Vladimir Lenin

Lenin redirects here.

(disambiguation).

For other uses, see Lenin and permitting non-Russian nations to cede from the Empire, they transformed the country into the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. Lenin was elected to
This name uses Eastern Slavic naming customs; the the position of the head of government by the All-Russian
Congress of Soviets. Fierce opposition to Bolshevik rule
patronymic is Ilyich and the family name is Ulyanov.
resulted in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, in
which the Bolsheviks proved victorious, partly through
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: the use of Red Terror. Lenin supported world revolution
; IPA: [vldimr lit lanf]), alias Lenin and immediate peace with the Central Powers, agreeing
(/lnn/;[1] Russian: ; IPA: [lenn]) (22 April to a punitive treaty that turned over a signicant portion
[O.S. 10 April] 1870 21 January 1924) was a Russian of the former Russian Empire to Germany. The treaty
communist revolutionary, politician and political theo- was voided after the Allies won the war. In 1921 Lenin
rist. He served as head of government of the Russian So- proposed the New Economic Policy, a mixed economic
viet Federative Socialist Republic from 1917, and of the system of state capitalism that started the process of inSoviet Union from 1922 until his death. Under his admin- dustrialisation and recovery from the Civil War. In 1922,
istration, the Russian Empire was dissolved and replaced the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Rusby the Soviet Union, a one-party socialist state; all land, sian Empire in becoming the Soviet Union, with Lenin
natural resources, and industry were conscated and na- as its head of government. In increasingly poor health,
tionalized. Ideologically a Marxist, his political theories Lenin died at his home in Gorki.
are known as Leninism.
Recognised as one of the most signicant and inuenBorn to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin tial historical gures of the 20th century, Lenin remains
gained an interest in revolutionary leftist politics follow- a controversial and highly divisive world gure. Admiring the execution of his brother Aleksandr in 1887. Ex- ers view him as a champion of working peoples rights
pelled from Kazan State University for participating in and welfare whilst critics see him as the founder of a
anti-Tsarist protests, he devoted the following years to dictatorship responsible for war, mass murder and mass
a law degree and to radical politics, becoming a Marx- human rights abuses. He was held in high esteem as a
ist. In 1893 he moved to Saint Petersburg and be- founding father of the Soviet Union until its collapse in
came a senior gure in the Russian Social Democratic 1991, and remains a key inuence over the international
Labour Party (RSDLP). Arrested for sedition and exiled communist movement.
to Shushenskoye for three years, it was here that he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his exile ended he ed
to Western Europe, where he became known as a prominent party theorist through his various publications. In 1 Early life
1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP schism over ideological dierences, leading the Bolshevik faction against Main article: Early life of Vladimir Lenin
Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Briey returning to Russia
during the failed Revolution of 1905, he encouraged violent insurrection and later campaigned for the First World
War to be transformed into a Europe-wide proletariat rev- 1.1 Childhood: 187087
olution. After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the
Tsar and established a Provisional Government, he re- Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was a former
turned to Russia to campaign for the new governments serf's son but studied physics and mathematics at Kazan
removal in place of a Bolshevik-led government of the State University, later teaching at the Penza Institute for
soviets.
the Nobility. His ethnic background is ambiguous: while
very much Russied, his father Nikolay may have been
Chuvash or Mordvin, and his mother Anna Alexeevna
Smirnova is often cited as a Kalmyk, though possibly a
Kyrgyz or even Russian.[2] Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in the summer of 1863.[3] Hailing from
a relatively prosperous background, she was the daugh-

Lenin played a senior role in orchestrating the October

Revolution of 1917, in which a Bolshevik coup overthrew
the Provisional Government before establishing a new
government, the Council of Peoples Commissars, with
Lenin as its chairman. Introducing radical land reform

EARLY LIFE

mitted his misbehaviour.[10] A keen sportsman, he spent

much of his free time outdoors or playing chess, and excelled at school, the disciplinarian and conservative Simbirsk Classical Gimnazia.[11]
Ilya Ulyanov died of a brain haemorrhage in January
1886, when Vladimir was 16.[12] Vladimirs behaviour
became erratic and confrontational, and shortly thereafter he renounced his belief in God.[13] At the time,
Vladimirs elder brother Aleksandr (Sacha) Ulyanov was
studying at Saint Petersburg University. Involved in political agitation against the absolute monarchy of reactionary Tsar Alexander III which governed the Russian
Empire, he studied the writings of banned leftists like
Dmitry Pisarev, Nikolay Dobrolyubov, Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Karl Marx. Organising protests against the
government, he joined a socialist revolutionary cell bent
on assassinating the Tsar and was selected to construct
a bomb. Before the attack commenced, the conspirators were arrested and tried. On 25 April 1887, Sacha
was sentenced to death by hanging, and executed on 8
May.[14] Despite the emotional trauma brought on by his
Volodya, aged four.
father and brothers deaths, Vladimir continued studying, leaving school with a gold medal for his exceptional performance, and decided to study law at Kazan
ter of an apostate Russian Jewish physician, Alexander University.[15]
Dmitrievich Blank, and his German-Swedish wife, Anna
Ivanovna Grosschopf. Dr. Blank had insisted on providing his children with a good education, ensuring that
Maria learned Russian, German, English and French, and 1.2 University and political radicalism:
188793
that she was well versed in Russian literature.[4] Soon
after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhni Novgorod, rising to become Director of Primary Schools Entering Kazan University in August 1887, Vladimir
in the Simbirsk district six years later. Five years af- and his mother moved into a at, renting out their Simter that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools birsk home.[16] Interested in his late brothers radical
for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 ideas, he joined an agrarian-socialist revolutionary cell inschools as a part of the governments plans for moderni- tent on reviving the Peoples Freedom Party (Narodnaya
sation. Awarded the Order of St. Vladimir, he became a Volya). Joining the universitys illegal Samara-Simbirsk
hereditary nobleman.[5]
zemlyachestvo, he was elected as its representative for
[17]
In December
The couple, now nobility, had two children, Anna (born the universitys zemlyachestvo council.
he
took
part
in
a
demonstration
demanding
the aboli1864) and Alexander (born 1868), before Vladimir
tion
of
the
1884
statute
and
the
re-legalisation
of stuVolodya Ilyich was born on 10 April 1870, and bapdent
societies,
but
was
arrested
by
the
police.
Accused
tised in St. Nicholas Cathedral several days later. They
would be followed by three more children, Olga (born of being a ringleader, the university expelled him and the
1871), Dmitry (born 1874) and Maria (born 1878). An- Ministry of Internal Aairs placed him under[18]surveilHere,
other brother, Nikolai, had died in infancy in 1873.[6] lance, exiling him to his Kokushkino estate.
he
read
voraciously,
becoming
enamoured
with
ChernyIlya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox
[19]
Disliking
Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria shevskys 1863 novel What is to be Done?.
his
radicalism,
in
September
1888
his
mother
persuaded
a Lutheran was largely indierent to Christianity, a
view that inuenced her children.[7] Both parents were him to write to the Interior Ministry to request permismonarchists and liberal conservatives, being committed sion for studying abroad; they refused, but allowed him
the Pervaya Gora
to the emancipation reform of 1861 introduced by the to return to Kazan, where he settled on
[20]
with
his
mother
and
brother
Dmitry.
reformist Tsar Alexander II; they avoided political radicals and there is no evidence that the police ever put them
under surveillance for subversive thought.[8] Every summer they holidayed at a rural manor in Kokushkino.[9]
Among his siblings, Vladimir was closest to his sister
Olga, whom he bossed around, having an extremely competitive nature; he could be destructive, but usually ad-

In Kazan, he joined another revolutionary circle, through

which he discovered Karl Marxs Das Kapital (1867).
It exerted a strong inuence on him, and he grew increasingly interested in Marxism.[21] Wary of his political
views, his mother bought an estate in Alakaevka village,
Samara Oblast made famous in the work of poet Gleb

3
gal assistant for a regional court, before gaining a job with
a local lawyer. Embroiled primarily in disputes between
peasants and artisans, he devoted much time to radical
politics, remaining active in Skylarenkos group and formulating ideas about Marxisms applicability to Russia.
Inspired by Plekhanovs work, Vladimir collected data on
Russian society, using it to support a Marxist interpretation of societal development and increasingly rejecting
the claims of the Peoples Freedom Party.[25] In the spring
of 1893, Lenin wrote a paper, New Economic Developments in Peasant Life"; submitted to the liberal journal
Russian Thought, it was rejected and only published in
1927.[26]

2 Revolutionary activity
Main article: Revolutionary activity of Vladimir Lenin

2.1 Early activism and imprisonment:

18931900
Lenin, c. 1887.

Uspensky, of whom Lenin was a great fan in the hope

that her son would turn his attention to agriculture. Here,
he studied peasant life and the poverty they faced, but remained unpopular as locals stole his farm equipment and
livestock, causing his mother to sell the farm.[22]
In September 1889, the Ulyanovs moved to Samara
for the winter. Here, Vladimir contacted exiled dissidents and joined Alexei P. Skliarenko's discussion circle.
Both Vladimir and Skliarenko adopted Marxism, with
Vladimir translating Marx and Friedrich Engels' 1848 political pamphlet, The Communist Manifesto, into Russian.
He began to read the works of the Russian Marxist Georgi
Plekhanov, a founder of the Black Repartition movement,
concurring with Plekhanovs argument that Russia was
moving from feudalism to capitalism. Becoming increasingly sceptical of the eectiveness of militant attacks and
assassinations, he argued against such tactics in a December 1889 debate with M.V. Sabunaev, an advocate of
the Peoples Freedom Party. Despite disagreeing on tactics, he made friends among the Party, in particular with
Apollon Shukht, who asked Vladimir to be his daughters
godfather in 1893.[23]
In May 1890, Mariya convinced the authorities to allow
Vladimir to undertake his exams externally at a university of his choice. Choosing the University of St Petersburg and obtaining the equivalent of a rst-class degree
with honours, celebrations were marred when his sister
Olga died of typhoid.[24] Vladimir remained in Samara
for several years, in January 1892 being employed as a le-

In autumn 1893, Lenin moved to Saint Petersburg.[27]

There, he worked as a barristers assistant and rose to a senior position in a Marxist revolutionary cell calling themselves the Social Democrats after the Marxist Social
Democratic Party of Germany.[28] Publicly championing
Marxism among the socialist movement,[29] he encouraged the foundation of revolutionary cells in Russias industrial centres.[30] He befriended Russian Jewish Marxist Julius Martov,[31] and began a relationship with Marxist schoolteacher Nadezhda Nadya Krupskaya.[32]
By autumn 1894 he was leading a Marxist workers circle, and was meticulous in covering his tracks, knowing that police spies were trying to inltrate the revolutionary movement.[33] Although he was inuenced
by agrarian-socialist Ptr Tkachvi,[34] Lenins SocialDemocrats clashed with the Narodnik agrarian-socialist
platform of the SocialistRevolutionary Party (SR). The
SR saw the peasantry as the main force of revolutionary change, whereas the Marxists believed peasants to
be sympathetic to private ownership, instead emphasising the revolutionary role of the proletariat.[35] He dealt
with some of these issues in his rst political tract, What
the Friends of the People Are and How They Fight the
Social-Democrats; based largely on his experiences in
Samara, around 200 copies were illegally printed.[36]
Lenin hoped to cement connections between his SocialDemocrats and Emancipation of Labour, a group of Russian Marxist emigres based in Switzerland, soon visiting Switzerland to meet groups members Plackhanov
and Pavel Axelrod.[37] He proceeded to Paris to meet
Paul Lafargue and to research the Paris Commune of
1871, which he saw as an early prototype for a proletarian government.[38] Financed by his mother, he stayed

in a Swiss health spa before traveling to Berlin, where 2.2

he studied for six weeks at the Staatsbibliothek and met
Wilhelm Liebknecht.[39] Returning to Russia with a stash
of illegal revolutionary publications, he traveled to various cities distributing literature to striking workers in
Saint Petersburg.[40] Involved in producing a news sheet,
The Workers Cause, he was among 40 activists arrested
and charged with sedition.[41]
Refused legal representation or bail, Lenin denied all
charges against him but remained imprisoned for a year
before sentencing.[42] He spent this time theorising and
writing, focusing his attention on the revolutionary potential of the working-class; acknowledging that the rise
of industrial capitalism in Russia had led large numbers
of peasants to move to the cities, where they became
proletariat, from a Marxist perspective he argued that
they would gain class consciousness and then violently
overthrow Tsarism, the aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie
to establish a proletariat state that would move toward
socialism.[42]
In February 1897, he was sentenced without trial to 3
years exile in eastern Siberia, although given a few days
in Saint Petersburg to put his aairs in order, and in
this time met with the Social-Democrats, who had been
renamed the League of Struggle for the Emancipation
of the Working Class.[43] His journey to eastern Siberia
took 11 weeks, for much of which he was accompanied
by his mother and sisters. Deemed only a minor threat
to the government, he was exiled to a peasants hut in
Shushenskoye, Minusinsky District, where he was kept
under police surveillance; he was nevertheless able to correspond with other subversives, many of whom visited
him, and permitted to go on trips to hunt duck and snipe
and to swim in the Yenisei River.[44]
In May 1898, Nadya joined him in exile, having been
arrested in August 1896 for organising a strike. Although initially posted to Ufa, she convinced the authorities to move her to Shushenskoye, claiming that she and
Ulyanov were engaged; they married in a church on 10
July 1898.[45] Settling into a family life with Nadyas
mother Elizaveta Vasilyevna, the couple translated English socialist literature into Russian.[46] Keen to keep
abreast of the developments in German Marxism where
there had been an ideological split, with revisionists like
Eduard Bernstein advocating a peaceful, electoral path
to socialism Ulyanov remained devoted to violent revolution, attacking revisionist arguments in A Protest by
Russian Social-Democrats.[47] He also nished The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899), his longest
book to date, which oered a well-researched and polemical attack on the Social-Revolutionaries and promoting a
Marxist analysis of Russian economic development. Published under the pseudonym of Vladimir Ilin, upon publication it received predominantly poor reviews.[48]

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY

Munich, London and Geneva: 1900

05

The rst issue of Iskra (Spark), ocial organ of the Russian

Social Democratic Labour Party. Edited by Lenin from his base
in Geneva, Switzerland, copies would be smuggled into Russia,
where it would prove successful in winning support for the Marxist revolutionary cause.

His exile over, Ulanov settled in Pskov.[49] There, he began raising funds for a newspaper, Iskra (The Spark), a
new organ of the Russian Marxist party, now calling itself
the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP).
In July 1900, Ulyanov left Russia for Western Europe;
in Switzerland he met other Russian Marxists, and at a
Corsier conference they agreed to launch the paper from
Munich, where Lenin relocated in September.[50] Containing contributions from prominent European Marxists Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Kautsky, and Leon Trotsky,
Iskra was smuggled into Russia illegally, becoming the
most successful underground publication for 50 years.[51]
Ulyanov adopted the nom de guerre of Lenin in December 1901, possibly taking the River Lena as a basis.[52]
Under this pseudonym, he published the political pamphlet What Is to Be Done? in 1902; his most inuential publication to date, it dealt with Lenins thoughts on
the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat to
revolution.[53]
Nadya joined Lenin in Munich, becoming his personal
secretary.[54] They continued their political agitation,
with Lenin writing for Iskra and drafting the RSDLP program, attacking ideological dissenters and external critics, particularly the SR.[55] Despite remaining an orthodox Marxist, he came to accept the SRs views on the revolutionary power of the Russian peasantry, penning the
1903 pamphlet To the Village Poor.[56] To evade Bavarian police, Lenin relocated to London with Iskra in April
1902,[57] here becoming good friends with Trotsky.[58]
While in London, Lenin fell ill with erysipelas and was
unable to take such a leading role on the Iskra editorial
board; in his absence the board moved its base of operations to Switzerland.[59]
The 2nd RSDLP Congress was held in London in July.[60]
At the conference, a schism emerged between Lenins
supporters and those of Julius Martov. Martov argued
that party members should be able to express themselves
independently of the party leadership; Lenin disagreed,
emphasising the need for a strong leadership with complete control.[61] Lenins supporters were in the majority,

2.3

The 1905 Revolution and its aftermath: 190514

and Lenin termed them the majoritarians (bolsheviki

in Russian; thus Bolsheviks); in response, Martov termed
his followers the minoritarians (mensheviki in Russian;
thus Mensheviks).[62] Arguments between Bolsheviks
and Mensheviks continued after the conference; the Bolsheviks accused their rivals of being opportunists and reformists who lacked any discipline, while the Mensheviks
accused Lenin of being a despot and autocrat.[63] Enraged
at the Mensheviks, Lenin resigned from the Iskra editorial board and in May 1904 published the anti-Menshevik
tract One Step Forward, Two Steps Back.[64] The stress
made Lenin ill,[65] and to recuperate he went on a rural holiday.[66] The Bolshevik faction grew in strength;
by the spring, the whole RSDLP Central Committee was
Bolshevik,[67] and in December they founded the newspaper Vperd (Forward).[68]

2.3

The 1905 Revolution and its aftermath: 190514

The uprising has begun. Force against Force. Street

ghting is raging, barricades are being thrown up, ries
are cracking, guns are booming. Rivers of blood are owing, the civil war for freedom is blazing up. Moscow and
the South, the Caucasus and Poland are ready to join the
proletariat of St. Petersburg. The slogan of the workers
has become: Death or Freedom!"
Lenin, 1905[69]
In January 1905, the Bloody Sunday massacre of
protesters in St. Petersburg sparking a spate of civil unrest known as the Revolution of 1905.[70] Lenin urged
Bolsheviks to take a greater role in the events, encouraging violent insurrection.[71] In doing so he adopted SR
slogans regarding armed insurrection, mass terror,
and the expropriation of gentry land, resulting in Menshevik accusations that he had deviated from orthodox
Marxism.[72] In turn he insisted that the Bolsheviks split
completely with the Mensheviks, although many Bolsheviks refused and both groups attended the 3rd RSDLP
Congress, held in London in April 1905.[73] Lenin presented many of his ideas in the pamphlet Two Tactics
of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution, published in August 1905. Here, he predicted that the liberal
bourgeoisie would be sated by a constitutional monarchy
and thus betray the revolution; instead he argued that the
proletariat would have to build an alliance with the peasantry to overthrow the Tsarist regime and establish the
provisional revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the
proletariat and the peasantry.[74]

5
to seek out a much wider membership, and advocated
the continual escalation of violent confrontation, believing both to be necessary for a successful revolution.[77]
Although he briey supported the idea of reconciliation between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks,[78] at the 4th
Party Congress in Stockholm, Sweden in April 1906 the
Mensheviks condemned Lenin for supporting bank robberies and violence.[79] A Bolshevik Centre was set up
in Kuokkala, Grand Duchy of Finland, which was then
a semi-autonomous part of the Empire,[80] before the
Bolsheviks regained dominance of the RSDLP at its 5th
Congress, held in London in May 1907.[81] However, as
the Tsarist government disbanded the Second Duma and
the Okhrana cracked down on revolutionaries, Lenin ed
Finland for Switzerland.[82]
Alexander Bogdanov and other prominent Bolsheviks decided to relocate the Bolshevik Centre to Paris, France;
although Lenin disagreed, he moved to the city in December 1908.[83] Lenin disliked Paris, lambasting it as
a foul hole, and sued a motorist who knocked him o
his bike while there.[84] Here, Lenin revived his polemics
against the Mensheviks,[85] who objected to his advocacy
of violent expropriations and thefts such as the 1907 Tiis bank robbery, which the Bolsheviks were using to
fund their activities.[86] Lenin also became heavily critical
of Bogdanov and his supporters; Bogdanov believed that
a socialist-oriented culture had to be developed among
Russias proletariat for them to become a successful revolutionary vehicle, whereas Lenin favoured a vanguard of
socialist intelligentsia who could lead the working-classes
in revolution. Furthermore, Bogdanov inuenced by
Ernest Mach believed that all concepts of the world
were relative, whereas Lenin stuck to the orthodox Marxist view that there was an objective reality to the world, independent of human observation.[87] Although Bogdanov
and Lenin holidayed together at Gorkys villa in Capri,
Italy, in April 1908,[88] on returning to Paris, Lenin encouraged a split within the Bolshevik faction between his
and Bogdanovs followers, accusing the latter of deviating
from Marxism.[89]

In May 1908, Lenin lived briey in London, where he

used the British Museum library to write Materialism and
Empirio-criticism, an attack on Bogdanovs relativist perspective, which he lambasted as a bourgeois-reactionary
falsehood.[90] Lenins factionalism began to alienate increasing numbers of Bolsheviks, including close Lenin
supporters Alexei Rykov and Lev Kamenev.[91] The
Okhrana decided to exploit his factionalist attitude by
sending a spy, Roman Malinovsky, to become a vocal
supporter and ally of Lenin within the party. Various Bolsheviks expressed their suspicions regarding Malinovsky
to Lenin, although it is unclear if the latter was aware of
After Tsar Nicholas II accepted a series of liberal re- the spys duplicity; it is possible that he used him to feed
forms in his October Manifesto, Lenin felt it safe to re- false information to the Okhrana.[92]
turn to St. Petersburg.[75] Joining the editorial board
of Novaya Zhizn (New Life), a radical legal newspa- In August 1910 Lenin attended the 8th Congress of the
per run by Maria Andreyeva, he used it to discuss is- Second International in Copenhagen as the RSDLPs
sues facing the RSDLP.[76] He encouraged the party representative, following this with a holiday in Stock-

holm with his mother.[93] With his wife and sisters he

then moved to France, settling rst in Bombon and then
Paris.[94] Here, he became a close friend to the French
Bolshevik Inessa Armand; their friendship continued until 1912, with some biographers suggesting that they had
an extra-marital aair.[95] Meanwhile, at a Paris meeting
in June 1911 the RSDLP Central Committee decided to
draw the focus of operations from Paris and back to Russia; they ordered the closure of the Bolshevik Centre and
its newspaper, Proletari.[96] Seeking to rebuild his inuence in the party, Lenin arranged for a party conference
to be held in Prague in January 1912, and although 16 of
the 18 attendants were Bolsheviks, he was heavily criticised for his factionalist tendencies and failed to boost
his status within the party.[97] Then moving to Krakow in
the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a culturally Polish part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he made use
of Jagellonian University's library to conduct his ongoing research.[98] There, he was able to stay in close contact with the RSDLP operating in the Russian Empire,
convincing the Dumas Bolshevik members to split from
their parliamentary alliance with the Mensheviks.[99] In
January 1913, Stalin whom Lenin referred to as the
wonderful Georgian visited him, with the pair discussing the future of non-Russian ethnic groups in the
Empire.[100] Due to the ailing health of both Lenin and his
wife, they moved to the rural area of Biay Dunajec,[101]
before heading to Bern, Switzerland for Nadya to have
surgery on her goiter.[102]

2.4

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY

In September 1917, Lenin published Imperialism, the

Highest Stage of Capitalism, in which he argued that
imperialism was a product of monopoly capitalism, as
capitalists sought to increase their prots by extending
into new territories where wages were lower and raw materials cheaper. He believed that competition and conict would increase and that war between the imperialist powers would continue until they were overthrown
by proletariat revolution and socialism established.[111]
At this time, he devoted much time to reading the
works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Aristotle, all of whom had been key inuences on Marx.[112] In doing so he rejected his earlier interpretations of Marxism; whereas he had once
believed that policies could be developed on the basis
of predetermined scientic principles, he now believed
that the only test of whether a practice was right or not
was through practice.[113] Although still perceiving himself as an orthodox Marxist, he began to divert from
some of Marxs predictions regarding societal development; whereas Marx had believed that a bourgeoisiedemocratic revolution of the middle-classes had to
take place before a socialist revolution of the proletariat, Lenin believed that in Russia, the proletariat could
overthrow the Tsarist regime without the intermediate
revolution.[114] In July 1916, Lenins mother died, but he
was unable to attend her funeral.[115] Her death deeply
aected him, and he became depressed, fearing that
he would not live long enough to witness the socialist
revolution.[116]

First World War: 191417

The [First World] war is being waged for the division of

colonies and the robbery of foreign territory; thieves have
fallen outand to refer to the defeats at a given moment of
one of the thieves in order to identify the interests of all
thieves with the interests of the nation or the fatherland is
an unconscionable bourgeois lie.
Lenin[103]

2.5 The February Revolution and the July

Days: 1917
In February 1917, the February Revolution broke out in
St. Petersburg recently renamed Petrograd as industrial workers went on strike over food shortages and
deteriorating factory conditions. The unrest spread to
other parts of Russia, and fearing that he would be violently overthrown, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. The State
Duma took over control of the country, establishing a
Provisional Government.[117] When Lenin learned of this
from his base in Switzerland, he celebrated with other
dissidents.[118] He decided to return to Russia to take
charge of the Bolsheviks, but found that most passages
in to the country were blocked due to the ongoing conict. He organised a plan with other dissidents to negotiate a passage for them through Germany, with whom
Russia was then at war. Recognising that these dissidents could cause problems for their Russian enemies,
the German government agreed to permit 32 Russian citizens to travel in a train carriage through their territory,
among them Lenin and his wife.[119] The group traveled
by train from Zurich to Sassnitz, proceeding by ferry to
Trelleborg, Sweden, and from there to Helsinki, Finland,
before taking the nal train to Petrograd.[120]

Lenin was in Galicia when the First World War broke

out.[104] The war pitted the Russian Empire against the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, and due to his Russian citizenship, Lenin was arrested and briey imprisoned until
his anti-Tsarist credentials were explained.[105] Lenin and
his wife returned to Bern,[106] before relocating to Zurich
in February 1916.[107] Lenin was angry that the German
Social-Democratic Party was supporting the German war
eort a direct contravention of the Second International's Stuttgart resolution that socialist parties would
oppose the conict and thus saw the Second International as defunct.[108] Lenin attended the Zimmerwald
Conference in September 1915 and the Kiental conference in April 1916,[109] urging socialists across the continent to convert the imperialist war into a continentwide civil war with the proletariat against the bourOn arriving at Petrograds Finland Station, Lenin gave
geoisie and aristocracy.[110]

2.6

The October Revolution: 1917

7
had violently clashed with government forces he returned
to Petrograd, there calling upon Bolshevik supporters for
calm.[128] Responding to the violence, the government ordered the arrest of Lenin and other prominent members
of the Bolsheviks, raiding their oces, and publicly alleging that he was a German agent provocateur.[129] Evading
arrest, Lenin hid in a series of Petrograd safe houses.[130]
Fearing that he would be killed, Lenin and fellow senior
Bolshevik Grigory Zinoviev then escaped Petrograd in
disguise, relocating to Razliv.[131] It was here that Lenin
began work on the book that became The State and Revolution, an exposition on how he believed the socialist state
would develop following the proletariat revolution, and
how from that point on the state would gradually wither
away leaving a pure communist society.[132] He began
arguing for a Bolshevik-led armed insurrection to topple the government, although at a clandestine meeting of
the partys central committee this idea was rejected.[133]
Lenin then headed by train and by foot to Finland, arriving at Helsinki on 10 August, where he hid away in safe
houses belonging to Bolshevik sympathisers.[134]

Lenin in disguise, Finland, August 1917

a speech to Bolshevik supporters condemning the Provisional Government and again calling for a Europewide proletariat revolution.[121] Over the following days
he spoke at Bolshevik meetings, lambasting those who
wanted reconciliation with the Mensheviks and revealing his April Theses, an outline of his plans for the
Bolsheviks which he had written on the journey from
Switzerland.[122] He publicly condemned both the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries who dominated
the inuential Petrograd Soviet for supporting the Provisional Government, denouncing them as traitors to socialism. Considering the government to be as equally imperialist as the Tsarist regime, he advocated immediate
peace with Germany, rule by soviets, the nationalisation
of industry and banks, and the state expropriation of land,
all with the intention of establishing proletariat government and pushing toward a socialist society. The Mensheviks conversely believed Russia to be insuciently developed to transition to socialism and accused Lenin of
trying to plunge the Empire into civil war.[123] Over the
coming months he campaigned for his policies, attending
the meetings of the Bolshevik Central Committee, prolically writing for Pravda, and giving public speeches in
Petrograd aimed at converting workers, soldiers, sailors,
and peasants to his cause.[124]
Sensing growing frustration among Bolshevik supporters,
Lenin suggested an armed political demonstration in Petrograd to test the governments response.[125] However,
amid deteriorating health,[126] he left the city to recuperate in the Finnish village of Neivola.[127] The Bolsheviks
armed demonstration, the July Days, took place while
Lenin was away, but upon learning that demonstrators

2.6 The October Revolution: 1917

Main article: October Revolution
In August 1917, while Lenin was in Finland, General

Painting of Lenin in front of the Smolny Institute by Isaak Brodsky

Lavr Kornilov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian

Army, sent troops to Petrograd in what appeared to be
a military coup attempt against the Provisional Government. Premier Alexander Kerensky turned to the Pet-

LENINS GOVERNMENT

rograd Soviet including its Bolshevik members for

help, allowing the revolutionaries to organise workers
as Red Guards to defend the city. The coup petered
out before it reached Petrograd, however the events primary beneciers had been the Bolsheviks, whose return
to the open political arena it permitted.[135] Fearing a
counter-revolution from right-wing forces hostile to socialism, the Mensheviks and Social-Revolutionaries who
then dominated the Petrograd Soviet had been instrumental in pressurising the government to normalise relations with the Bolsheviks.[136] However, both the Mensheviks and Social-Revolutionaries had lost much popular
support because of their aliation with the Provisional
Government and its unpopular continuation of the war,
with the Bolsheviks capitalising on this, and soon the proBolshevik Marxist Trotsky was elected leader of the Petrograd Soviet.[137] In September, the Bolsheviks gained
a majority in the workers sections of both the Moscow
and Petrograd Soviets.[138]

viets, held over 26 and 27 October and dominated by

Bolshevik-controlled urban soviets rather than their rural counterparts. There they announced the creation of
the new government, but were condemned by Menshevik
attendees, who lambasted the Bolshevik coup as illegitimate and warned that it could lead to civil war.[148] In
these early days of the new regime, Lenin avoided talking in explicitly Marxist and socialist phraseology, fearing that in doing so he might alienate much of Russias
population, and instead he focused on talking about the
establishment of a new form of government in which the
country was controlled by the workers.[149] At this point,
Lenin and many other Bolsheviks were expecting proletariat revolution to sweep across Europe, either in the
coming days or, at most, in the coming months.[150]

Recognising that the situation was safer for him, Lenin

returned to Petrograd.[139] There, he attended a meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee on 10 October,
where he again argued his case that the party should lead
an armed insurrection of their supporters to topple the
Provisional Government. This time, he was successful in
his argument, and the motion was ratied with ten votes
against two.[140] Those critical of the plan, Zinoviev and
Kamenev, expressed the view that Russian workers would
not support a violent coup against the existing regime
and that there was no clear evidence for Lenins assertion that all of Europe was on the verge of proletarian
revolution.[141] The party began plans to organise the offensive, holding a nal meeting at the Smolny Institute on
24 October.[142] This was the base of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), an armed militia that had
been established by the Petrograd Soviet with the Provisional Governments support during the Kornilov Affair; the MRC comprised largely of those loyal to the
Bolsheviks.[143]

Main article: Government of Vladimir Lenin

3 Lenins Government

3.1 Consolidating power: 191718

To All Workers, Soldiers and Peasants. The Soviet authority will at once propose a democratic peace to all nations and an immediate armistice on all fronts. It will
safeguard the transfer without compensation of all land
landlord, imperial, and monastery to the peasants committees; it will defend the soldiers rights, introducing a
complete democratisation of the army; it will establish
workers control over industry; it will ensure the convocation of the Constituent Assembly on the date set; it will
supply the cities with bread and the villages with articles
of rst necessity; and it will secure to all nationalities inhabiting Russia the right of self-determination... Long
live the revolution!"

Lenins political program, October 1918[151]

In October, the MRC were given the order to seize con- Lenin had argued in a newspaper article in September
trol of Petrograds key transport, communication, printing and utilities hubs, doing so without bloodshed.[144]
While the insurrection was taking place, Lenin gave a
speech to the Petrograd Soviet announcing that the Provisional Government had been overthrown.[145] However,
at this point the government had yet to surrender, instead being under siege from armed Bolsheviks within
the Winter Palace; when a Bolshevik ship, the Aurora,
sailed along the palace and opened re on it the government eventually surrendered, with the ministers being imprisoned.[146] The Bolsheviks declared the formation of a new government, the Council of Peoples Commissars or Sovnarkom"; although Lenin initially turned
down the leading position of Chairman, suggesting Trotsky for the job, the other Bolsheviks refused to accept
this and ultimately Lenin relented.[147] Lenin and other Lenin in his oce, 1918
Bolsheviks then attended the Second Congress of So1917:

3.1

Consolidating power: 191718

The peaceful development of any revolution is, generally speaking, extremely rare and
dicult ... but ... a peaceful development of
the revolution is possible and probable if all
power is transferred to the Soviets. The struggle of parties for power within the Soviets may
proceed peacefully, if the Soviets are made
fully democratic[152]
The October Revolution had been relatively peaceful.
The revolutionary forces already had de facto control of
the capital thanks to the defection of the city garrison.
Few troops had stayed to defend the Provisional Government in the Winter Palace.[153] Most citizens had simply
continued about their daily business while the Provisional
Government was actually overthrown.[154]
It thus appeared that all power had been transferred to
the Soviets relatively peacefully. On the evening of the
October Revolution, the Second All-Russian Congress of
Soviets met, with a Bolshevik-Left SR majority, in the
Smolny Institute in Petrograd. When the left-wing Menshevik Martov proposed an all-party Soviet government,
the Bolshevik Lunacharsky stated that his party did not Lenin and Sverdlov looking over Marx and Engels monument,
oppose the idea. The Bolshevik delegates voted unani- 1918
mously in favour of the proposal.[155]
However, not all Russian socialists supported transferring
all power to the Soviets. The Right SRs and Mensheviks
walked out of this very rst session of the Congress of Soviets in protest at the overthrow of the Provisional Government, of which their parties had been members.[156]

construct the Socialist order!" Lenin proceeded to propose to the Congress a Decree on Peace, calling on all
the belligerent peoples and to their Governments to begin immediately negotiations for a just and democratic
peace, and a Decree on Land, transferring ownership
of all land-owners estates, and all lands belonging to
the Crown, [and] to monasteries to the Peasants Soviets. The Congress passed the Decree on Peace unanimously, and the Decree on Land faced only one vote in
opposition.[158]

The next day, on the evening of 26 October O.S., Lenin

attended the Congress of Soviets: undisguised in public
for the rst time since the July Days, although not yet having regrown his trademark beard. The American journalist John Reed described the man who appeared at about
8:40 pm to a thundering wave of cheers":
Having approved these key Bolshevik policies, the
Congress of Soviets proceeded to elect the Bolsheviks
A short, stocky gure, with a big head set
into power as the Council of Peoples Commissars by an
down in his shoulders, bald and bulging. Little
enormous majority.[159] The Bolsheviks oered posts in
eyes, a snubbish nose, wide, generous mouth,
the Council to the Left SRs: an oer that the Left SRs at
and heavy chin; clean-shaven now, but already
rst refused,[160] but later accepted, joining the Bolshebeginning to bristle with the well-known beard
viks in coalition on 12 December O.S.[161] Lenin had sugof his past and future. Dressed in shabby
gested that Trotsky take the position of Chairman of the
clothes, his trousers much too long for him.
Councilthe head of the Soviet governmentbut TrotUnimpressive, to be the idol of a mob, loved
sky refused on the grounds that his Jewishness would be
and revered as perhaps few leaders in hiscontroversial, and he took the post of Commissar for Fortory have been. A strange popular leadera
eign Aairs instead.[160] Thus, Lenin became the head of
leader purely by virtue of intellect; colourless,
government in Russia.
humourless, uncompromising and detached,
Trotsky announced the composition of the new Soviet
without picturesque idiosyncrasiesbut with
Central Executive Committee: with a Bolshevik majorthe power of explaining profound ideas in simity, but with places reserved for the representatives of
ple terms, of analysing a concrete situation.
the other parties, including the seceded Right SRs and
And combined with shrewdness, the greatest
Mensheviks. Trotsky concluded the Congress: We wel[157]
intellectual audacity.
come into the Government all parties and groups which
[159]
According to Reed, Lenin waited for the applause to sub- will adopt our programme.
side before declaring simply: We shall now proceed to Lenin declared in 1920 that Communism is Soviet

10

LENINS GOVERNMENT

power plus the electrication of the entire country in 3.2 Establishing the Cheka
modernising Russia into a 20th-century country:[162]
Main article: Cheka
We must show the peasants that the organisation of industry on the basis of modern,
advanced technology, on electrication, which
will provide a link between town and country, will put an end to the division between
town and country, will make it possible to raise
the level of culture in the countryside and to
overcome, even in the most remote corners of
land, backwardness, ignorance, poverty, disease, and barbarism.[163]

On 20 December 1917, The Whole-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution

and Sabotage, the Cheka (Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya
Extraordinary Commission) was created by a decree
issued by Lenin to defend the Russian Revolution.[171]
The establishment of the Cheka, secret service, headed by
Felix Dzerzhinsky, formally consolidated the censorship
established earlier, when on 17 November, the Central
Executive Committee passed a decree giving the Bolsheviks control over all newsprint and wide powers of closing down newspapers critical of the rgime. . . .";[172]
non-Bolshevik soviets were disbanded; anti-soviet newspapers were closed until Pravda (Truth) and Izvestia (The
News) established their communications monopoly. According to Leonard Schapiro the Bolshevik refusal to
come to terms with the [Revolutionary] socialists, and the
dispersal of the Constituent assembly, led to the logical
result that revolutionary terror would now be directed, not
only against traditional enemies, such as the bourgeoisie
or right-wing opponents, but against anyone, be he socialist, worker, or peasant, who opposed Bolshevik rule.[173]
On 19 December 1918, a year after its creation, a resolution was adopted at Lenins behest that forbade the Bolsheviks own press from publishing defamatory articles
about the Cheka.[174] As Lenin put it: A Good Communist is also a good Chekist.[174]

Yet the Bolshevik Government had to rst withdraw Russia from the First World War (191418). Facing continuing Imperial German eastward advance, Lenin proposed immediate Russian withdrawal from the West European war; yet, other, doctrinaire Bolshevik leaders
(e.g. Nikolai Bukharin) advocated continuing in the war
to foment revolution in Germany. Lead peace treaty
negotiator Leon Trotsky proposed No War, No Peace,
an intermediate-stance RussoGerman treaty conditional
upon neither belligerent annexing conquered lands; the
negotiations collapsed, and the Germans renewed their
attack, conquering much of the (agricultural) territory of
west Russia. As a result, Lenins withdrawal proposal
then gained majority support, and, on 3 March 1918,
Russia withdrew from the First World War via the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk, losing much of its European territory.
Because of the German threat, Lenin moved the Soviet
Government from Petrograd to Moscow on 1011 March 3.3
1918.[164][165]
On 19 January 1918, relying upon the soviets, the Bolsheviks, allied with anarchists and the Socialist Revolutionaries, dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly
thereby consolidating the Bolshevik Governments political power. Yet, that left-wing coalition collapsed consequent to the Social Revolutionaries opposing the territorially expensive Brest-Litovsk treaty the Bolsheviks
reached an accord with Imperial Germany. The anarchists and the Socialist Revolutionaries then joined other
political parties in attempting to depose the Bolshevik
Government, who defended themselves with persecution
and jail for the anti-Bolsheviks.
To initiate the Russian economic recovery, on 21 February 1920, he launched the GOELRO plan, the State Commission for Electrication of Russia (
), and also established free universal health care, free education systems,
promulgated the politico-civil rights of women.[166] and
also legalised homosexuality, being the rst country in
the modern age to do this.[167]

Failed assassinations

Lenin survived two serious assassination attempts. The

rst occasion was on 14 January 1918 in Petrograd,
when assassins ambushed Lenin in his automobile after a
speech. He and Fritz Platten were in the back seat when
assassins began shooting, and Platten grabbed Lenin by
the head and pushed him down... Plattens hand was covered in blood, having been grazed by a bullet as he was
shielding Lenin.[175]
The second event was on 30 August 1918, when the
Socialist Revolutionary Fanya Kaplan approached Lenin
at his automobile after a speech; he was resting a foot
on the running board as he spoke with a woman. Kaplan called to Lenin, and when he turned to face her she
shot at him three times. The rst bullet struck his arm,
the second bullet his jaw and neck, and the third missed
him, wounding the woman with whom he was speaking;
the wounds felled him and he became unconscious.[176]
Kaplan said during her interrogation that she considered
Lenin to be a traitor to the Revolution for dissolving
the Constituent Assembly and for outlawing other leftist
parties.[177]

Homosexuality and abortion were legalized.[168] No-fault

divorce was also legalized, along with universal free Pravda publicly ridiculed Fanya Kaplan as a failed assashealthcare[169] and free education being established.[170] sin, a latter-day Charlotte Corday (the murderess of Jean-

3.4

Red Terror

11

Paul Marat) who could not derail the Russian Revolution,

reassuring readers that, immediately after surviving the
assassination: Lenin, shot through twice, with pierced
lungs spilling blood, refuses help and goes on his own.
The next morning, still threatened with death, he reads
papers, listens, learns, and observes to see that the engine
of the locomotive that carries us towards global revolution
has not stopped working..."; despite unharmed lungs, the
neck wound did spill blood into a lung.[178]
Historian Richard Pipes reports that the impression one
gains ... is that the Bolsheviks deliberately underplayed
the event to convince the public that, whatever happened
to Lenin, they were rmly in control. Moreover, in a
letter to his wife (7 September 1918), Leonid Borisovich
Krasin, a Tsarist and Soviet rgime diplomat, describes
the public atmosphere and social response to the failed
assassination attempt on 30 August and to Lenins survival:
As it happens, the attempt to kill Lenin has
made him much more popular than he was.
One hears a great many people, who are far
from having any sympathy with the Bolsheviks,
saying that it would be an absolute disaster if
Lenin had succumbed to his wounds, as it was
rst thought he would. And they are quite right,
for, in the midst of all this chaos and confusion,
he is the backbone of the new body politic, the
main support on which everything rests.[179]

Bolshevik propaganda poster from 1920, showing Lenin sweeping away monarchists and capitalists; the caption reads, Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth

policy (e.g. Decossackisation i.e. repressions against the

Kuban and Don Cossacks) against given social classes,
while the counter-revolutionary White Terror was racial
Main article: Red Terror
and political, against Jews, anti-monarchists, and ComThe Bolsheviks instructed Felix Dzerzhinsky to com- munists, (cf. White Movement).[192] Such numbers are
mence a Red Terror, an organized program of arrests, recorded in cities controlled by the Bolsheviks:
imprisonments, and killings.[180] At Moscow, execution
lists signed by Lenin authorised the shooting of 25 forIn Kharkov there were between 2,000 and
mer ministers, civil servants, and 765 White Guards in
3,000
executions in FebruaryJune 1919, and
September 1918.[181]
another 1,0002,000 when the town was taken
Earlier, in October, Lev Kamenev and cohort, had
again in December of that year; in Rostovwarned the Party that terrorist rule was inevitable[182] In
on-Don, approximately 1,000 in January 1920;
late 1918, when he and Nikolai Bukharin tried curbing
in Odessa, 2,200 in MayAugust 1919, then
Chekist excesses, Lenin overruled them; in 1921, via the
1,5003,000 between February 1920 and
Politburo, he expanded the Chekas discretionary deathFebruary 1921; in Kiev, at least 3,000 in
penalty powers.[183][184]
FebruaryAugust 1919; in Ekaterinodar, at
least 3,000 between August 1920 and FebruThe White Russian counter-revolution failed for want
ary 1921; In Armavir, a small town in Kuban,
of popular support and bad coordination among its disbetween 2,000 and 3,000 in AugustOctober
parate units. Meanwhile, Lenin put the Terror under a
[185]
1920. The list could go on and on.[193]
centralized secret police (Cheka) in summer 1918.

3.4

Red Terror

By May 1919, there were some 16,000 enemies of

the people imprisoned in the Chekas katorga labour Professor Christopher Read states that though terror was
camps; by September 1921 the prisoner populace ex- employed at the height of the Civil War ghting, from
ceeded 70,000.[186][187][188][189][190][191]
1920 onwards the resort to terror was much reduced
from Lenins mainstream discourses and
During the Civil War both the Red and White Russians and disappeared
[194]
practices.
committed atrocities against each other as well by attacking their supporters. The Red Terror was Lenins While the Russian famine of 1921, which left six mil-

12

LENINS GOVERNMENT

3.5 Civil War

Main article: Russian Civil War
In 1917, as an anti-imperialist, Lenin said that oppressed
peoples had the unconditional right to secede from the
Russian Empire; however, at end of the Civil War, the
USSR annexed Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.[209]
Lenin defended the annexations as, "geopolitical protection against capitalist imperial depredations.[210]

White Russian anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster

To maintain the war-isolated cities, keep the armies fed,

and to avoid economic collapse, the Bolshevik government established war communism, via prodrazvyorstka,
food requisitioning from the peasantry, for little payment, which peasants resisted with reduced harvests. The
Bolsheviks blamed the kulaks withholding grain to increase prots; but statistics indicate most such business
occurred in the black market economy.[211][212] Nonetheless, the prodrazvyorstka resulted in armed confrontations, which the Cheka and Red Army suppressed with
shooting hostages, poison gas, and labour-camp deportation; yet Lenin increased the requisitioning.[213][214][215]

lion dead, was going on, the Bolsheviks planned to capture church property and use its value to relieve the
victims.[195][196][197] About the resistance to this, Lenin
said: we must precisely now smash the Black Hundreds
clergy most decisively and ruthlessly and put down all
resistance with such brutality that they will not forget it
for several decades. He also said: At this meeting pass
a secret resolution of the congress that the removal of
property of value, especially from the very richest lauras,
monasteries, and churches, must be carried out with ruth- 3.6
less resolution, leaving nothing in doubt, and in the very
shortest time. The greater the number of representatives of the reactionary clergy and the reactionary bourgeoisie that we succeed in shooting on this occasion, the
better[198] Historian Orlando Figes has cited an estimate
of perhaps 8,000 priests and laymen being executed as a
result of this letter.[199]

192022

According to historian Michael Kort, During 1919

and 1920, out of a population of approximately 1.5
million Don Cossacks, the Bolshevik regime killed or
deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000.[200] And
the crushing of the revolts in Kronstadt and Tambov
in southern Russia in 1921 resulted in large scale
executions.[201] Estimates for the total number of people killed in the Red Terror range from 50,000 to over
a million.[202][202][203][204][205][206][207][208]

Lenin in 1920.
Trotsky, Lenin and Kamenev at the II Party Congress in 1919

After the March 1921 left-wing Kronstadt Rebellion

mutiny, Lenin abolished war communism with its food

13
requisitioning, and tight control over industry with a
much more liberal New Economic Policy (NEP), which
allowed private enterprise. The NEP successfully stabilised the economy and stimulated industry and agriculture by means of a market economy where the government did not set prices and wages. The NEP was his
pragmatic recognition of the political and economic realities, despite being a tactical, ideological retreat from
the socialist ideal.[216] Politically, Robert Service claims
that Lenin advocated the nal eradication of all remaining threats, real or potential, to his state. For
Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks he demanded
the staging of show trials followed by exemplary severe
punishment.[217]
In international terms Lenin spoke of world revolution.
The stalemate in the war with Poland and the failures of
Communist uprisings in Central Europe brought the realisation that the revolution would come slowly. To get it
on track Lenin in 1919 set up the Third International, or
Comintern.[218][219]

Decline and death

Lenin was involved in the challenges of delivering fuel into Ivanovo-Vosnesensk... the
provision of clothing for miners, he was solving
the question of dynamo construction, drafted
dozens of routine documents, orders, trade
agreements, was engaged in the allocation of
rations, edited books and pamphlets at the request of his comrades, held hearings on the
applications of peat, assisted in improving the
workings at the Novii Lessner factory, claried in correspondence with the engineer P. A.
Kozmin the feasibility of using wind turbines
for the electrication of villages... all the while
serving as an adviser to party functionaries almost continuously.[222]
In March 1922 physicians prescribed rest for his fatigue
and headaches. Upon returning to Petrograd in May
1922, Lenin suered the rst of three strokes, which left
him unable to speak for weeks, and severely hampered
motion in his right side. By June, he had substantially recovered; by August he resumed limited duties, delivering
three long speeches in November. In December 1922, he
suered the second stroke that partly paralysed his right
side, he then withdrew from active politics. In March
1923, he suered a third stroke; it ended his career.
Lenin was mute and bed-ridden until his death but ofcially remained the leader of the Communist Party.[223]
Persistent stories mark syphilis as the cause of Lenins
death. A retrospective diagnosis published in The European Journal of Neurology in 2004 strengthens these
suspicions.[224]

During Lenins sickness (192223), Stalin used this fake photograph (it was a composite of two shots) as part of his claim to be
Lenins successor.[220]

After the rst stroke, Lenin dictated government papers

to Nadezhda; among them was Lenins Testament (changing the structure of the soviets), a document partly inspired by the 1922 Georgian Aair, which was a conict
about the way in which social and political transformation
within a constituent republic was to be achieved. It criticised high-rank Communists, including Joseph Stalin,
Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and
Leon Trotsky. About the Communist Partys General
Secretary (since 1922), Joseph Stalin, Lenin reported that
the unlimited authority concentrated in him was unacceptable, and suggested that comrades think about a
way of removing Stalin from that post. His phrasing,
" ", implies personal rudeness,
unnecessary roughness, lack of nesse, aws intolerable in a Secretary-General.

The mental strains of leading a revolution, governing, and

ghting a civil war aggravated the physical debilitation
consequent to the wounds from the attempted assassinations; Lenin retained a bullet in his neck, until a German
surgeon removed it on 24 April 1922.[221] When in good
health Lenin worked fourteen to sixteen hours daily, occupied with minor, major, and routine matters. Around
the time of Lenins death, Volkogonov said:

At Lenins death, Nadezhda mailed his testament to the

central committee, to be read aloud to the 13th Party
Congress in May 1924. However, to remain in power, the
ruling troikaStalin, Kamenev, Zinovievsuppressed
Lenins Testament; it was not published until 1925, in the
United States, by the American intellectual Max Eastman. In that year, Trotsky published an article minimising the importance of Lenins Testament, saying that
Lenins notes should not be perceived as a will, that it had

14

DECLINE AND DEATH

the way back to the causeway. He saw; he

turned; he perished. The strong illumination
that guided him was cut o at the moment
when he had turned resolutely for home. The
Russian people were left oundering in the bog.
Their worst misfortune was his birth: their next
worst his death.[229]

4.1 Funeral

Lenins funeral by I.Brodsky

Lenin in 1923

The Soviet government publicly announced Lenins death

been neither concealed, nor violated;[225] yet he did in- the following day, with head of State Mikhail Kalinin
voke it in later anti-Stalin polemics.[226][227]
tearfully reading an ocial statement to delegates of the
Lenin died at 18.50 hrs, Moscow time, on 21 January All-Russian Congress of Soviets at 11am, the same time
team of physicians began a postmortem of the
1924, aged 53, at his estate at Gorki settlement (later re- that a[230]
body.
On 23 January, mourners from the Communamed Gorki Leninskiye). In the four days that the Bolnist
Party
Central
Committee, the Moscow party organishevik Leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin lay in state, more
sation,
the
trade
unions
and the soviets began to assemble
than 900,000 mourners viewed his body in the Hall of
[223]
at
his
house,
with
the
body
being removed from his home
Columns;
among the statesmen who expressed conat
about
10am
the
following
day, being carried aloft in a
dolences to the Soviet Union was Chinese premier Sun
red
con
by
Kamenev,
Zinoviev,
Stalin, Bukharin, BubYat-sen, who said:
hov and Krasin. Transported by train to Moscow, mourners gathered at every station along the way, and upon arThrough the ages of world history, thouriving in the city, a funerary procession carried the con
sands of leaders and scholars appeared who
for ve miles to the House of Trade Unions, where the
spoke eloquent words, but these remained
body lay in state.[231]
words. You, Lenin, were an exception. You
not only spoke and taught us, but translated
your words into deeds. You created a new
country. You showed us the road of joint struggle... You, great man that you are, will live
on in the memories of the oppressed people
through the centuries.[228]

Over the next three days, around a million mourners from

across the Soviet Union came to see the body, many queuing for hours in the freezing conditions, with the events
being lmed by the government.[232] On Saturday 26 January, the eleventh All-Union Congress of Soviets met to
pay respects to the deceased leader, with speeches being made by Kalinin, Zinoviev and Stalin, but notably not
Winston Churchill, who encouraged British intervention Trotsky, who had been convalescing in the Caucasus.[232]
against the Russian Revolution, in league with the White Lenins funeral took place the following day, when his
Movement, to destroy the Bolsheviks and Bolshevism, body was carried to Red Square, accompanied by marsaid:
tial music, where assembled crowds listened to a series
of speeches before the corpse was carried into a vault,
He alone could have led Russia into the enfollowed by the singing of the revolutionary hymn, You
chanted quagmire; he alone could have found
fell in sacrice.[232]

15

Pallbearers carrying Lenins con during his funeral, from

Paveletsky Rail Terminal to the Labour Temple. Felix Dzerzhinsky at the front with Timofei Sapronov behind him and Lev
Kamenev on the left.

Three days after his death, Petrograd was renamed

Leningrad in his honour, remaining so until the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, when its former name Saint
Petersburg was restored, yet the administrative area remains Leningrad Oblast. In the early 1920s, the Russian cosmism movement proved so popular that Leonid
Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov proposed to cryonically
preserve Lenin for future resurrection, yet, despite buying
the requisite equipment, that was not done.[233] Instead,
the body of V. I. Lenin was embalmed and permanently
exhibited in Lenins Mausoleum, in Moscow, on 27 January 1924.
Despite the ocial diagnosis of death from stroke consequences, the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov reported that
Lenin died of neurosyphilis, according to a publication by
V. Lerner and colleagues in the European Journal of Neurology in 2004. The authors also note that It is possible
that future DNA technology applied to Lenins preserved
brain material could ultimately establish or disprove neurosyphilis as the primary cause of Lenins death.[234]

Lenin giving a speech.

and the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat in this eortdeveloped into MarxismLeninism,
a highly inuential ideology. Although a Marxist, Lenin
was also inuenced by earlier currents of Russian socialist thought such as Narodnichestvo.[237] Conversely, he
derided Marxists who adopted from contemporary nonMarxist philosophers and sociologists.[238] He believed
that his interpretation of Marxism was the sole authentic one.[239] Robert Service noted that Lenin considered
moral questions to be an irrelevance, rejecting the
concept of moral absolutism; instead he judged whether
an action was justiable based upon its chances of success
for the revolutionary cause.[240]
Lenin was an internationalist, and a keen supporter of
world revolution, thereby deeming national borders to be
an outdated concept and nationalism a distraction from
class struggle.[241] He believed that under revolutionary
socialism, there would be the inevitable merging of nations and the ultimate establishment of "a United States
of the World".[242] He opposed federalism, deeming it to
be bourgeoisie, instead emphasising the need for a centralised unitary state.[243]

In a poll conducted in 2012 by a Russian website, 48 per

Lenin was an anti-imperialist, and believed that all nations
cent of the people that responded voted that the body of
deserved the right of self-determination.[243] He thus
[235][236]
the former leader should be buried.
supported wars of national liberation, accepting that such
Lenins funeral train consisting of the locomotive and fu- conicts might be necessary for a minority group to break
neral van still containing the original wreaths is preserved away from a socialist state, asserting that the latter were
at the Museum of the Moscow Railway, Paveletsky Rail not holy or insured against mistakes or weaknesses.[244]
Terminal in Moscow.
He also staunchly criticised anti-Semitism within the
Russian Empire, commenting It is not the Jews who
are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of
the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among
5 Political ideology
the Jews there are working people, and they form the
majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are opMain article: Leninism
they are our comrades in the struggle
Lenin was a Marxist and principally a revolutionary. His pressed by capital;
[245]
for
socialism.
revolutionary theorythe belief in the necessity of a violent overthrow of capitalism through communist rev- He believed that revolution in the Third World would
olution, to be followed by a dictatorship of the prole- come about through an alliance of the proletarians with
tariat as the rst stage of moving towards communism, the rural peasantry.[246] In 1923 Lenin said:

16

6 PERSONAL LIFE AND CHARACTERISTICS

cles, and books, without a stenographer or secretary, until
prevented by illness.[249] He simultaneously corresponded
with comrades, allies, and friends, in Russia and worldwide. His Collected Works comprise 54 volumes, each of
about 650 pages, translated into English in 45 volumes by
Progress Publishers, Moscow 196070.[250]
After Lenins death, the USSR selectively censored
his writings, to establish the dogma of the infallibility
of Lenin, Stalin (his successor), and the Central
Committee;[251] thus, the Soviet fth edition (55 vols.,
195865) of Lenins uvre deleted the LeninStalin contradictions, and all that was unfavourable to the founder
of the USSR.[252] The historian Richard Pipes published a
documentary collection of letters and telegrams excluded
from the Soviet fth edition, proposing that edition as
incomplete.[253]

6 Personal life and characteristics

"[Lenins collected writings] reveal in detail a man with
iron will, self-enslaving self-discipline, scorn for opponents and obstacles, the cold determination of a zealot,
the drive of a fanatic, and the ability to convince or browbeat weaker persons by his singleness of purpose, imLenin the icon: A 1929 Laz language newspaper featuring posing intensity, impersonal approach, personal sacrice,
Lenins writing
political astuteness, and complete conviction of the possession of the absolute truth. His life became the history
of the Bolshevik movement.
The outcome of the struggle will be determined
by the fact that Russia, India, China, etc,. acBiographer Louis Fischer, 1964.[254]
count for the overwhelming majority of the
population of the globe. And during the last
Lenin believed himself to be a man of destiny, having an
few years it is this majority that has been drawn
unshakable belief in the righteousness of his cause,[255]
into the struggle for emancipation with extraorand in his own ability as a revolutionary leader.[256] Hisdinary rapidity, so that in this respect there cantorian Richard Pipes noted that he exhibited a great deal
not be the slightest doubt what the nal outof charisma and personal magnetism,[257] and that he had
come of the world struggle will be. In this sense
an extraordinary capacity for disciplined work and tothe complete victory of socialism is fully and
tal commitment to the revolutionary cause.[258] Aside
[247]
absolutely assured.
from Russian, Lenin spoke and read French, German, and
English.[259]
Lenin believed that representative democracy had simply
been used to give the illusion of democracy while main- Lenin had a strong emotional hatred of the Tsarist
[260]
with biographer Louis Fischer describtaining the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie; describing the authorities,
ing
him
as
a
lover
of radical change and maximum
U.S. representative democratic system, he described the
[261]
Historian
and biographer Robert Service
upheaval.
spectacular and meaningless duels between two bourasserted
that
Lenin
had
been an intensely emotional
geois parties, both of whom were led by astute multi[262]
[248]
who
developed
an emotional attachyoung
man,
millionaires who exploited the American proletariat.
ment to his ideological heroes, such as Marx, Engels and
Chernyshevsky; he owned portraits of them,[263] and privately asserted that he was in love with Marx.[264] Lenin
5.1 Writings
was an atheist, and believed that socialism was inherently
Main articles:
Vladimir Lenin bibliography and atheistic; he thus deemed Christian socialism to be a conCategory:Works by Vladimir Lenin
tradiction in terms.[265]
Concerned with physical tness, he took reguLenin was a prolic political theoretician and philoso- lar exercise,[266] enjoyed cycling, swimming, and
pher who wrote about the practical aspects of carrying hunting,[267] also developed a passion for mountain
out a proletarian revolution; he wrote pamphlets, arti- walking in the Swiss peaks.[268] He despised untidiness,

17
suit his argument,[279] abhorring compromise,[280] and
very rarely admitting his own errors.[281] He refused to
bend his opinions, until he rejected them completely, at
which he would treat the new view as if it was just as
unbendable.[282] Robert Service stated that Lenin was a
man who could be moody and volatile,[283] and who
exhibited a virtual lust for violence although had no
desire to personally involve himself in killing.[284] Similarly, Fischer asserted that he had neither an emotional
commitment to terror nor a revulsion to terror,[285] while
Pipes commented that Lenin had a strong streak of
cruelty and exhibited no remorse for those killed by
the revolutionary cause, asserting that this arose out of
indierence rather than sadism.[286] According to Service, Lenins criterion of morality was simple: does
a certain action advance or hinder the cause of the
Revolution?"[287]
In 1922, according to Robert Service, Lenin advocated
the nal eradication of all remaining threats, real or potential, to his state. For Socialist-Revolutionaries and
Mensheviks he demanded the staging of show trials followed by exemplary severe punishment.[217]
Lenins wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya

always keeping his work desk tidy and his pencils

sharpened,[269] and insisted on total silence while he
was working.[270] In personal dealings with others, he
was modest, and for this reason disliked the cult of
personality that the Soviet administration had begun
to build around him; he nevertheless accepted that it
might have some benets in unifying the movement.[271]
After an hours meeting with Lenin, the philosopher
Bertrand Russell asserted that Lenin was very friendly,
and apparently simple, entirely without a trace of
hauteur... I have never met a personage so destitute of
self-importance.[272] Similarly, Lenins friend Gorky
described him as a baldheaded, stocky, sturdy person,
being too ordinary and not giving the impression of
being a leader.[273]
Throughout his adult life, Lenin was in a relationship with
Nadezhda Krupskaya, a fellow Marxist whom he married. Lenin and Nadya were both sad that they never
had children,[274] and enjoyed entertaining the children
of their friends.[275] Despite his radical politics, he took a
conservative attitude with regard to sex and marriage.[276]
Lenin was privately critical of Russia, describing it as
one of the most benighted, medieval and shamefully
backward of Asian countries.[248] He was similarly critical of the Russian people, informing Gorky that An intelligent Russian is almost always a Jew or someone with
Jewish blood, in other instances admitting that he knew
little of Russia, having spent one half of his adult life
abroad.[277]

7 Legacy

Statue of Lenin in front of a state building in Nizhyn, Ukraine

(demolished by the city council in February 2014).

When Lenin died on 21 January 1924, he was acclaimed

by Communists as the greatest genius of mankind and
the leader and teacher of the peoples of the whole
world.[288] Lenin remains a controversial and highly divisive world gure.[289] Lenin had a signicant inuence on
the international Communist movement and was one of
the most inuential and controversial gures of the 20th
century. Admirers view him as a champion of working
peoples rights and welfare whilst critics see him as a dictator who carried out mass human rights abuses.

According to Pipes and Fischer, Lenin was intolerant Historian J. Arch Getty has remarked that Lenin deof opposition and often dismissed opinions that diered serves a lot of credit for the notion that the meek can
from his own outright.[278] He ignored facts which did not inherit the earth, that there can be a political movement

18

based on social justice and equality, while one of his biographers, Robert Service, says he laid the foundations
of dictatorship and lawlessness. Lenin had consolidated
the principle of state penetration of the whole society,
its economy and its culture. Lenin had practised terror
and advocated revolutionary amoralism.[290] Time magazine named Lenin one of the 100 most important people
of the 20th century,[291] and one of their top 25 political
icons of all time; remarking that for decades, Marxist
Leninist rebellions shook the world while Lenins embalmed corpse lay in repose in Red Square".[292] Following the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, reverence for
Lenin declined among the post-Soviet generations, yet he
remains an important historical gure for the Soviet-era
generations.[293]

LEGACY

Commemorative one rouble coin minted in 1970, in honor of

Lenins centenary.

of Russia (LDPR) have indicated a proposal to remove all

statues of Lenin from Russian cities, with LDPR deputy
Aleksandr Kurdyumov citing high maintenance costs and
vandalism concerns as some of the main reasons. The
proposal is being strongly opposed by the Communist
Party of the Russian Federation.[300]

Lenins reputation inside the Soviet Union and its allies remained high until Communism ended in 198991.
During the upheavals of the 1960s, Service argues, the
reputation of Soviet Communism, and of Lenin himself,
started slipping as intellectuals and students on the left Many places and entities were named in honor of Lenin.
turned against dictatorship:
The city of Saint Petersburg, the site where both February
and October revolutions started, was renamed Leningrad
Even the Italian and Spanish communist parties
in 1924, four days after Lenins death. In 1991, after
abandoned their ideological fealty to Moscow
a contested vote between Communists and liberals, the
and formulated doctrines hostile to dictatorLeningrad government reverted the citys name to Saint
ship. Especially after the USSR-led invasion
Petersburg while the surrounding Leningrad Oblast reof Czechoslovakia in 1968, the number of admained so named;[301] like-wise the city of Ulyanovsk
mirers of Lenin was getting smaller in states
(so-named after Lenins birth name) and the Ulyanovsk
not subject to communist leaderships.[294]
Oblast remain so named. Gyumri in Armenia was named
Leninakan from 1924 to 1990,[302] Khujand in Tajikistan Leninabad from 1936 to 1991.[303] In space, the 852
Historian Stephen Lee states:
Wladilena asteroid was named in his honor.[304]
instead of guiding Russian history on to a new
highway, Lenin had simply shoved it up a culde-sac. This is also the point that seems to have
been reached by many recent Russian historians, especially Volkogonov.[295][296]

7.2 In popular culture

According to the article in Encyclopdia Britannica written by Professor Albert Resis of Northern Illinois University:[297]
There is little question that Lenin did inuence revolutionaries, including successful ones in China, Vietnam,
and Cuba.

7.1

Statues and city names

Main articles: List of places named after Vladimir Lenin

and List of statues of Vladimir Lenin
Lenin as represented in Sergei Eisenstein's 1927 lm October.
During the Soviet period, many statues of Lenin were
erected across Eastern Europe. Although many of the
statues have subsequently been removed, some remain
Sergei Eisenstein's October: Ten Days That Shook
standing, and a few new ones have been erected.[298] Durthe World (1927) became an inuential celebratory
ing Euromaidan several were damaged or destroyed.[299]
dramatisation of the 1917 October Revolution.
However, Russian lawmakers from the ruling United
Russia party and the opposition Liberal Democratic Party
Three Songs About Lenin (1934) is a documentary

19
silent lm by Russian lmmaker Dziga Vertov.
Lenin appeared as the central character in the Soviet lms Lenin in October (1937) and Lenin in 1918
(1939), both directed by Mikhail Romm.
Lenin appeared as a friend to the protagonist, Nikolai Orelov, in the graphic novel, Assassins Creed:
The Fall.
Tsar to Lenin (1937) is a documentary lm of
the Russian Revolution and Civil War by Herman
Axelbank.[305]
Sergei Yutkevich directed a series of lms about
Lenin, featuring Maxim Straukh. These include The
Man With the Gun (1938), Yakov Sverdlov (1940),
Stories of Lenin (1957), Lenin in Poland (1966) and
Lenin in Paris (1981).[306]
Lenin vivo (1970) is a short documentary by
Joaquim Jord and Gianni Toti that compiles all the
known footage about Lenin.

9 References
9.1 Footnotes
[1] Lenin. Random House Websters Unabridged Dictionary.
[2] Fischer 1964, pp. 12; Rice 1990, pp. 1213; Service
2000, pp. 2123.
[3] Fischer 1964, p. 5; Rice 1990, p. 13; Service 2000, p.
23.
[4] Fischer 1964, pp. 23; Rice 1990, p. 12; Service 2000,
pp. 1619, 23.
[5] Fischer 1964, p. 6; Rice 1990, pp. 1314, 18; Service
2000, pp. 25, 27.
[6] Fischer 1964, p. 6; Rice 1990, pp. 12, 14; Service 2000,
pp. 13, 25.
[7] Fischer 1964, pp. 3, 8; Rice 1990, pp. 1415; Service
2000, p. 29.
[8] Fischer 1964, p. 8; Service 2000, p. 27.

Lenin was portrayed by Michael Bryant in the 1971

lm Nicholas and Alexandra.
All My Lenins (1997) is a historical comedy by Hardi
Volmer.
Lenin was portrayed by Patrick Stewart in the 1974
BBC miniseries Fall of Eagles.
Lenin was portrayed by Kenneth Cranham in the
1983 BBC miniseries Reilly: Ace of Spies.

[9] Rice 1990, p. 18; Service 2000, p. 26.

[10] Fischer 1964, p. 7; Rice 1990, p. 16; Service 2000, pp.
3236.
[11] Fischer 1964, p. 7; Rice 1990, p. 17; Service 2000, pp.
3646.
[12] Fischer 1964, pp. 6, 9; Rice 1990, p. 19; Service 2000,
pp. 4849.
[13] Fischer 1964, p. 9; Service 2000, pp. 5051, 64.

Lenin was portrayed by Ben Kingsley in the 1988

television lm Lenin: The Train.

[14] Fischer 1964, pp. 1017; Rice 1990, pp. 20, 2224;
Service 2000, pp. 5258.

Lenin was portrayed by Maximilian Schell in the

1992 HBO television lm Stalin.

[15] Fischer 1964, p. 18; Rice 1990, p. 25; Service 2000, p.

61.
[16] Fischer 1964, p. 18; Rice 1990, p. 26; Service 2000, pp.
6163.

See also

[17] Rice 1990, pp. 2627; Service 2000, pp. 6468, 70.

Anti-Leninism

[18] Fischer 1964, p. 18; Rice 1990, p. 27; Service 2000, pp.
6869.

Democracy and Totalitarianism (book)

[19] Fischer 1964, p. 18; Rice 1990, p. 28.

Lenin Peace Prize

Lenin Prize

[20] Fischer 1964, p. 18; Rice 1990, p. 31; Service 2000, p.

71.

MarxistLeninist atheism

[21] Fischer 1964, p. 19; Rice 1990, pp. 3233; Service 2000,
p. 72.

National delimitation in the Soviet Union

[22] Fischer 1964, p. 19; Rice 1990, p. 33; Service 2000, pp.
7476.

Order of Lenin

[23] Rice 1990, p. 34; Service 2000, pp. 7780.

Vladimir Lenin bibliography

[24] Rice 1990, pp. 3436; Service 2000, pp. 8286.

20

[25] Fischer 1964, p. 21; Rice 1990, pp. 3637; Service 2000,
pp. 8690.
[26] Fischer 1964, p. 21; Rice 1990, p. 38; Service 2000, pp.
9394. Published as V. I. Lenin, New Economic Developments in Peasant Life contained in the Collected Works
of V. I. Lenin: Volume 1 (Progress Publishers: Moscow,
1972) pp. 11-73.
[27] Pipes 1990, p. 354; Rice 1990, pp. 3839; Service 2000,
pp. 9092.
[28] Pipes 1990, p. 354; Rice 1990, pp. 3940.
[29] Rice 1990, p. 40.
[30] Rice 1990, p. 43; Service 2000, p. 96.
[31] Service 2000, pp. 104105.
[32] Fischer 1964, p. 41; Rice 1990.
[33] Pipes 1990, p. 355; Rice 1990, pp. 4142; Service 2000,
p. 105.
[34] Service 2000, p. 98.

REFERENCES

[52] Fischer 1964, pp. 45; Service 2000, p. 137.

[53] Fischer 1964, p. 39; Pipes 1990, p. 359; Rice 1990, pp.
7375; Service 2000, pp. 137142.
[54] Fischer 1964, p. 37; Rice 1990, p. 70; Service 2000, p.
136.
[55] Fischer 1964, p. 37; Rice 1990, pp. 7879; Service 2000,
pp. 143144.
[56] Fischer 1964, p. 38.
[57] Fischer 1964, pp. 3839; Rice 1990, pp. 7576; Service
2000, p. 147.
[58] Fischer 1964, pp. 40, 5051; Rice 1990, p. 76; Service
2000, pp. 148150.
[59] Rice 1990, pp. 7778; Service 2000, p. 150.
[60] Pipes 1990, p. 360; Rice 1990, pp. 7980; Service 2000,
pp. 151152.
[61] Rice 1990, pp. 8182; Service 2000, pp. 154155.

[35] Fischer 1964, pp. 2325.

[62] Fischer 1964, p. 39; Rice 1990, p. 82; Service 2000, pp.
155156; Read 2005, pp. 6061.

[36] Rice 1990, pp. 4243.

[63] Rice 1990, p. 83.

[37] Fischer 1964, p. 30; Pipes 1990, p. 354; Rice 1990, pp.
4446; Service 2000, p. 103.

[64] Rice 1990, pp. 8384; Service 2000, p. 157.

[38] Rice 1990, p. 46; Service 2000, p. 103.

[65] Service 2000, pp. 158159.

[66] Service 2000, pp. 163164.

[39] Fischer 1964, p. 30; Rice 1990, p. 46; Service 2000, p.

103.

[67] Rice 1990, p. 85; Service 2000, p. 163.

[40] Rice 1990, pp. 4748.

[68] Fischer 1964, p. 41; Rice 1990, p. 85; Service 2000, p.

165.

[41] Fischer 1964, p. 31; Pipes 1990, p. 355; Rice 1990, p.

48.

[69] Rice 1990, pp. 8889.

[42] Fischer 1964, p. 31; Rice 1990, pp. 4851; Service 2000,
pp. 107108.
[43] Fischer 1964, p. 31; Rice 1990, pp. 5255; Service 2000,
pp. 109110.
[44] Fischer 1964, pp. 3132; Rice 1990, pp. 53, 5556;
Service 2000, pp. 110113.
[45] Fischer 1964, p. 33; Pipes 1990, p. 356; Service 2000,
pp. 114, 140.
[46] Fischer 1964, pp. 3334; Rice 1990, pp. 53, 5556;
Service 2000, p. 117.
[47] Rice 1990, pp. 6163; Service 2000, p. 124.
[48] Rice 1990, pp. 5758; Service 2000, pp. 121124, 137.
[49] Fischer 1964, pp. 3435; Rice 1990, p. 64; Service 2000,
pp. 124125.

[70] Fischer 1964, p. 44; Rice 1990, pp. 8688; Service 2000,
p. 167.
[71] Fischer 1964, pp. 4445; Pipes 1990, pp. 362363; Rice
1990, pp. 8889.
[72] Service 2000, pp. 170171.
[73] Pipes 1990, pp. 363364; Rice 1990, pp. 8990; Service
2000, pp. 168170.
[74] Fischer 1964, p. 60; Pipes 1990, p. 367; Rice 1990, pp.
9091; Service 2000, p. 179.
[75] Fischer 1964, p. 51; Rice 1990, p. 94; Service 2000, pp.
175176; Read 2005, p. 81.
[76] Rice 1990, pp. 9495.
[77] Rice 1990, pp. 9697; Service 2000, pp. 176178.
[78] Rice 1990, p. 95; Service 2000, pp. 178179.

[50] Fischer 1964, p. 35; Pipes 1990, p. 357; Rice 1990, pp.
6469; Service 2000, pp. 129135.

[79] Fischer 1964, p. 53; Pipes 1990, p. 364; Rice 1990, pp.
99100; Service 2000, pp. 179180.

[51] Rice 1990, pp. 6970.

[80] Rice 1990, p. 103; Service 2000, pp. 180181.

9.1

Footnotes

[81] Rice 1990, pp. 103105; Service 2000, pp. 181182.

[82] Rice 1990, pp. 105106; Service 2000, pp. 184186.
[83] Service 2000, pp. 186187.

21

[108] Fischer 1964, p. 85; Pipes 1990, pp. 378379; Rice

1990, p. 127; Service 2000, p. 225.
[109] Fischer 1964, p. 94; Rice 1990, pp. 130131; Pipes
1990, pp. 382383; Service 2000, p. 245.

[84] Fischer 1964, pp. 6768; Rice 1990, p. 111; Service [110] Fischer 1964, p. 85; Rice 1990, p. 129; Service 2000, pp.
2000, pp. 188189.
227228.
[85] Service 2000, p. 189.

[111] Fischer 1964, pp. 95100, 107; Rice 1990, pp. 132134;
Service 2000, pp. 245246; Read 2005, pp. 116126.

[86] Fischer 1964, p. 71; Pipes 1990, pp. 369370; Rice

1990, p. 108.
[112] Service 2000, pp. 241242.

[87] Fischer 1964, p. 64; Rice 1990, p. 109; Service 2000, pp. [113] Service 2000, p. 243.
189190.
[114] Service 2000, pp. 238239.
[88] Fischer 1964, pp. 6364; Rice 1990, p. 110; Service
[115] Pipes 1990, p. 380; Service 2000, pp. 230231.
2000, pp. 190191.
[89] Rice 1990, pp. 110111; Service 2000, pp. 191192.

[116] Rice 1990, p. 135; Service 2000, p. 235.

[90] Fischer 1964, pp. 6467; Rice 1990, p. 110; Service [117] Rice 1990, pp. 136138; Service 2000, p. 253.
2000, pp. 192193.
[118] Service 2000, pp. 254255.
[91] Fischer 1964, p. 69; Rice 1990, p. 111; Service 2000, p.
[119] Fischer 1964, pp. 109110; Rice 1990, p. 139; Pipes
195.
1990, pp. 386, 389391; Service 2000, pp. 255256.
[92] Fischer 1964, pp. 8182; Pipes 1990, pp. 372375; Rice
[120] Fischer 1964, p. 110113; Rice 1990, pp. 140144;
1990, pp. 120121; Service 2000, pp. 206.
Pipes 1990, pp. 391392; Service 2000, pp. 257260.
[93] Fischer 1964, p. 70; Rice 1990, pp. 114116.
[121] Fischer 1964, pp. 113, 124; Rice 1990, p. 144; Pipes
1990, p. 392; Service 2000, p. 261.
[94] Fischer 1964, pp. 6869; Rice 1990, p. 112; Service
2000, pp. 195196.

[122] Pipes 1990, pp. 393394; Service 2000, p. 266.

[95] Fischer 1964, pp. 7580; Rice 1990, p. 112; Pipes 1990,
[123]
p. 384; Service 2000, pp. 197199.
[124]
[96] Rice 1990, p. 115; Service 2000, p. 196.
[125]
[97] Fischer 1964, pp. 7172; Rice 1990, pp. 116117;
Service 2000, pp. 204206.
[126]

Service 2000, pp. 266268, 279.

Service 2000, pp. 267, 271272.
Service 2000, p. 282.
Service 2000, p. 276.

[98] Fischer 1964, p. 72; Rice 1990, pp. 118119; Service [127] Pipes 1990, p. 421; Rice 1990, p. 147; Service 2000, p.
2000, pp. 209211.
283.
[99] Fischer 1964, pp. 9394; Pipes 1990, p. 376; Rice 1990, [128] Pipes 1990, pp. 422425; Rice 1990, pp. 147148;
p. 121; Service 2000, pp. 214215.
Service 2000, pp. 283284; Read 2005, pp. 15861.
[100] Rice 1990, p. 122.
[101] Service 2000, p. 216.
[102] Fischer 1964, pp. 7374; Rice 1990, pp. 122123;
Service 2000.
[103] Fischer 1964, p. 85.
[104] Solzhenitsyn 1976, p. 12; Rice 1990, p. 127; Service
2000, pp. 222223.

[129] Pipes 1990, pp. 431434; Rice 1990, p. 148; Service

2000, pp. 284285.
[130] Fischer 1964, p. 125; Rice 1990, pp. 148149; Service
2000, p. 285.
[131] Pipes 1990, p. 436, 467; Service 2000, p. 287.
[132] Pipes 1990, pp. 468469; Rice 1990, p. 149; Service
2000, p. 289.

[133] Service 2000, p. 288.

[105] Fischer 1964, p. 94; Solzhenitsyn 1976, pp. 1315; Pipes
1990, pp. 377378; Rice 1990, pp. 127128; Service [134] Pipes 1990, p. 468; Rice 1990, p. 150; Service 2000, pp.
2000, pp. 223225.
289292.
[106] Fischer 1964, p. 94; Pipes 1990, p. 378; Rice 1990, p. [135] Pipes 1990, pp. 439465; Rice 1990, pp. 150151;
128; Service 2000, p. 225.
Service 2000, p. 299.
[107] Fischer 1964, p. 107; Service 2000, p. 236.

[136] Pipes 1990, p. 465.

22

REFERENCES

[137] Pipes 1990, pp. 465467.

[163] Lenin Collected Works, vol. 30, p. 335.

[138] Pipes 1990, p. 471; Rice 1990.

[164] Read 2005. p. 212.

[139] Pipes 1990, pp. 473, 482; Rice 1990, p. 152; Service [165] Arthur Ransome (16 March 1918). Lenines Migration a Queer Scene: Premier in Moscow, Capitalisms
2000, pp. 302303.
Stronghold, Serene Amid His Tattered Baggage. The
[140] Pipes 1990, pp. 482484; Rice 1990, pp. 153154;
New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Service 2000, pp. 303304.
[166] Women and Marxism Lenin. Marxists.org. 14
[141] Pipes 1990, pp. 471472; Service 2000, p. 304.
November 2003. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
[142] Service 2000, pp. 306307.

[167] http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/leaders/
vladimir-lenin/

[143] Pipes 1990, p. 466; Rice 1990, p. 155.

[168] Hazard 1965, pp. 277, 279.
[144] Pipes 1990, pp. 485486, 491; Rice 1990, pp. 157, 159;
[169] Womens Health in Post-Soviet Russia: The Politics of InService 2000, p. 308.
tervention. Michele R. Rivkin-Fish. Page 70
[145] Pipes 1990, p. 491; Service 2000, p. 309.
[170] Communism. Sue Vander Hook. Page 28.
[146] Pipes 1990, pp. 492493, 496; Service 2000, p. 311.
[171] The Impact of Stalins Leadership in the USSR, 19241941.
Nelson Thornes. 2008. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7487-8267-3.
[147] Pipes 1990, p. 499; Service 2000, pp. 314315.
[148] Pipes 1990, pp. 496497; Rice 1990, pp. 159161; [172] Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet
Union
Service 2000, pp. 314315.
[149] Pipes 1990, p. 504; Service 2000, p. 315.
[150] Service 2000, p. 316.
[151] Rice 1990, p. 161.

[173] Leonard Bertram Schapiro. The Communist Party of the

Soviet Union. Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1970. ISBN 0-41327900-6 p. 183. See also: Lenin and the First Communist
Revolutions, V

[174] Black Book of Communism, p. 79

[152] V. I. Lenin, 'The Russian Revolution And Civil War: They
Are Trying To Frighten Us With Civil War', Rabochy Put [175] Volkogonov, Dimitri. Lenin A New Biography. New
York: Free Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
('The Workers Path') No. 12 (29 September 1917), Lenin
Internet Archive.
[176] Pipes, Richard, The Russian Revolution (Vintage Books,
1990) p. 807
[153] Orlando Figes, A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924, London: Pimlico (1996), pp. 481, 491. [177] 1918: Fanya Kaplan, Lenins would-be assassin. ExecutedToday.com. September 3, 2009.
[154] Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press (2008), p. 60.
[178] Dr. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Lenins attending physician, Tri
Pokusheniia na V. Lenina, 1924.
[155] Orlando Figes, A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924, London: Pimlico (1996), pp. 48990. [179] Krassin, Lubov, Leonid Krassin: His Life and Work, by his
wife (1929) Skengton: London
[156] Orlando Figes, A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 490.
[180] Anne Applebaum (2007). Gulag: A History. Knopf Doubleday. p. 45. ISBN 9780307426123.
[157] John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), p. 128. (Available online, courtesy of the [181] Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The
Marxists Internet Archive.)
Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. p. 57. ISBN 1-40004005-1.
[158] John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), pp. 129137. (Available online, courtesy of [182] Orlando Figes. A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924. Penguin Books, 1997 ISBN 0-19the Marxists Internet Archive.)
822862-7 p. 630
[159] John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, London: Penguin (1977), p. 143. (Available online, courtesy of the [183] Figes, Orlando (1998). A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian
Revolution: 18911924. Penguin. p. 649. ISBN 0-14Marxists Internet Archive.)
024364-X.
[160] Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: The Man Behind the Mask, Lon[184] Volkogonov, Dimitri. Lenin A New Biography. New
don: Faber and Faber (1988), p. 279.
York: Free Press. p. 238. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.
[161] Orlando Figes, A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolu[185] Figes, Orlando (1998). A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian
tion 18911924, London: Pimlico (1996), p. 512.
Revolution: 18911924. Penguin. pp. 52425. ISBN
[162] Lenin Collected Works, vol. 31, p. 516.
0-14-024364-X.

9.1

Footnotes

23

[186] Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of [203] The Russian Revolution, Richard Pipes, Knopf DoubleSocial Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p.
day Publishing Group, 13/7/2011, p. 838
65
[204] Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History, Norman
Lowe
[187] Melgunov, Sergei, Red Terror in Russia (1975) Hyperion
Pr, ISBN 0-88355-187-X. See: The Record of the Red
[205] The Russian Revolution 1917-1921, William Henry
Terror
Chamberlin, 1935, p. 75
[188] Lincoln, W. Bruce, Red Victory: A History of the Russian
[206] First Fifty Years: Soviet Russia 1917-67, Ian Grey,
Civil War (1999) Da Capo Press.pp. 383385 ISBN 01967, p. 158
306-80909-5
[207] Stewart-Smith, D. G. The Defeat Of Communism. Lon[189] Leggett, George (1987). The Cheka: Lenins Political Podon: Ludgate Press Limited, 1964.
lice. Oxford University Press. pp. 197198. ISBN 0-19[208] Rummel, Rudolph, Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and
822862-7.
Mass Murder Since 1917 (1990).
[190] Orlando Figes. A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 18911924. Penguin Books, 1997 ISBN 0-19- [209] Pipes, Richard (1994). Russia Under the Bolshevik
Regime. Vintage. pp. 141166. ISBN 0-679-76184-5.
822862-7 p. 647
[191] Black Book of Communism, p. 80

[210] Lenin, Vladimir (1915). The Revolutionary Proletariat

and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination.

[192] Black Book of Communism, p. 82

[211] An exchange of letters on the BBC documentary Lenins

Secret Files. World Socialist Web Site. 6 March 1998.
[193] Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Panne, JeanArchived from the original on 13 February 2007. ReLouis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stephane Courtois,
trieved 16 March 2007.
Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression,
Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, page 106,
[212] Carr, E. H. (1966). The Bolshevik Revolution 19171923,
ISBN 0-674-07608-7. Chapter 4: The Red Terror Black
Part 2. p. 233. Chase, W. J. (1987). Workers, Society and
Book
the Soviet State: Labour and Life in Moscow 19181929.
pp. 2627. Nove, A. (1982). An Economic History of
[194] Read 2005. p. 251.
the USSR. p. 62. Flewers, Paul, War Communism in
Retrospect.
[195] Lenins Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet
State Violence. James Ryan. Page 177. On 23 February
[213] Twentieth Century Atlas Death Tolls.
VTsIK decreed, in view of the urgent need to mobilize
all the countrys resources for famine relief, to remove all [214] Black Book of Communism pp. 9297, 116121.
valuables of all religions as long as this did not 'aect the
interests of these cults, and by agreement with believers. [215] Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions, VII.
Gmu.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
[196] A History of Russia Volume 2: Since 1855. Walter Moss.
Page 371. The Communists used the famine as an op- [216] Lars T. Lih, Political Testament of Lenin and Bukharin
and the Meaning of NEP, Slavic Review (1991) 50#2 pp.
portunity to demand that the Orthodox Church contribute
241252 in JSTOR
valuables, including consacred objects, for famine relief.
[197] Religion and the Political Imagination. Ira Katznelson, [217] Service 2000, p. 442.
Gareth Stedman Jones. Cambridge University Press, [218] Dmitri Volkogonov (2008). Lenin. Simon and Schuster.
7/10/2010. Page 125. In February 1922 the regime dep. 312. ISBN 9781439105542.
manded that the church should surrender all its valuables
[219] Sidney Hook, Lenin and the Communist International,
to raise money for famine relief.
Russian Review (1973) 32#1 pp. 1-14 in JSTOR
[198] http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ae2bkhun.html
[220] Gilbert, Felix; Large, David Clay (2008). The End of the
[199] Figes, Orlando (27 October 1996). Censored by His
European Era: 1890 to the Present (6th ed.). New York
Own Regime. The New York Times.
City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 213. ISBN 9780393930405.
[200] Kort, Michael (2001). The Soviet Colosus: History and
Aftermath, p. 133. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. [221] Lenin under the Knife. - Surgeon Extracts a Bullet
Which Troubled Him for Three Years. - View Article.
ISBN 978-0-7656-0396-8.
The New York Times. 26 April 1922. Retrieved 2012-05[201] Donald Rayeld. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant
22.
and Those Who Killed for Him. Random House, 2004.
[222] . . :
ISBN 0-375-50632-2 p. 85
. (Triumph and Tragedy I. V. Stalin : A Po[202] The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative
litical Portrait) (Dmitriy VolkoAnalysis of England, France, and Russia. Bailey Stone.
gonov). Book 1, Part 1, p. 114. Publications.
Cambridge University Press, 25/11/2013. p. 335
Moscow. 1989.

24

[223] Jean-Michel Rabat. 1922. Cambridge University Press. [239]

p. 145. ISBN 9781107040540.
[240]
[224] C. J. Chivers (22 June 2004). A Retrospective Diagnosis Says Lenin Had Syphilis. The New York Times. Re- [241]
trieved 5 January 2012.
[242]
[225] Trotsky, L. D., Concerning Eastmans Book Since Lenin
[243]
Died, Bolshevik 16; 1 September 1925; p. 68. Concerning Eastmans Book Since Lenin Died minimising its [244]
signicance. In several parts of his book, Eastman says
that the Central Committee concealed from the Party a [245]
number of exceptionally important documents written by
Lenin in the last period of his life (it is a matter of letters
on the national question, the so-called 'will', and others); [246]
there can be no other name for this, than slander against
the Central Committee of our Party. . . . Vladimir
Ilyich did not leave any 'will', and the very character of
his attitude towards the Party, as well as the character of
the Party, itself, precluded any possibility of such a 'will'.
What is usually referred to as a 'will' in the migr and [247]
foreign bourgeois and Menshevik press (in a manner garbled beyond recognition) is one of Vladimir Ilyichs letters containing advice on organisational matters. The 13th
[248]
Congress of the Party paid the closest attention to that letter, as to all of the others, and drew from it the conclu- [249]
sions appropriate to the conditions and circumstances of
the time. All talk about concealing or violating a 'will' is
a malicious invention.

REFERENCES

Service 2000, p. 237.

Service 2000, p. 80.
Fischer 1964, p. 54; Pipes 1990, p. 352.
Fischer 1964, pp. 8889.
Fischer 1990, p. 87.
Fischer 1990, pp. 91, 93.
V. I. Lenin, 'Anti-Jewish Pogroms (1919), Lenin Internet
Archive.
. . :
. (Triumph and Tragedy I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) (Dmitriy Volkogonov). Book 1, Part 1, pp. 95114. Publications. Moscow. 1989.
Lenin, quoted in Prabhat Patnaik Introduction to Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Revolution. New Delhi, Leftward Books, p. 8
Rice 1990, p. 121.
. . :
. (Triumph and Tragedy I. V. Stalin : A Political Portrait) (Dmitri Volkogonov).
Book 1, Part 1, p. 110. Publications. Moscow.
1989.

[226] Trotsky, Leon. My Life (1930) The Marxists Internet

Archive
[250] Lenin Collected Works. Marxists.org. Retrieved 201205-22.
[227] Trotsky, Leon (1932). On the Suppressed Testament of
Lenin. The Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 16 [251] Trotsky, Leon (1930). Volume Three: The Triumph of
March 2007.
the Soviets; Appendix No. 1. The History of the Russian
Revolution.
[228] Gorin, Vadim, Lenin: A Biography (1983) Progress Publishers, pp. 46970
[252] Figes, Orlando (27 October 1996). Censored by His
Own Regime. The New York Times.
[229] Mauchline Roberts, Elizabeth, Lenin and the Downfall of
Tsarist Russia (1966) p. 92.
[253] Pipes, Richard (1999). The Unknown Lenin: From the
[230] Rice 1990. p. 7.
[231] Rice 1990. pp. 78.
[232] Rice 1990. p. 9.
[233] See the article: .. ..
, in the book ..
. Saint Petersburg: Azbuka, 2003. p. 433.
[234] V. Lerner, Y. Finkelstein and E. Witztum, The enigma
of Lenins (18701924) malady. European Journal of
Neurology, 2004, 11: 371376
[235] Russians want Bolshevik leader Lenin to be buried.
Business Standard. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
[236] Bennetts, Marc (July 10, 2012). Russians mull burying
Soviet leader Lenin. The Washington Times. Retrieved
13 July 2012.
[237] Service 2000, p. 173.
[238] Service 2000, p. 203.

Secret Archive. Yale University Press. pp. 23. ISBN

978-0-300-07662-2. It has long been known to scholars that the fth, the complete edition was in fact far
from complete. The two-volume Trotsky Papers, based
on the Trotsky Archive at the Harvard Houghton Library,
brought to light a number of previously unpublished documents by Lenin. It was also apparent to Western scholars that in addition to omitting entire documents, the editors of the fth edition had occasionally tampered with
Lenins texts, censoring passages that for one reason or
another they judged unt of republic consumption. But
just how incomplete the fth edition was did not become
known until the breakup of the Soviet Union in late 1991,
when President Boris Yeltsin ordered Russian archives to
be removed from the control of the Communist Party and
placed under the authority of state organs. It then transpired that the Central Party Archive, now renamed the
Russian Centre for the Preservation and Study of Documents of Recent History, or RTsKhIDNI, held no fewer
than 6,724 unpublished Lenin manuscriptsthat is, twice
the number included in the so-called complete collection!
[254] Fischer 1964, pp. 2122.

9.2

Bibliography

[255] Service 2000, p. 159.

[256] Service 2000, p. 202.
[257] Pipes 1990, p. 348.
[258] Pipes 1990, p. 351.
[259] Service 2000, p. 242.
[260] Fischer 1964, p. 44; Service 2000, p. 81.
[261] Fischer 1964, p. 47.
[262] Service 2000, p. 73.
[263] Service 2000, p. 118.
[264] Service 2000, p. 232.
[265] Fischer 1964, pp. 4041; Service 2000, p. 149.
[266] Fischer 1964, p. 56; Rice 1990, p. 106; Service 2000, p.
160.
[267] Fischer 1964, p. 56; Service 2000, p. 188.

25

[290] Robert Service, Lenin in Edward Acton et al. (1997).

Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921.
Indiana University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0253333334.
[291] TIME 100: Vladimir Lenin by David Remnick, 13 April
1998.
[292] Top 25 Political Icons: Lenin by Feifei Sun, Time, 4
February 2011
[293] Pipes, Richard (MayJune 2004). Flight From Freedom:
What Russians Think and Want. work.
[294] Robert Service (2013). A History of Modern Russia. Harvard UP. p. 398. ISBN 9780674725584.
[295] Stephen J. Lee (2008). Lenin and Revolutionary Russia.
Routledge. p. 135. ISBN 9781134446018.
[296] Dmitri Volkogonov, Lenin: A New Biography (1994).
Volkogonov, a Colonel-General, was the former head of
the Soviet military psychological warfare department, and
later the chairman of Russian President Boris Yeltsin's
commission for examining the Soviet archives.

[268] Read 2005, pp. 20, 64, 13237.

[269] Service 2000, pp. 99100, 160.
[270] Service 2000, p. 160.
[271] Pipes 1990, pp. 349350.

[297] Resis, Albert. Vladimir Ilich Lenin. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
[298] Two Lenin monuments opened in Luhansk Oblast,
UNIAN (April 22, 2008)

[272] Russell, Bertrand (1921). The Practice and Theory of [299] Ukraine crisis: Lenin statues toppled in protest. BBC.
2014-02-22. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
Bolshevism. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
[300] All monuments of Lenin to be removed from Russian
cities, RT (20 November 2012)
[273] Fischer 1964, p. 57.
[274] Service 2000, p. 199.

[301] Maryland Government, St Petersburg/Leningrad Oblast

[275] Service 2000, p. 213.

[302] Mohammad H. Tamdgidi. Gurdjie and Hypnosis: A

Hermeneutic Study. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 237. ISBN
9780230102026.

[276] Fischer 1964, p. 79.

[277] Pipes 1990, p. 352.

[303] Khujand. AS Rare so Khan. Retrieved 8 May 2015.

[278] Fischer 1964, p. 67; Pipes 1990, p. 353.

[279] Pipes 1990, p. 353.
[280] Fischer 1964, p. 69.
[281] Service 2000, p. 244.
[282] Fischer 1964, p. 59.
[283] Service 2000, p. 116.

[304] Lutz D. Schmadel. Dictionary of Minor Planet Names.

Springer Science & Business Media. p. 123. ISBN
9783662066157.
[305] Nackte und Tote. Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 6
June 2013.
[306] David Robinson (1981) World Cinema 18951980. London, Methuen: 223

[284] Service 2000, p. 177.

[285] Fischer 1964, p. 45.
[286] Pipes 1990, p. 350.
[287] Service 2000, p. 293.
[288] Lenin entry from the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968
[289] Biography (TV series) Vladimir Lenin, Voice of Revolution, A&E Network, 2005, ASIN B000AABKX6

9.2 Bibliography
Fischer, Louis (1964). The Life of
Lenin. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson. ISBN 978-1842122303.
Hazard, John N. (1965). Unity
and Diversity in Socialist Law.
Law and Contemporary Problems
30 (2): 270290.

26

10 FURTHER READING
Pipes, Richard (1990). The Russian Revolution: 18991919. London: Collins Harvill. ISBN 9780679736608.
Read, Christopher (2005). Lenin:
A Revolutionary Life. London:
Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-41520649-5.
Rice, Christopher (1990). Lenin:
Portrait of a Professional Revolutionary. London: Cassell. ISBN
978-0304318148.
Service, Robert (2000). Lenin: A
Biography. London: Macmillan.
ISBN 9780333726259.
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander (1976)
[1975]. Lenin in Zrich. H.T.
Willetts (translator). New York:
Faber, Straus & Giroux.

10

Further reading

Blackledge, Paul (3 July 2006). What was done.

International Socialism (111) (London: Socialist
Workers Party (Britain)). ISSN 1754-4653. Retrieved 2010-06-25. A review of Lars T Lih, Lenin
Rediscovered: What is to be Done? in Context
Budgen, Sebastian; Stathis Kouvelakis; Slavoj
iek, eds. (2007). Lenin Reloaded: Toward a
Politics of Truth. Duke University Press. ISBN
0822339412.
Cli, Tony (1986). Building the Party: Lenin, 1893
1914. Haymarket Books. ISBN 1-931859-01-9.
Felshtinsky, Yuri (2010). Lenin and His Comrades: The Bolsheviks Take Over Russia 19171924.
Enigma Books. ISBN 1-929631-95-2.
Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler:
The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 14000-4005-1.
Gooding, John (2002). Socialism In Russia: Lenin
and His Legacy, 18901991. Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 0-333-97235-X.
Hill, Christopher (1971). Lenin and the Russia
Revolution. Pelican Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14021297-6.
Kolakowski, Leszek and Falla, P. S. (2005). Main
Currents of Marxism. W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN 0-393-06054-3.
Leggett, George (1987). The Cheka: Lenins Political Police. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19822862-7.

Lewin, Moshe. Lenins Last Struggle (1968)

Lih, Lars T. How a Founding Document Was
Found, or One Hundred Years of Lenins What is
to Be Done?. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and
Eurasian History (2003) 4#1 pp: 5-49. online
Lih, Lars T. (2008) [2006]. Lenin Rediscovered: What is to be Done? in Context. Chicago:
Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-931859-58-5.
Lukcs, Georg (1970) [1924]. Lenin: A Study on the
Unity of his Thought. Nicholas Jacobs (translator).
Nimtz, August H. Lenins Electoral Strategy from
1907 to the October Revolution of 1917: The Ballot,
the Streetsor Both (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
Pannekoek, Anton; Richey, Lance Byron (2003).
Lenin as Philosopher. Marquette University Press.
ISBN 0-87462-654-4.
Payne, Robert (1967). The Life And Death Of
Lenin. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-41640-5.
Pipes, Richard (1999). The Unknown Lenin: From
the Secret Archive. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300-07662-2.
Rappaport, Helen (2010). Conspirator: Lenin in Exile. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01395-1.
Ryan, James. Lenins The State and Revolution and
Soviet State Violence: A Textual Analysis. Revolutionary Russia (2007) 20#2 pp: 151-172.
Ryan, James. Lenins Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence (Routledge, 2012)
Service, Robert.
Lenin: A Political Life (3
vols.(1985, 1991, 1995); a standard scholarly biography
Shub, David (1965). Lenin: A Biography. Penguin
Books. ISBN 0-14-020809-7.
Toynbee, Arnold (July 1970). A Centenary View
of Lenin. International Aairs (Blackwell Publishing) 46 (3): 490500. doi:10.2307/2613225.
JSTOR 2613225.
Trotsky, Leon (1971). On Lenin: Notes Towards a
Biography. Harrap. ISBN 0-245-50302-1.
Van Ree, Erik. "'Lenins last struggle' revisited.
Revolutionary Russia (2001) 14#2 pp: 85-122.
online
Volkogonov, Dmitri (2006). Lenin: A New Biography. Free Press. ISBN 0-02-933435-7.

11.1

10.1

Selected works

Historiography

Cherniaev,
Acton, Edward, V. IU
and William G.
Rosenberg, eds. Critical companion to the Russian
Revolution, 1914-1921 (Indiana University Press,
1997)
Daniels, Robert V. The Soviet Union in PostSoviet
Perspective Journal of Modern History (2002)
74#2 pp: 381-391. in JSTOR

27
Lenins Funeral Train in its own museum next to
Paveletsky Rail Terminal
Works by Vladimir Lenin at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Vladimir Lenin at Internet
Archive (narrowed results)
Works by or about Vladimir Lenin at Internet
Archive (broad results)
Works by Vladimir Lenin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

10.2

Primary sources

Lenin, Vladimir (2002). Revolution at the Gates: A

Selection of Writings from February to October 1917
by V. I. Lenin. Verso Books. ISBN 1-85984-661-0.
Tucker, Robert C. (1975). The Lenin Anthology. W.
W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-09236-4.

11

External links

Marx2Mao.org Lenin Internet Library

Museum of Communists
Vladmir Lenin
Marxists.org Lenin Internet Archive Extensive
compendium of writings, a biography, and many
photographs
Lenins Popularity Highest in Years on Revolutionarys 144th Birthday. The Moscow Times, April 22,
2014.
The Lies We Tell About Lenin.
Jacobin. July 23, 2014.

Lars T. Lih.

Lenins speech (video) on YouTube Lenins speech 11.1 Selected works

with subtitles
Main website Lenins Works
Article on Lenin written by Trotsky for the Encyclopdia Britannica
Lenins Speeches on Gramophone Records
Reminiscences of Lenin by N. K. Krupskaya

The Development of Capitalism in Russia

The Lenin Museum in Tampere, Finland

What is to be Done?

Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions

One Step Forward, Two Steps Back

Lenin Internet Archive Biography includes interviews with Lenin and essays on the leader
Mirrors of Moscow: Nikolai Lenin by Louise
Bryant
Nicolai Lenin His Life and Work by G. Zinovie,
Indiana State University
The Personality and Power of Nikolai Lenin From
Raymond Robins Own Story by William Hard
(1920)
TIME 100: V.I. Lenin by David Remnick, 13 April
1998

Reply by N. Lenin to Rosa Luxemburg

Two Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratic Revolution
Materialism and Empirio-criticism
The Right of Nations to Self-Determination
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
The State and Revolution
How to Organise Competition?
The April Theses
The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky

Re: Lenin in color high quality edition on

YouTube

Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder

The Ghosts of Lenin Abound by The Moscow News

Weekly, 15 January 2009

Lenins last letter to Stalin

Lenins Fight to Defend Working-class Power and

Revolutionary Internationalism by The Militant

Lenins Testament
Lenins Complete Collected Works, in 55 volumes.
(Russian)

28

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Vladimir Lenin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin?oldid=668489499 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, WojPob, Brion

VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Jeronimo, Andre Engels, XJaM, Christopher Mahan, Tsja, Rmhermen, Christian List, Deb,
William Avery, Drbug, Eru~enwiki, Ktsquare, Zoe, Frank Warmerdam, Soulpatch, Someone else, Rickyrab, Chuq, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, DopeshJustin, Jtdirl, Liftarn, Menchi, Ixfd64, 172, Sannse, Paul Benjamin Austin, Shoaler, Tiles, Kosebamse,
Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Pjamescowie, Iulianu, Kingturtle, , Bogdangiusca, Uri~enwiki, Djnjwd,
Vzbs34, Andres, Grin, Jeandr du Toit, John K, Pizza Puzzle, Eszett, Adam Bishop, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, RickK, Colipon, Graculus, Zoicon5, AHands, AdrianSC, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Kitwe, Morwen, Mir Harven, Jose Ramos, Gaidheal, Shizhao, Fvw, Warofdreams, Rbellin, Bcorr, Secretlondon, Jusjih, Flockmeal, SonofRage, Marc Girod~enwiki, Palere, JorgeGG,
Owen, Carlossuarez46, Mrdice, Jni, Dimadick, MK~enwiki, Chuunen Baka, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Paranoid, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik,
Alrasheedan, RedWolf, Goethean, Altenmann, Yelyos, Lowellian, Mirv, Babbage, Postdlf, Pingveno, Kneiphof, Ojigiri~enwiki, Humus
sapiens, Timrollpickering, Caknuck, Sunray, Bkell, Doidimais Brasil, Hadal, UtherSRG, JackofOz, Wereon, Lancemurdoch, Mushroom,
Kent Wang, Lupo, Guy Peters, Wile E. Heresiarch, Adam78, Nagelfar, David Gerard, Centrx, DocWatson42, MaGioZal, Christopher
Parham, Jyril, Nikodemos, Barbara Shack, Nunh-huh, Vfp15, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Ferkelparade, TDC, Obli, Monedula, Everyking, Curps, Alison, Henry Flower, Cantus, DO'Neil, Guanaco, Ezhiki, Peterak, Sundar, Kpalion, Raekwon, Jonesy~enwiki, Falcon
Kirtaran, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Tagishsimon, Stevietheman, Gadum, Utcursch, Pgan002, Ruy Lopez, Marqoz, Knutux, Formeruser-81,
Quadell, Blankfaze, Kharoon~enwiki, Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, Loremaster, Piotrus, Lesgles, Capone, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Untier, Kesac, Gene s, Martin Wisse, Lord Rishartha, Bodnotbod, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Yossarian, Tyler McHenry, Gscshoyru, Soman, Marcus2,
Okapi~enwiki, Irpen, Mschlindwein, Ukexpat, Didactohedron, Parmadil, Fanghong~enwiki, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Intrigue, Safety
Cap, The stuart, Esperant, Mike Rosoft, D6, Jayjg, Ultratomio, Deadlock, KNewman, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
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Takeru, Hu12, Pjrm, BranStark, Iridescent, Kencf0618, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Pegasus1138, Cbrown1023, Gewehr, Ewulp,
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Chrislk02, Ameliorate!, Jimmy Nail Legendary Singer, Garik, Makwy2, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Yuliyag, Maziotis, Uspn, Zys~enwiki,
MarxistNapoleon, Thijs!bot, Gordon Freeman101, Epbr123, Colin4C, Kubanczyk, G. C. Hood, Steve Dufour, SeNeKa, Staberinde, Atillidie13, Marek69, Malarious, Moizkhanmalik, Keelm, Diosprometheus, Dmws, Son of Somebody, CharlotteWebb, Nick Number, Matthew
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Tonys prison butch, Iloveads47, Destructor492, TinucherianBot II, Ranceon endofrope, Luuvabot, Gindar, Wikinator2008, Suppresstreason, Capricorn42, Red kyut25, NeuLex, Jack gecko, GenQuest, XZeroBot, Joshrox06, Ittoqqortoormiit, Almabot, Ruby.red.roses, Kjk2.1,
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Russianoil18, Intolerrance, Actionjacksonhern, Bugsy bonovich, RibotBOT, SassoBot, JackofDiamonds1, Carrite, Amaury, Sayerslle, Doulos Christos, DR2006kl, Shadowjams, Coopsta11, Chaheel Riens, SchnitzelMannGreek, Wikiuserchimp, Jarfn8r, Kasernewinkt, Green
Cardamom, Hillsbro, StoneProphet, FrescoBot, Scoutstr295, Kierzek, LucienBOT, Friedrich Oswald, Remotelysensed, Tobby72, Lothar
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dudeyouhatetomeet, SmartyBoots, Rjpogi, Titimo123456, Jonkerz, Lotje, Ozymandias911, Jacobshuster, Josiahtimy, Bunjee bouncer,
Aoidh, Antipastor, Reaper Eternal, Fapmaster9000, Woverbie, Diannaa, Markmjmathew, Satdeep Gill, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth,
One fox hunt, George Kerowa, Wikipediun2000, Vrubels Demons, Difu Wu, Cohnor, Mcpretty, Lalalapo, Axxxion, RjwilmsiBot, Gaubbi,
TjBot, Doxar, Bhawani Gautam, Bossanoven, EGroup, Balph Eubank, Sailpgd, Slon02, CalicoCatLover, Sky hook hanger, EmausBot,
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Images

File:1919-Trotsky_Lenin_Kamenev-Party-Congress.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/5_May_

1919-Trotsky_Lenin_Kamenev.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchdetail.
cfm?trg=1&strucID=289853&imageID=51923&word=trotsky&s=1&notword=&d=&c=&f=&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=
&sLabel=&total=9&num=0&imgs=12&pNum=&pos=2# NYPL Digital gallery, image ID 51923; record ID 289853. Original artist: Leo
Leonidow. The collection was presented to the NYPL in 1923.
File:2005-08-16_Nizhyn_364.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/2005-08-16_Nizhyn_364.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Norbert Aepli, Switzerland (User:Noebu)
File:A_A_Bogdanov.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/A_A_Bogdanov.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.bogdinst.ru/bogdanov/index.html
http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/persons.aspx?id=1682
http://readmas.ru/ya-ne-znayu/izobreteniya/izobretateli-zhertvy.html Original artist: Unknown
File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Brodskiy{}s_Lenin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Brodskiy%27s_Lenin.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.art-in-exile.com/forums/39783-post61.htmlh Original artist: Isaak Brodsky
File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Russian_Empire.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Coat_of_Arms_of_
Russian_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vector-images.com/image.php?epsid=604 Original artist:

File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/
Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The ocial source of the image is
http://document.kremlin.ru/doc.asp?ID=5171&PSC=1&PT=3&Page=8. The big image of coat of arms: [1]. Original artist: <a
href='http://validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/88px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png' width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align:
top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.
1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/
176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='91' data-le-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is
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2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FCoat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
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Soviet_Union.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work from Image:Soviet Hammer and Sickle and Earth.svg and Image:Soviet
coat of arms.svg. It was then corrected and is believed to be close to ocial version, for example, one from the 3rd ed. of the Great Soviet
Encyclopedia, available online here Original artist: Madden, reworked by F l a n k e r
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artist: ?
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File:Lenin{}s_funerals_by_I.Brodsky_(1925)_detail_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Lenin%
27s_funerals_by_I.Brodsky_%281925%29_detail_01.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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File:Lenin-1895-mugshot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Lenin-1895-mugshot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://prostointeresno.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Lenin_-_jizn_v_fotografiyah_5.jpg Original artist: Unknown
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? Original artist: ?
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This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c01877.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Photograph by Soyuzfoto

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commons/2/20/Lenin_and_Sverdlov_looking_over_Marx_and_Engels_monument.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lehtikuva,
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BFI Stills, Poster and Designs, London
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Vladimir Nilsen, Vladimir Popov, Eduard Tisse (cinematographers)
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based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

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