Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Cold Regions

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print Publication Year: 2008

Online Publication Date:August 2009

Online ISBN:9780511535956

Hardback ISBN:9780521869706

Paperback ISBN:9781107410503
Chapter DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511535956.003

1 - Contamination, regulation, and remediation: an introduction to bioremediation of

petroleum hydrocarbons in cold regions pp. 1-37
Oil and fuel spills are among the most extensive and environmentally damaging
pollution problems in cold regions and are recognized as potential threats to human
and ecosystem health. It is generally thought that spills are more damaging in cold
regions, and that ecosystem recovery is slower than in warmer climates (AMAP
1998; Det Norske Veritas 2003). Slow natural attenuation rates mean that
petroleum concentrations remain high for many years, and site managers are
therefore often forced to select among a range of more active remediation options,
each of which involves a trade-off between cost and treatment time (Figure 11). The
acceptable treatment timeline is usually dictated by financial circumstance,
perceived risks, regulatory pressure, or transfer of land ownership.

In situations where remediation and site closure are not urgent, natural attenuation
is often considered an option. However, for many cold region sites, contaminants
rapidly migrate off-site (Gore et al. 1999; Snape et al. 2006a). In seasonally frozen
ground, especially in wetlands, a pulse of contamination is often released with each
summer thaw (AMAP 1998; Snape et al. 2002). In these circumstances natural

attenuation is likely not a satisfactory option. Simply excavating contaminants and

removing them for off-site treatment may not be viable either, because the costs
are often prohibitive and the environmental consequences of bulk extraction can
equal or exceed the damage caused by the initial spill (Filler et al. 2006; RiserRoberts 1998).
2 - Freezing and frozen soils pp. 38-54
Introduction

Frozen soil is defined as a soil where the soil moisture has turned totally or partially
into ice. On the other hand, permafrost is defined solely on the basis of soil
temperature. If the soil temperature remains below 0 C for at least two years, the
soil is considered permafrost. The upper layer of the permafrost undergoes a cyclic
temperature change during the year from frozen in the winter to thawed in the
summer. This layer is called the active layer or seasonally thawed layer. The active
layer in a permafrost region can extend from as little as 20 cm to about 2 m (Shur et
al. 2005) depending on climate, soil texture, and organic content above mineral soil.
In areas without permafrost the layer of soil which is frozen in the winter is called
the seasonally frozen layer. Most permafrost on earth is thousands of years old, but
some can be quite new. In permafrost regions, contaminant impacts generally
initiate at or near the soil surface and affect the active layer, suprapermafrost
water, and uppermost permafrost (Chapter 3). It is this realm that most concerns
environmental scientists and engineers tasked with environmental cleanup. A
thorough understanding of properties of the active layer and the upper permafrost
is necessary for planning and implementing effective remediation of cold media.

Review and recent advances

Thermal and physical properties of frozen ground

Thermal conductivity of soils

The thermal conductivity of soil is the measure of its ability to conduct heat. Soil
thermal conductivity is a function of the thermal state of the ground (frozen or
unfrozen), water content, dry density, gradation, and mineralogy.
3 - Movement of petroleum through freezing and frozen soils pp. 55-68

Introduction

Movement of petroleum through non-freezing soils has been studied extensively

over the last several decades. Little work has been done on understanding how
petroleum moves through seasonal freezing soils (active layer) and frozen soil
(permafrost). Petroleum migration through active layer and permafrost soils is
influenced by the formation and presence of ice at all scales. At the millimeter
scale, ice in pore spaces will either interrupt downward migration causing petroleum
to spread laterally, or impede petroleum movement altogether due to the lack of
open pore space. Segregated ice at centimeter-to-meter scales will most likely
cause the contamination to spread laterally in frozen soils. Segregated ice formation
in the active layer can also generate fissures that will enhance petroleum
movement when the soil is thawed. At larger scales, discontinuous and continuous
permafrost will slow, redirect, or impede contaminant migration.

Understanding the impact freezing and frozen soil conditions have on petroleum
movement through soils is necessary to regulation, assessment, and cleanup of
contaminated soil and groundwater. A good example of this impact is provided
when considering natural attenuation. Seasonal ice and post-cryogenic structure
present in active layer soil will influence the movement of petroleum and dissolved
compounds, thereby impacting the design of monitoring systems to track natural
attenuation. Moreover, cold soil temperatures will slow the physical weathering of
compounds in the subsurface. Cleanup levels established for cold regio

ns contaminated soil (Chapter 1) and any remediation plan developed for these
sites must account for these impacts.