of the General Assembly and working under the direction
of the Secretary-General, the high-level official would have the following
responsibilities:
(a) Processing requests from affected Member States for emergency
assistance requiring a coordinated response;
(b) Maintaining an overview of all emergencies through, inter alia, the
systematic pooling and analysis of early-warning information as envisaged in
/...
132
PART
A/46/L.55
English
Page 8
A/46/L.55
English
An Ov
er
vie
w
Over
ervie
view
of Disaster
Page 9
Mana
gement
Manag
134