Elements of Infinitesimal Calculus

ELEMENTS
Infinitesimal Calculus.
by
JOSEPH BAYMA, S.J.,

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professor of
Mathematics
in Santa Clara
San Francisco
A.
S.J., Santa Clara, California.
College,
WALDTEUFEL,
737
MARKET STREET.
1889.
CONTENTS.
Introduction,
PART.
^-DIFFERENTIAL
Section I. Rides of
Differentiation.
Algebraic functions of one variable,
CALCULUS.
Transcendental functions of one variable,

Functions of two or more variables,
Implicit functions,
Section

27
36
40
II.
Successive Differentials.
Maclaurin's formula,
Taylor's formula,
46
40
De Moivre's formulas,
Maxima and minima,

Exercises on maxima and minima,
Values of functions which
assume
Section
SI
55
66
63
an indeterminate form,
79
III.
Investigations about Plane

Curves
Tangents, normals, etc.,
Direction of curvature.
Singular points, .
Order of contact, osculation,
Measure of curvature,
Evolutes,
Envelopes,
....
.....
Elements of arcs, surfaces, and

volumes,
5
85
90
98
101
104
108
113
117
CONTEXTS.
Differentials with polar co-ordinates,

Spirals,
123
PART II. INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

Section
I. Various Mel hods for Finding Integrals.
Integration of elementary forms,
Reduction of differentials to an elementary
form,
Integration by parts,
Integration of rational fractions,
Integration of binomial differentials,
Integration by successive reduction,
Integration of some trinomial differentials,
Integration by series,
Integration of trigonometric expressions,
Integration of logarithmic differentials,

Integration of exponential differentials,
Integration of total differentials of the first order
Integration of the equation Mdx + Ndy =
0,

Integration of other differential equations,

Integration by elimination of differentials,
Double integrals,
Section
II.
Application of Integral Calculus
to Geometry.
1"
Rectification of curves
Quadrature of curves,
Surfaces of revolution
204
Solids of revolution,
210
Other geometrical problems,
213
208
Problems solved by double or triple integrals,
Section
III.
Application of Integral Calculus
to
.223
Mechanics.
Work
231
Movement uniformly varied,
237
Movement not uniformly varied
238
CONTENTS.
Composition
PAGE
and decomposition of forces
241
Moments,
245
Virtual moments,
249
Attraction of a sphere on a material point,

251
Centre of gravity,
256
Moment of inertia
263
Curvilinear movement,
272
INFINITESIMAL
CALCULUS.

INTRODUCTION.
1. The Infinitesimal Calculus is exclusively con
cerned with continuous quantities ; for these alone
admit of infinitesimal variations.
A variable
quantity is said to be continuous, when it is of
such a nature that it cannot pass from one value to
another without passing through all the intermedi
ate values.
All the parts of a continuous quantity
are continuous : and, as all continuum is divisible,
every part of a continuous quantity, how small so
ever it be, is still further divisible.
In other terms,
the division of continuum can have no end.
2. Infinitesimal quantities are sometimes con
ceived as resulting from an endless division of the
finite. But this is not the real genesis of infini
tesimals ; for, in the order of nature, it is the infini
tesimal itself that gives origin to the finite. Thus,
an infinitesimal instant of duration does not arise
from any division of time; for it is the instant
itself that by its flowing generates time. In like
manner, the infinitesimal length described by a
moving point in one instant of time does not origin
ate in any division of length ; for it is the actual
infinitesimal motion of the point itself that by its
continuation generates a finite length in space.

10
IXFIXITESIMAL CALCULUS.
Hence infinitesimals of time and of length are not

mathematical fictions.
They are true objective
realities. Had they not a real existence in nature,
neither the origin nor the variations of continuous
movement would be conceivable.
For the same reason we must admit that continu
ous action cannot produce acceleration except by
communicating at every instant of time an infini
tesimal degree of velocity : and speaking general
ly, all continuous quantities develop by infinitesi
mal moments. Hence the branch of Mathematics
which investigates the relations between the con
tinuous developments of variable quantities, has re
ceived the name of Infinitesimal Calculus, and its
method of investigation has been called the infini
tesimal method.
This method has been used by the best mathe
maticians up to recent times. Poisson, in the intro
duction to his classical Traite de Mecanique (n. 12),
says : "In this work I shall exclusively use the in
finitesimal method. . . . We are necessarily led to
the conception of infinitesimals when we consider
the successive variations of a magnitude subject to
Thus time increases by de
the law of continuity.
grees less than any interval that can be assigned,
however small it may be. The spaces measured by
the various points of a moving body increase also
by infinitesimals ; for no point can pass from one
position to another without traversing all the iiP
termediate positions, and no distance, how small
soever, can be assigned between two consecutive
positions. Infinitesimals have, then, a real exist
ence: they are not a mere conception of Mathe
maticians."
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
11
it
it
is
it

is,
3. Modern authors often define the infinitesimal

as the limit of a decreasing quantity.
This defini
tion we cannot approve.
For the divisibility of
continuum has no limit, and therefore cannot lead
to a limit.
This is so true, that even those authors
confess that the limit the absolute zero can never
be reached.
On the other hand, infinitesimals, in
the order of nature, do not arise from finite quanti
ties: it is, on the contrary, these quantities that
arise from them.
The origin of infinitesimals is
dynamical ; for they essentially either consist in, or
depend on, motion : and as motion has no other
being than its actual becoming or developing, so
also infinitesimals have but the fleeting existence of
the instant in which they become actual. It is for
this reason that Sir Isaac Newton conceived them
as fluxions and nascent quantities ; that is, quanti
ties not yet developed, but in the very act of de
we believe, the true notion of
veloping. This
the infinitesimal, the only one calculated to satisfy
a philosophical mind.*
remains true
So long as
that line cannot be drawn except by the motion
of a point, so long will
remain true that an infini
tesimal line
the fluxion of a point through two
consecutive positions.
An infinitesimal change may be defined,
change
which is brought about in an instant of time.
Now, the true instant is the link of two consecutive
terms of duration
is obvious that between
and
two consecutive terms of duration there is no room
for any assignable length. Hence the fleeting in
stant has
duration less than any assignable
On the modern doctrine and method of limits see the note appended to No. 23.

12
length of duration, that is, it has a duration strictly

infinitesimal. And in the same manner, every other
infinitesimal change is a link of two consecutive
terms, or of two consecutive states ; for it takes
place iu an infinitesimal'instant.
4. But here the question arises : How can an in
finitesimal quantity be intercepted between two
consecutive points? -Consecutive points touch one
It
another and leave no room between them.
would seem, then, that what we call "an infinitesi
mal" is not a quantity, but a mere nothing. We
answer that a point in motion has always two con
secutive modes of being in space ; for it is always
leaving its last position, and always reaching a fol
lowing position which cannot but be consecutive to
Now, it is plain, that if the
the last abandoned..
actual passage from the one to the other were not a
real change, the whole movement would be without
change ; for the whole movement is but a continu
ous passage through consecutive
But
points.
It is
movement without change is a contradiction.
therefore necessary to concede that between two
consecutive points there is room enough for an in
finitesimal change, and accordingly for an infinitesi
mal quantity.
As a further explanation of this truth, let us con
ceive two material points moving uniformly, the
one with a velocity 1, the other with a velocity 2.
Their movement being essentially continuous, there
is no single instant in the whole of its duration, in
which they do not pass from one point to a con
secutive point, the one with its velocity 1, the other
with its velocity 2. But the velocity 2 causes a
change twice as great as that due to the velocity 1.
13

Therefore the ratio of the two movements is, at

every instant, as 2:1. But two absolute nothings
cannot be in the ratio 2 : 1. Therefore the move
ments comprised between two consecutive points
are not mere nothings, but are real quantities,
though infinitely small. They are, in fact, fluxions,
or nascent quantities, or, as the Schoolmen would
say, quantities in fieri.
Nor does it matter that these infinitesimals are
sometimes represented by the symbol 0. For this
When
symbol has two meanings in mathematics.
it expresses the result of subtraction, as when we
have a a = 0, it certainly means an absolute
nothing: but when it expresses the result of di
vision, it is a real quotient, and it always means a
quantity less than any assignable quantity : but
because it has no value in comparison with finite
quantities, it is treated as a relative nothing, and
is represented by 0. Thus, in the equation
the zero represents an infinitesimal quantity.

This
For it is only continuous
can be easily proved.
quantities that admit of being divided in infinitum :

and, when so divided, they give rise to none but
continuous quotients, because every part of con
Now, the ab
tinuum is necessarily continuous.
solute zero cannot be considered continuous.
Therefore the absolute zero caji never be the quo
And in this sense, it
tient of an endless division.
is true, as the theory of limits affirms, that a de
creasing quantity may indefinitely tend to the
limit zero, but can never reach it. On the other
14
hand, the above equation gives

a=0 X
oo ;
and this does certainly not mean that the finite

quantity a is equal to an infinity of absolute noth
ings.
5. We have said that infinitesimals have no value

A few years
as compared with finite quantities.
ago. an American writer* was bold enough to
maintain that this fundamental principle of infini
The principle,
analysis is not correct.
however, has been admitted by the greatest mathe
maticians, and its correctness will not be doubted
by any one who understands the real nature of in
finitesimals. The principle, says Poisson (loc. cit.),
"consists in this, that two finite quantities which
do not differ from each other except by an infini
tesimal quantity, must be considered as equal ; for
between them no inequality, how small soever, can
be assigned'''' ; because the infinitesimal is less than
any assignable quantity.
Again, it is plain that the infinitesimal is to the
finite as the finite is to the infinite. Now, the infi
nite is not modified, as to its value, by the addition of
Therefore the finite is not modi
a finite quantity.
fied by the addition of an infinitesimal. That the
infinite is not modified by the addition of a finite
quantity, can be assumed as an evident truth : but
Thus, it is shown in
it can also be demonstrated.
Trigonometry that between the angles A, B, C of a

tesimal
* Mr. Albert Taylor Bledsoe in his Philosophy

of Xathematic/t, where he strives
We arc afraid that
to prore that the infinitesimal method should be abandoned.
philosophical readers will not consider his effort a success.
plane triangle there is the relation
tan A + tan B + tan O = tan A tan
15
B tan C /
A = 90, 5 = 45, C =
and this equation, taking

45, gives
oo
-f-2 =
co ;
which shows that the addition of a finite quantity

does not modify the value of the infinite.
We may draw from Arithmetic a still plainer
Dividing 1 by 3 we obtain
proof of our principle.
5
= 0.333333
and multiplying this by

1
we obtain
3,
= 0.999999

In this last equation, if
the second member be

understood to continue without end, the difference
between the two members will be an infinitesimal
fraction viz., unity divided by a divisor infinitely
Now, we can prove, that, notwithstanding
great.
this infinitesimal difference, the equation is rigor
For, let the second member of the
ously true.
equation be represented by x; then
x = 0.999999
Multiply both members of this by

10a;
= 9.999999
10
9
then
+ x;
and from thi?, by reduction, we have

925
9,
x=l.
This clearly shows that the equation 1=0.999999

is rigorously
It
. . .
is plain, therefore, that an

infinitesimal difference has no bearing on the
value of a finite quantity, and that no error is com
true.
16
is
is,
mitted by suppressing an infinitesimal by the side

of a finite quantity.
6. The notions above developed may suffice as a
first introduction to the infinitesimal calculus. We
have shown
1st. That infinitesimals are not nothings, but ob
jective realities :
2d. That infinitesimals are not limits of decreas
quantities in
ing quantities, but fluxions that
the act of developing, or more briefly, nascent
less than any assignable
quantities, whose value
value of the same nature
3d. That infinitesimals may have different rela
tive values, and form different ratios
4th. That an infinitesimal, whether added to, or
taken from, a finite quantity, cannot modify its
value.
which we shall have to speak throughout our treat

ise, we have here simply to state the fact, that in
finitely great, and infinitely small quantities are
capable of degrees, so that there may be infinites
and infinitesimals of different orders, each infinite
of a higher order being infinitely greater than the
lower order, and each infinitesimal of
infinite of
a higher order being infinitely less than the infini
How this can be, one
tesimal of a lower order.
may not find easy to explain, because both the
infinite and the infinitesimal lie beyond the reach of
human comprehension nevertheless we know, not
only from Algebra and Geometry, but also from
rational philosophy, that such orders of infinites
We know
and of infinitesimals cannot be denied.
that the species ranges infinitely above the indi
:

As to the different orders of infinitesimals, of
17
vidual, and the genus infinitely above the species.

Substance extends infinitely less than Being, animal
infinitely less than substance, man infinitely less
than animal. From this it will be seen that the
notion of an infinite infinitely greater than another
infinite, is not a dream of our imagination, but a
well-founded philosophical conception, familiar to
every student of Logic, and admitted, implicitly at
least, by every rational being.
Let us, then, write the following series :
.
x , x , x,
1,
- ,

If
we assume x = m, it is plain that the first term

will be infinitely greater than the second, the second
infinitely greater than the third, and so on. The
middle term 1 being finite, all the following terms
are infinitesimal, and each is infinitely less than
the one that precedes it. Hence infinites and
infinitesimals are distributed into orders.
Thus, if
x be an infinite of the first order, x> will be of the
second order, Xs of the third, etc. ; and in like
manner
-x will
be an infinitesimal of the first order,'
-5 of the second order, CO of the third, etc.
OCT
7. The problems whose solution depends on the

infinitesimal calculus, are generally such that their
conditions cannot be fully expressed in terms of
finite quantities.
Hence a method had to be
found by which to' express such conditions in
infinitesimal terms. The part of the Calculus
which gives rules for property determining such
infinitesimals and their relations, is called the
Differential Calculus. As, however, none of such
18

infinitesimals must remain in the final solutions,

rules were also to be found for passing from the
infinitesimal terms to the finite quantities, of which
they are the elements ; and to effect this, a second
part of Calculus was invented under the name of
Integral Calculus.
Of these two parts of the infinitesimal calculus
we propose to give a substantial outline in the pres
ent treatise : and we shall add a sufficient number
of exercises concerning the application of the Cal
culus to the solution of geometric and mechanical
questions ; for it is by working on particular ex
amples that the student will be enabled to appreci
ate and utilize the manifold resources of this branch
of Mathematics.
PART I.

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
8. Our object in this part of our treatise is to
find, and to interpret, the relations which may exist
between the infinitesimal changes of correlated
quantities varying according to any given law of
continuous development.
Such a law is mathe
matically expressed by an equation between the
variable quantities ; and it is, therefore, from some
such equation that the relative values of the infini
tesimal changes must be derived.
An infinitesimal change is usually called a differ
ential, because it is the difference between two con
secutive values, or states, of a variable quantity.
The process by which differentials are derived from
given equations is called differentiation, and the
equations themselves, by the same process, are said
to be differentiated.
Hence this part of infinitesi
mal analysis received the name of Differential
Calculus.
Differentials are expressed by prefixing the letter
d before the quantities to be differentiated. Thus,
dx = differential of x, d(ax') differential of ax2.
9. When an equation contains only two vari

ables, arbitrary values can be assigned to one of
them, and the equation will give the corresponding
19
20
values of the other.

The one to which arbitraryvalues are assigned is called the independent vari
able, and the other, whose value depends on the
yalue assigned to the first, is said to be a function
of the same. Thus in the equation of the parabola,
y' = 2px, if we take x as independent, y will be a
function of x.
When an equation contains more than two vari
ables, then all the variables but one can receive
arbitrary values, and are, therefore, independent,
whilst the remaining one will be a function of all
the others.
Functions are often designated as follows

V
F(x, y\
<p
(x, y, z)

the first and second being explicit functions, the

third implicit. Different characteristics, as
F, <p,
denote equations having different forms. In these
equations, besides the variables, there are usually
some constant quantities, though, for the sake of
brevity, the variables alone are expressly pointed
put.
This part of our treatise will contain three
sec
tions. In the first we shall explain the rules of

In the
differentiation for all known functions.
second we shall consider the successive differentials,
and their extensive use in mathematical investiga
In the third we shall show the bearing of
tions.
differential expressions on the solution of problems
regarding curves.
21
SECTION I.
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION.
10. The function of which we have
to
find the
differential, may be either algebraic or transcen

dental.
It is algebraic, if it is formed of expres
sions obtained by the ordinary operations of
algebra, as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and the formation of powers with con
stant exponents, entire or fractional.
It is tran
scendental when it contains logarithms, circular
functions, or exponentials.

Algebraic Functions.
11. Polynomials. An algebraic sum of func
tions constitutes a polynomial.
Let
y=s
at -f- bu v + c
(1)
polynomial, in which s, t, u, v are functions

of x, and a, b, c constant quantities. When x ac
quires an infinitesimal increment dx, the functions
s, t, u, v acquire the corresponding infinitesimal
increments ds, dt, du, dv, and y acquires its incre
ment dy. Hence the equation (1) becomes
be a
y-\-dy =
s + ds
a(t + dt) + b(u + du)-(v + dv) + c.
Subtracting (1) from (2) we shall have
(2)
dy = ds
aclt
-+-
22
&<Zw
(3)
c,
b)
is
is
which
the differential of the given polynomial.
Comparing (3) with (1), we see, first, that the dif
the algebraic sum of the
ferential of polynomial
differentials of its terms second, that constant fac
remain unchanged
tors (as a and
third, that
isolated constant terms, as
disappear in the pro
cess of differentiation.
12. Products. Let us now have
st,
(1)
ds)(t+dt).
y
+
dy =
(s
and being functions of x. When x acquires the

increment dx, these functions acquire the corre
will become
sponding increments ds and dt, and
+ dy. Hence
(2)
dy = tds + sdt -f dtds.

But the term dtds, as being an infinitesimal of the
second order, has no value by the side of the
other terms of the equation, which are of the first
order.
And therefore, suppressing that term, we
shall have simply
dy, or d(st) = tds -f sdt.
(3)
Hence, to differentiate the product of two functions

of x, we multiply each by the differential of the
other, and take the algebraic sum of the results.
If in (3) we assume = uv, we obtain by this rule
ds = udv
-f-

Subtracting (1) from (2) and reducing, we obtain
vdu;
INFINITESIMAL CALCUL US.
23
and this substituted in (3) gives

d(uvt) uvdt
+ utdv + vtdu ;
which shows that the differential of the product of

three functions is obtained by multiplying the dif
ferential of each function by the product of the
other functions, and by taking the algebraic sum
of the results. And the same rule holds when the
functions are more than three.
13. Quotients.
Assume
y=\,
(i>
and t being functions of x. When x becomes

x + dx, then s, t, and y become s + ds, t-{- dt, and
y + dy. Accordingly
s
Subtracting (1) from (2) we obtain
dy.
s-\-ds
t + dt
ids sdt
i~ P + tdt
s
'
But the term tdt has no value by the side of V.
jfs\
d(j)
= tdssdt
dy, or
and we obtain
^
Hence we suppress
it,
/o\
(3)
Therefore, the differential of

quotient of two
functions of the same variable
equal to the de
nominator into the differential of the numerator,
minus the numerator into the differential of the
denominator, divided by the square of the denom
is

inator.
24
14. Powers and Roots. Let us have

(1)
s being a function of x, and m a constant.

x becomes x + dx, this equation becomes
y + dy =
(s
When
+ ds)m,
or, developing by the binomial formula,
y + dy =
sm
+ ffls"-1
<fe
+ !!^pV-
dsa
. .
(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we obtain
dy = msn-lds + '!*T11sm-*ds* +
which, by suppressing all the terms that transcend
the first order, reduces to

dy, or d (sm)
= ms91-1
ds.
(3)
Hence, to obtain the differential of any power of a

function, diminish the exponent by 1, and then
multiply the result by the original exponent and
by the differential of the function.

As the binomial formula is true for all expo
nents, whether positive or negative, integral or frac
tional, equation (3) holds good for all possible
powers and roots.
Thus, making m
y
the differential
will
then
and
tys = s,
be
1
If n = 2,
= ^,
ds
ds
= dVs =
25
ds
2Vs
that is, the differential of the square root of a

quantity is equal to the differential of the quantity
divided by twice the radical.
The preceding rules are sufficient for the differen
tiation of any algebraic function of one variable.
Examples. It is of the utmost importance that
ax'
(a*+xj-b,
dy = (d'+x,)xdx,
ax?+^,
dy=(2ax
a-\~x
a^-bx
1)
a(ax)4-
dx,
ax*
(a-xy
a(x'-2ax +
(x
af
xdx
dy=--â,
* =
x) dx
va>-(b-xy
'
Va-(b~
dy = 6ax
,
dx,
b)
(^7'
8.y=l/a*-x*,
y=
2adx
ax
-^dx,
(x
y
^
5.
dx,
dy=&=xj,
= 2ax' Sax\
b)
ac, dy = (3ax'
(b
bx
-f-
A-y=a-=x'
6-

3.
2.
y
y
1.
the student should at once familiarize himself with

the above rules of differentiation, and test, by ex
Let him
amples, his practical knowledge of them.
work out the following :
26
._
/a'x'
(a*-\-2x')dx
7,
2a'xdx
=-
13.
y=(a'-x*) Va'+af, dy
14.
y=
15.
y=
16.
y =x(l+x') VT=x~\ dy = 1+^|g' dx,
(2aa?
18.
^x+
Va'+x\ dy =
y=-p^=
x) (2ax
- x')* dx,
Va'+a?
l/x+
=-dx,
Sx'dx
^ = (3-^,
a?
19-
dy-6(a-
a;')')
/
<tfo
y-a.+ vTH^' ay~2x(1-af)+ VT^?'
/l Vx
^^Tl-^'
.
flte
^ = 2(1 + ^) â?"
7
The differentiation of complex functions is

often simplified by the use of auxiliary functions.
Thus our twelfth example, by assuming
Note.
Va*
x*
= s, and
t'a
+ a!a=
t,
27
becomes
s
y=p
whence
ids
ay
sdt
On the other hand, the differentials of the auxiliary

functions are
,
xdx
xdx
and these values, and those of s and t, substituted

in the expression for dy, give the differential in
terms of x.
Transcendental Functions.
15. Logarithmic Fuxctioits. Let

tion of x, and let
s be a
y = \ogs.
func
(1)
When x receives the increment dx, this equation
y + dy = log (s + ds).
(2)
dy = log
(s
+ ds)-logs = log *^? = iog
(l +
*p\
Subtracting (1) from (2), we have
But we have from Algebra
Hence, substituting, and suppressing all the infini

tesimals of the second and higher orders, we shall
have
=M
dy, or d. (log
s)

becomes
(3)
28
The factor M is the modulus of the system of

logarithms. In the common system, whose base is
In the Napierian
10, we have M = 0.43429448
system, whose base is
...
= 2.718281828459
M=l.
The logarithms used in the Cal

we have
culus are always Napierian, or hyperbolic, if no
warning be given to the contrary ; and the differen
tial of the logarithm becomes simply
d(log*) = .
16. Exponential Functions. Let a be a con
stant quantity, and * any function of x. The ex
ponential
y = a'
(1)
will
be readily differentiated by the following pro

cess.
Take the logarithm of both members of (1),
differentiate, and reduce.

log y
whence dy
Thus,
log a,
= log a. ds,
= y log a.ds, or
d(a") = log a.a'ds.
If
a be changed into
have simply
e,
d(f) =
then, since loge

<*ds.
EXAMPLES.
1.
y=
log (a + bx),
= l,
we
ftp =
X-+-a
ftp =
Hp =
.H
ftp
-L
ft
-8
ft,
ft
ft
Sot '^-i
7) X
.a
+a+X)%01 H.X+XaZA fiv
x)So\ +
1
2x/[
\v
xpq
v txq
xpvz
xp
xp
xp
xvzfi + ^x
xp
-dp
Hp
x So\ lx
Hp =
'(xSo$3o\
dp
xp
Xx~\(x
-f-
.ft
Soj v( \xq
1)

-g
-f
'z
93
(xSo\ 'xp
xp
txSo\x
'\\ fl = \\-x)x9
Hp = 'xpxâ
-gi d =
'xSo\a3
ftp =
tip =
-fi /i
= ixx
'xp^+xSo^
xpf
,'(,-+)
Hp = $x%
+ So[ 'xp(x
INFINITESIMAL CALC UL US.
30
17. Trigonometric Functions. Differential of

sine. Let 5 be a function of x. The equation
y sin s,
(1)
when x receives the increment dx, becomes
y-\-dy = sin (s +
ds),
(2)
and subtracting (1) from (2),
dy = sin (s + ds) sin s

= sin s cos ds + cos s sin
But cos ds
1,
and sin ds = ds.
sin s.
Substituting, and
reducing,
dy = d (sin
Differential of cosine.
s)
= cos s ds.
When y = cos
s, we
shall
dy
cos
(s
+ ds)
= cos
cos s
s cos
which, because cos ds
ds
1,
sin s sin ds cos s ;
and sin ds ds, reduces
to
d?/
=d
sin s ds.
(cos s) =
Differential of tangent.
When y = tan
s,
shall have
cos s d (sin s) sin s d (cos s)
\cos s/
'
that
cos" s
is,

find
dy
we
31
or, reducing,
When y = cot
Differential of cotangefd.
s, we
shall have
, /cos *\
sin * d (cos s) cos
=
=
dl
-.
dy
v-i s
)
v
sin
\sin si
d (sin s)
+ sin'
sin
cos'
ds,
dy =
is,
that
Differential of cosecant,
ds
li
cosec
sin
^-j,
(sec
= sec
dy =
we
we shall have
cos ds
sin
s
dy =
(vers
sin
then
s)
cos
ds
vers
If
s)
(cosec
Differential of versed-sine.
s,
dy =

shall have
^-5
sm
If
Differential of secant.
's)
(cot
dy
a
or, reducing,
32
of
Differential
1
sin
If y =
versed- cosine.
covers 5
then
dy=d
cos s ds.*
(covers s)
mm,
xdx,
EXAMPLES.
m
,
dy =
2.
y = sin' x,
3.
y = sin nx
4.
y=\og sin(a x), dy
cos
dy = 3 sin' x cos xdx,

cos nx, dy
= n (cos' nx
cot
(a
_
~
cos
(cos a;
sin5
V-ls\nx), dy dxV
1.
a?
a;
'
sin'
aVcos'
In all these equations represents the length

For. since
able angle in circle whose radius =
linear
the latter as well as the former must be
all the circular functions to be hereafter subjected
a
ab.dx
dx,
1.
= ecos
a?,
a;aa;,
sin
x)
sin
= log (cos x
eC08
aV
'
=tana; cot x, dy
,y
-y
a-b tan
dy = sin x cos
a+^tanâ;
_ log
~
a;
cos*
12.
a;
cos a;'
10.
cos'
dx
(|-|),
6.
8.
9-
11.
= log tan
<&r,
*7
1
dx sec*
,
Vl-a;, dy- -
?/= tan

7.
sin' nx) dx,
sin a; a; cos x, dy x sin ayZ.r,

.
x,
a;)
5.
1.
v = sm
of the arc that measures any vari

dy and dg must be homogeneous,
element. This remark applies to
to infinitesimal analysis.
33
Circular Functions.
18. Inverse
We
have
hitherto regarded the trigonometric lines as func

tions of arcs. If we now regard the arc as a func
tion of one of its trigonometric lines, we shall have
an inverse circular function. The inverse functions
are designated thus,
sin-1 y, cos~ly, tan-1^, etc.,
and are read respectively, arc whose sine is y, arc

whose cosine is y, arc whose tangent is y, etc. The
equations
s
= sin-1 y, s cos^y, s
= tan-1
y, etc.,
are nothing else than the equations
y = sin s, y
cos s,
y = tan s,
etc.,
Hence, it is from these

presented in a new form.
latter that we shall derive the differentials of the
former.
From y = sin s we have found dy
cos s ds
hence
ds =
and, since s =
dy
cos s
dy
Vl-sinV
sin-ly, therefore
dismay) =
Vl-y
From y = cos
hence
s we have
found dy
dy =
sin s ds ;
1NFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
34
and, since s = cos-1 y, therefore
ds = di/xos1 s =
or
= cot
(tan-1 y) =
COS
tan' *
hence
found dy =
we have
From
<?
ds
found dy =
sin'
'
s we have
2/'
From y tan
d(coa-'y)=
hence
*=-l +
ds--=-dySm
-coVg>
whence
cos'
sec
4/sec"
dy
5
Vl
sin
y)
:
2/'
dy
cos's
s
dv
<2y
have found
we
cos!
ds = dy
sin
= sec
From
<Zs
1'
hence
cos ds
sin"
'
= cosecs we have found
tV-
From
d(sec
2/
whence

<Z(COt-'
ds
sdy-sin
cos s
35
Vl
sina s
cosec s V coseca s
'
whence
d (cosec-' y) =
From y = vers
Vy'-i
found dy = sin s
s we have
<2s
hence
ft ?
dy
~
. -
Vl
sin s
dy
*
dy
VI (1
cosa s
vers
sf
V2y
= covers
we have found
<Zy
hence
dy
cos
y)
Vl
sina
ds=
ds
dy
which reduces to
a (covers
y)~
EXAMPLES.
V2y-y>
covers s)a
'
Vl
(1

cos
Finally, from
d(vers~x
2/a
which reduces to
ISFIXITESIXAL
36
c,
3?
CALCULUS.
3. s
=8\a-'(2x VTâf), ds.
4. s
= cos-1
=
5.
0.
7.
2dx
2r7
x7
adx
ds
adx
tan-'0)>
vers-'/^Y
,-
= Bin-
ds
as
2dx

9. s
= tan-1
,,->
m
10. s = sin
A ~ 00s
| l-f cos ^
a
a;
/a
j,
i/
^
T V-x'
*
<Zs
= <to,
ds =
xdxVb'a'
(b'-x')
Va%-x'
Functions of Two or More Variables.

10. In the preceding pages we have given the
rules by which any function of one variable can be
We must now extend the same
differentiated.
rules to the differentiation of functions of two or
more variables.
liW
H=/(T,),)
be a function of two independent variables.
(1)
When
x and y
are made to acquire their respective

ments dx and dy, the equation (1) becomes
u + du =f (x + dx,y + dy).
Hence, subtracting (1) from (2),
du =/ (x + dx,y + dy)
-f
(x, y).
37
incre
(2)
(3)
The meaning of this last equation will be better un

derstood if we add and subtract the term/ (x + dx, y)
in its second member, which we then put in the
form
-f
du f (x + dx, y)
(x, y)
(x + dx, y).
+/ (x + dx, y + dy)

It
-f
(4)
is obvious that the difference

'(x -j- dx, y)
fix, y) represents the differential of the function
with regard to x alone ; for this difference arises ex
clusively from the increment dx given to x. Nor is
it less obvious that the difference./' (x -\-dx, y -\- dy)
f(x-\-dx,y) represents the differential of the
function with regard to y alone ; for this difference
arises exclusively from the increment dy given to
y, the other increment dx being common to both
terms, and showing that the differentiation with re
gard to x has already been performed.
It follows that the total differential of a function
of two variables must consist of two parts, which
are obtained by differentiating the function first
with regard to x, considering y as constant, then
with regard to y, considering x-\- dx (or merely x)
The total differential is represented
as constant.
thus,
38
where
^ dx is
the
partial differential of
tion with regard to x,
and^dy
the func
its partial differ
ential with regard to y.
The total differential du

is the sum of the partial differentials.
Had we added and subtracted the term f(x, y -\-dy)
in the second member of (3), we might have put the
equation in the form
du =/(x, y + dy)-f (x, y)

+f(x + dx,y + dy)
-f
(x,
y + dy).
(6)
Here the difference f(x, y-\- dy)-/ (x, y) repre

sents the differential of the function with regard to
y alone, and the other difference f(x-\-dx, y -f- dy)
f(xi V + (ty) represents the differential with re

obtained after the differentiation with
gard to
regard to y has been performed. Now equations
The total differential is
(4) and (6) are identical.
therefore the same, whether we differentiate the
function hist with regard to x, then with regard
to y, or first with regard to y and then with regard
to x. In other terms, the result does not depend
on the order of differentiation.
20. We can show in the same manner that the

total differential of a function of three independent
variables is equal to the sum of the partial differen
tials obtained by differentiating the function with
Let
regard to each of the variables in succession.
u = <p(x,y,z)
given function.
obviously be
be the
Its total differential will
du =
f (x + dx,
y + dy,
dz)
<p
39
(x, y, z).
By adding and subtracting the terms <p (x + dx, y, z)

and <p (x +
+
2) in ^ne second member, we
may put this equation under the form
du =
z)
(a?
(x
<p
(x + dx, y, z)-<p (x, y, z)

dx, y,
p
+ <p (x + dx, y +
2)
(#+6te, y+dy, z),
+
?/+ dy,
<p
dy-(ly
du
+ d-zdz.
du ,
It
is
would be easy to prove, in a manner quite

similar to that followed in the preceding case (No.
independent of the
19), that this final result
order of differentiation.
1.
u = xy,
2.
u=
3.
EXAMPLES.
u = x'
4.
u = sin (x
du = ydx + xdy,
x
-,
y,
,
ydx
xdy
-,
du
(dx
8xydy,
dy),
r
du cos
4y')-dx
(^x2
y)
y),
du =
4xy",
(x

du=dxdx
du ,
is
where the second member consists of three differ

ences.
The first of these differences exhibits the
differential of the function with respect to x alone
the second represents the differential of the func
tion with respect to
alone
and the third repre
sents the differential of the same function with re
The total differential
spect to alone.
therefore,
according to our notation,
40
B.u
^,
du = yzdxxzdy-xydz '
2'
S.u = x\ogW
du = dx\ofr?y +
xzdy-ydz.
Implicit Functions.
21. An implicit function is one whose value is
only implicitly given in an unsolved equation.
Thus y' 2xy = a' is an implicit function of x;
whereas, if we solve the equation, we shall have

the explicit function
When the function becomes explicit, its differen

found by the rules already given but, as
some equations cannot be readily solved, the func
tion may remain implicit, and its differential is
then to be found by the following process. Let
;
f(x,?/)
dy)
-f
(x,
(x-\-dx, y),
dx,y
dy)
-f(x + dx,
0.
+f(x
y)
y)
-f(x,
f(x + dx,
y)
or, by adding and subtracting the term
0,
dx,
y)
Its differential will be
given function.
(x
be the
tial
is>

y x Va?-\-x'.
41
The tirst of these two differences expresses the differ

ential of the function with respect to x, and the
second exhibits its differential with respect to y.
T J*
Denoting the first by - dx, and the second by
-~ dy, we have
dx
'
dy "
Hence, the differential of an implicit function

(x, y) = 0 is obtained by differentiating it first
with respect to x, as if y were constant, then with
respect to y, as if x were constant, and making the
sum of the results = 0.
a'b' = 0, we
Thus, from the equation a'y' + 6
shall obtain
-j- dx = 2b'xdx,
dy = 2a'ydy,

and
2b'xdx+2a'ydy =
0.
22. By a reasoning analogous to the above it

may be shown that the differential of an implicit
function of three variables, as
9
fo
2A
z)
>
will be expressed by the equation
42
SECTION II.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIALS.

23. When a function y=f(x) is differentiated,

its increment dy is its first differential. The differ
ential of dy (which is written d.dy, or d'y) is its
second differential.
The differential of d'y (which
is written d.d>y, or d'y) is its third differential ;

and so on.
The differential of the independent variable, inas
much as it is the fixed standard with which the
successive increments of the function are com
pared for determining the rate of development, is
Hence it does not admit
always assumed constant.
of further differentiation.
If the differential of the function be divided by
the differential of the variable, the quotient will be
the first differential coefficient of the function.*
*
The authors who use the metliod of limits conceive the differential coefficient
limit towards which a certain variable ratio if indefinitely approaching.
Their theory is as follows.
Let a certain magnitude y depend for its value on
as the
some variable magnitude x, and suppose the relation between the two magnitudes
to be expressed by the equation
y = x'.
y\
takes the increment h, and if the corresponding value of y be represented by

we shall have
y' = (x + W = Js + Hxh + h',
(3)
and subtracting (1) from (2),
whence
"\
(1)
If x
y'
-y = 2xh + h',
v-^-
=2x +
h.
(3)
43
The differential coefficient of the first differential
coefficient will be the second differential coefficient

of the function : the differential coefficient of the
In this last equation, the term 'Zx being independent of A, this increment may
undergo any change of value without affecting 2x. Let, then, h continually decrease
y
y
till it becomes 0. The expression for the ratio
will then be simply 2x.
Hence 2x is the limit toward which the ratio
approaches as h is diminished
which limit the ratio cannot reach until h becomes zero. Such is the process by
which differential coefficients are determined in the theory or method of limits.
This theory, though still fashionable in France and elsewhere, labors under
We remark, first, that when h 0, then also y' y = 0.
great radical defects.
Hence, at the limit, the first member of the equation (8), though represented by
~- in order to keep a trace of the variables, would really
' be%0 Now, to assume
dx
that hy dxy and dy are absolute zeros is to assume that the limit has been reached,
whereas the theory Itself teaches that h = 0 can never be reached, inasmuch as the
If, then, the as
hypothesis h = 0 would exclude all idea of change or continuity.
sumption h = 0 can never be true, how can we assume h = 0, and accept equations
based on such an assumption?
We must also remember that from
in which expression,
if dx
^
d.r
= 2b we derive
were an absolute zero, what would y be but a mere sum

of nothings?
represents, as is well-known,
Again, the symbol
the trigonometric
tangent of
the angle that an clement of the curve makes with the axis of abscissas, the element
itself being represented by (Is = \ dx"1 + dy*. Now, this element is not an absolute
zero; for the absolute zero, or a mere point at rest, cannot form any particular
angle with the axis. Hence d* must be a real quantity; and, if so, dx and dy are
Accordingly the theory which considers them as limits of de
also real quantities.
is
not consistent with itself.
quantities
creasing
Prof. Todhunter, a follower of this theory, to eschew objections, declares that he
considers the symbol
dv
as a whole, and does not assign a separate meaning
to dy
di"/ dx. though he knows that- the student will very possibly (and very reasonably,
too) tugpect that some meaning may be given, to dx and dy which will enable him
dy
as a fraction. The student, however, might humbly remind the Pro
to regard
fessor that the ratio
represents only a particular
state of the ratio
and
that, as this latter, so also the former is a result of division; and, therefore, that dy
And as to the separate meanings of
is a real numerator, and dx a real denominator.
dy and ete, it is not difficult to see that, if x and y be considered as co-ordinates of
a point in motion, dx and dy will represent the developments which x and y are ac-
44
second differential coefficient is tine third- differen

tial coefficient of the function ; and so on.
For example, let y = an?. The successive differ
entials of this function will be the following,
quiring in a given infinitesimal instant dt : and if r and v' be the velocities

which they develop in that instant, then dx = vdt and dy = v'dt ; whence
dy
dx
v'dt
vdt
_
~
with
4/
v
Thus it is plain that dy and dx have their separate meaning, and that the ratio
is the ratio of the velocities
with which
x and y are developing at
a given
in
stant. It is evident, therefore, that dy and dx are real and distinct quantities,
which correspond to h infinitesimal, and not to the limit h = 0.
" when h = 0 " are
Perhaps it will be said that, in the theory of limits, the words
only an abbreviation, for the words " when h is continually diminishing towards
zero." This is, indeed, what Professor Todhunter explicitly teaches (Diff. Cole.
But it is obvious that, if h is only diminishing towards zero and never reaches
S 9).
the limit zero, the theory of limits remains without object, and virtually abdicates
in favor of the old doctrine of infinitesimals.
For infinitesimals, as defined by the
advocates of the theory of limits (Duhamel, Diff. Cole.), are just such, variable, mag
This is against nature and against reason. The variable x, when continuously
increasing, does not change suddenly into e-|-A, but it changes directly into x-\-dx.
is necessary to travel
What is then the use of travelling the whole distance
within immediate
back again? Is
natural, when dx presents itself and
reach, to wander away from it. with no hope of finding
again, except perhaps
Is
not more natural, and therefore more
after
long and circuitous journey?
The infinitesimal increment dx pre
reasonable, to pass from x to x -f- dx directly?
hence to derive dx from
cedes, in the order of causality, the finite increment
the limit of
continually decreasing quantity,
and to say that dx
to overturn
the limit of
continually
the order of causality, just as
we said that the acorn
the limit of
con
decreasing oak, or that the most rudimentary human embryo
tinually decreasing baby.
It will be said that all writers on differential calculus, whatever be their theory,
and assume
to be a finite quantity. Yes; all authors, in
always begin with x-\finite value, because infinitesimals cannot be
making their diagrams, give to
finite increment
drawing; but, though they mark out
represented or shown in
it
h,
is
is
visible to the student, they do not mean that the increment

mean that there
an increment, and they declare that what ap
mere infinitesimal, or
the diagram ihust be considered as
Hence they have no need of going to and fro in search of
but they immediately take hold of the nascent quantity dx,
is
it
in order to make
finite: they simply
pears as finite in
nascent quantity.
limit unattainable,
h,
is
if
is
is
h
;
it
it
it
is
if
ft,
able.
it

nitudes as tend to the limit zero, though they never reach such a limit.
To this doctrine of limits we must object another serious defect regarding its
The theory needlessly starts by giving to the independent
method of working.
variable x the finite increment h, thus creating for itself the strange necessity of run
ning for ever after the limit h = 0, which limit the theory declares to be unattain
45
dp = 3ax'dx, d'y = Qaxdx', d'y = Gadx', d'y =

.
and the successive

'
dx
0,
differential coefficients will be

'
dx'
dx*
dx*
'
^ = - sin
<lp
= a* log a'
= cos x,
dx'
1.2
-5-^.
(x 4-
'
= a"
ax"~\
a?,
d'y
= sin
1.2
= cos
4.
1)4
= sin x,
= a* (log a)''
^(loga)',g
= ^(logay,
is
which is, in fact, the immediate increment of the variable x, and which
the only
quantity required by the procesB of differentiation.
Prom these remarks, and from right conception of the nature of infinitesimals
as laid down in our Introduction,
the reader will understand how we were logically
compelled to adopt the infinitesimal method: and we are confident that even the
advocates of the theory of limits,
they examine the subject in truly philosophical
if

3.
dx'
Fl-1,g=-(Air,)
l)a
_~
dty
-1) ax-\
= log(a;+l),g =
(x
2.
d'v
rJL = n(n
= n (n
2)
j = nax"-\
ax",
(n
y=
1)
1.
||[
EXAMPLES.
spirit, will not be loath to recognize that our doctrine enjoys the great relative ad
vantage of being able to account for itself without any of those inconsistencies that
mar the substance, or at least the exposition, of their favorite theory.
+ 3)c-,
Maclauriri
(a;
ISFIXITESIMAL CALCULUS.
46
-Jl=[x + n)<*.
Formula.
24. By the aid of successive differentials many
it
...
A + Bx+Cx*+Dx' + Exl +
(1)
*Ex* +
= B + 2Cx
C,
D, . . . will be determined
the constants A, B,
by successive differentiations. Differentiating (1),
and dividing by dx, we find
.
(2)
Differentiating (2), and dividing by dx, we find
3.4JElr'+
= 2<?+2.3Ar
(3)
Differentiating (3), and dividing by dx, we find

if
if
y
is
functions have been developed into series, from

which the functions themselves can be easily calcu
lated.
The formulas most used for such develop
ments are Maclaurin's and Taylors formulas.
By Maclaurin's formula the function of one vari
able
series arranged according
developed into
to the ascending powers of that variable, the co
efficients being constant.
Thus,
is
function
of x, and
admits of being developed in the
form
2.3Z>
+ 2.3.4ir +
(4)
47
and so on. Now, as x may have any value con

sistent with the convergency of the series, assume
x = 0, and let
<*".
what y,
be
sis.
Then
dx
(i). my
dx'
become in this hypothe-
W7
whence
V<W'
2.3
V^V
is
dy
= sin
a;.
d'y
We
.
To develop
EXAMPLES.
have
.
is
it
it,
In using
This is Maclaurin's formula.
necessary, of course, that the values attributed to *
be such as will make the series convergent.
If function not susceptible of development by
this formula, the formula itself will give notice of
the fact for, in such a case, some of its constant
factors will become infinite.
1.

and, substituting these values in (1),
48
hence
= (IH, (H (S)-1.--
and substituting in the formula (5),

sin
-a;
a;
3.3
1.2 3.4.5
1.2.3.4.5.6.7+
This series, being differentiated and then divided

by dx, gives
cos
2.
To develop y =
y = (l+*),
-j
- j-g +
(1
+ a;)".
2 3 4 5 6
We have
gU^l+aO"-1,
g=
(^
-1)
fa
n(n-l)(n-2) (l+)-8,

hence
^-w(w-l)(/i-2),
\dx>)
and therefore
(l + aOn =
3.
n(n 1)
To develop y = log
1)
(1
+ x).
( 2)
We have
y = iog(i+a!),g=-iA_,
^|/_
r^5-
_i
1.2
<fos_(l+tf)a'
'
'
49
hence
=.='. (SO
and therefore
=-].(SH----
log(l + aO = tf- 2"+g

CC*
4.
To develop y = a".
V = a"
>V9
We
CC^
--5 +
have
2 = a* log a' S= a" (log a)''

^ = a*aoga)',
we make a
we have
whence log a
log
",
^rf+^rf
e
If
e,
(loga)* +
. .
then
Taylor's Formula.
25. Let
w ./(#) and
if
is
it
Considering
a; and
as two arbitrary parts of
certain line,
obvious that,
the line receives an infinitesimal in
crement, the result will be the same, whether the
increment be attached to the part x or to the part h.
In other terms, the result will be the same whether
the function u'=f(x-\-h) be differentiated with
A

*=
and therefore
= dog
1,
(SO
.-.
whence
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS,
50
regard to x, considering 7t as constant, or with re

In the first
gard to h, considering x as constant.
case, the differential coefficient of the function will.
be
in the second
da;
case
it will
be
dlv
and there-
fore we shall have
du'
_ du'
dx~~
dh'
'
f1
' '
This equation will afford us the means of de
P 4- Qh
Rl?
4- Sh*
+ TV +
u' =
ar-Ti,
veloping the function u' =f(x-\-7i) into a series

ranged according to the ascending powers of
with coefficients that are functions of x alone.
Let us assume a development of the form
(2)
h' 4-
h' 4-
dx
ft1
4-
and divid
dx
then, differentiating (2) with regard to
'
(3)
>
dx
'
"
4-
h,
dx'4- dx
'
dx
2Rh + SSh'+iTh* +
||
ing by dh,
(4)
Now, by (1), the first members of (3) and (4) are

equal hence their second members are also equal,
and the coefficients of like powers of
in those
second members are equal.
Therefore
h

Q,
R, . . . are functions of x alone.

in which P,
Differentiating (2) with regard to x, and dividing by
dx, we shall find
51
P is
the value u of the function when h = 0

and therefore dP du; hence we shall have
But
_
r~U)
'
_ du
M-2-
d'u
d*/t.
*-2~d- d&*
dx~*'
__
~
'
d'u
dx*
' '
"
'
These values substituted in the equation (2) give
^2^4+
'
(5)
This is Taylor's formula. The values attributed to

x and h must be such as will- render the series con
vergent.
_ ,
1N
rca*-1
7i)
7i
(x
hence
1)
= n(7i-l)(7l-2)a!-
whence
(Pu_2_
(&cs
x'
d'u
(a;
+ 7i); and
2.3
a;*
'
.r
then ' = log
'
ate'
2.
3
+
x
'
dx
d'u _
' 1
du_l
~
'
we have
= log a?/
xn-* h*
n(w-l)(n-2)flf.. y+
Let
and we have
d*u
h)n
2.

du
-f-
Let u = x* ; then u' = (x

,
1.
EXAMPLES.
52
/
Let u =
3.
ex
; then
v! =
A*
e?+h
,
, d'u
'
dx'~ '
dx~
du
A*
A*
; and we have
d"u
' ' '
<ta2_e
whence
"'
e",
e*(I+"+f + 2-3 + 244+
In this equation make x = 0 and
'
Then we
1.
have
or
e
2.3T2.3.4
= 2.718281828459
Which is the basis of the hyperbolic logarithms.
Let u = sin x, and u' = sin (x + y)
4.
then we
d'u
du
-r- = cos x, jzi =
dx'
dx
sin
d'u
a;,' -=-=
dx?
= cos a\
a;
'
^-
we shall have also
into
= sin
sin rc
rf47ocOSa'-
cos .t
+ |_c0sa;
sin
2i4Sm^
sin
cos rr
we change
y)
If
-2^cOS^
-\-
y)= smx
u'= sin (x
-\-
whence
(a;

have
a;
2-^_Sllia.+
53
Scholium. Taylor's formula may be used for the development of a

function u = f(x, y) of two independent variables.
If we begin by giving to x an increment h, we shall have
.
fix + h,y)
= u +
du.
^h
cPu h?
Wl^
d3u
h3
.
^K-3+
we give to y an increment k, the lirst

+ h, y + k), and in the second member u
and in this equation, when

member
f(x
become
become
du.
U+dyk
*'"~f"
+
~5r
dy
dy'
become
(d*u +
dSMli
dy*
-will
)h,
\dx^~
dx*
2+d^2^
become
(du
d'u K'
k3
dx
d3u
dy~'
'h will
d'u
will
will
/2"'
__+
d3u k3
dxh + djT
du
=+
ajk
*)
'
(A)
We might have begun by giving to

this case we would have directly obtained
f(*,y
Mfc
dy
<fa''
VdW
d'
~W
dC^)
+
d/^
u+^k+ 5-,-
dw K'
<Pu W
the increment A;; and in
d3u k3
W 2+d?0
+,
du,
'
f(* + h,S +
k)
Substituting these values in the above equation, we shall have

and so on.
1ZFIS1TESIMAL CALCULUS.
54
In this equation, when x receives the increment h, the first mem

ber becomes f(x + h, y + k), as before, and in the second member u
becomes
du
dy
becomes
d
(du
\dy
d'u
h?
(d*\
d*(du)
\dy)
dx
\dy)
h*
dx\
)*'
^rk
d'u
d?u h?
k? .
3-5 becomes
dy*
dx
KdyV 7t'
.
" T TJi
IT
dx*
ft
\dyV
and so on.
Substituting these values in the above equation,
dx
f--\
KdyV hk*
2
dy*
d'u W
h?k
dx*
(B)
d'(dU)
\dy/
=f(x,
y), the equations
(A) and (B) may
be
-j
hk +
dxh
'
du
Jj/k
du
-f(x,
V)
k)_f{x,
Txh
as (A) and (B) are identical, we

efficients of hk are identical whence
;
and,
h,y
du,
du
Tyk+
\dy'
, ,
-^-hk
/du\
,
y)
f(x
h,y
k)
.,
f(x

Remembering that u
written as follows
7i3
dx
ay
+ . .
d*u
h*
\dy/
du
d'u
du,
we shall have
...
conclude that the two co
,
(du\
55
d fdu'\
\dxJ
Uy>
(0.
dx
dy
When h and k are infinitesimal, the equations (A) and (B) reduce
to
du
du ,
which is the total differential of the function (No. 19). It is, there
fore, the property of such a total differential that the differential
coefficient of
coefficient
of
^ taken
^
with respect to y is equal to the differential
taken with respect to x.
De Moiwe's Formulas.
26. We have found (No.

cos^ =
i_|, + t5|4-2^)T;+
- a3;6fi7 +
smx=x-^ + ^g-j-g
If we
change x into x V
shall have
x3
(1)
P)
in this last series, we
2.3
2.3.4.5
#4
^2.3.4
(4)
If, on the other hand, we multiply both members

of (2) by V 1, and then add the result to (1), we
cos
shall find that the sum
-f-

24) the three series
sin x
56
will give a series identical with that of equation
(4).
Therefore
cos x
If
we change
x into
cos
a;
V^l
v 'sin x e* '.
(5)
x, we shall have also
x V
And now let

cos mz
+V
sin
a;
= e-*v-l.
(6)
= W2, to being any number
sin mz = e~v'ri =
then
(e**rr,)m,
that is,
= (cos 2+ ^
+ V
sin
cos mz V
sin mz = (cos
cos tos
TO2

as also
2
V7
sin
2)m,
(7)
sin
2)m.
(8)
These are De Moivre's formulas. Each of them

is equivalent to two ; for, after developing the
second members, the real terms will form an equa
tion among themselves, and the imaginary terms
will form another, which being divided by the com
mon factor V 1, will express another real rela

tion. Thus, making m = 3, formula (7) will give
cos 32 = cos' 2 3 cos 2 sin' 2,
sin
32
cos' z sin z sin' 2,
Maxima and Minima.

37. A function is a maximum when it reaches a
value greater than the values immediately preced
ing and immediately following, and it is a minimum,
when it reaches a value less than the values im
mediately preceding and immediately following.
57
To determine if a function u=f (x) has a maxi

mum or a minimum for a certain value of x, the
following plain rules are laid down.
If the function, for a certain value of x, becomes
a maximum, it must reach that maximum by a last
Hence the
increase, and then begin to diminish.
differential du must he positive immediately before,
and negative immediately after the maximum.
If the function, for a certain value of x, becomes
a minimum, it must reach that minimum by a last
diminution, and then begin to increase. Hence
the differential du must be negative immediately
before, and positive immediately after the mini
mum.
When du changes from + to

so

as
or from to +,
.
And,
â quantity subject to the law of continuity can
also does the differential coefficient
change its sign only by becoming zero, or infinity,

no value of the variable will give a maximum or a
minimum value to the function, unless it reduces
^to
zero or to infinity.
Hence the roots of the
equations
du
-.du
will give all the values of x which can possibly

make u a maximum or a minimum.
Let a be one of such roots. It is yet necessary to

ascertain whether x = a corresponds to a maximum
or to a minimum.
If in
the expression of
we
put first a dx, then a + dx, instead of x, and if
ISFIXITESIMAL
58
CALCULUS.
the first result be positive, and the second negative,

it is plain, from the preceding considerations, that
the value x a will correspond to a maximum ; if
the first result be negative and the second positive,
the value x = a will correspond to a minimum ; but
if both results be of the same sign, there will be no
maximum and no minimum for x = a.
Assume, as a first example, the function
(a-xf + b,
g =
which gives
'
f=^2(a-x).
ax
a.
Putting
(a x) = 0, we find x
a
dx, then a + dx, instead of x, the expression
2
(a x) becomes successively
2
(>i
(a (a
dx)) = 2dx,
2
2dx
dx) =
(a
Making
b.
is
mum, which
?/
x)
(a
= x gives xco,
The hypothesis
which cannot verify the conditions of either
maximum or minimum.
"
Assume, as second example, the function
= 2ax
x%
from which we have
dy
0,
x)
Making
(a
=^
dx

is
and, since the first result

negative and the second
a corresponds to a mini
positive, we see that x
V2ax-x'
we have
x = a.
Putting
59
x)
= dx, (a
(a
becomes
dx)
dx.
dx)
dx) =
(a
(a
whilst the expression
dx) -\-dx,
(a
x)
(a
-f-
(a (a
a dx, and then a + dx, instead of x, the expres
becomes
sion
a.
= a, and the mini
The maximum
mum
is
sign of
Hence x = a corresponds to a maximum and to a

minimum at the same time, owing to the double
The hypothesis
fl*
.
co
gives 2ax x'=0,
is
0,
be
whence x
or x = 2a. But in both cases
no other maximum
comes =
and thus there
or minimum.
and minima can be made to depend entirely on its

successive differential coefficients.
Let the function
(x) be at its maximum or
and u"
=f
h)
(x
u' =f
iif
h)
minimum, and let
(x

28. When a function of x can be developed by

Taylor's formula, the determination of its maxima
values of u immediately before and immedi

ately after the maximum or minimum. By Taylor's
formula we have
be the
60
whence
'*(-+
+...)
u'
u" U Jl
/ du d'n
V"dx + dx'
.
h
2
dhi
+ dx*
2.3
If u
is a maximum, then u>u', and u>u" ; hence

If u is a
the two series must be both negative.
minimum, then u<u', and u<u", and the two
series must be both positive. Now, the two series
cannot have equal signs unless the terms
-jj- disappear;
^ and
for, when h is very small (as it

must be in the present case), the sign of each series

is the same as that of its first term. Hence we
must have
and the roots of this equation will give the values

of x for which the function u will be a maximum
or a minimum.
Let a
be
one of these roots.
As
pears, the two series reduce to
<-*-'().+().&+.
and their signs will be those
If
this
ISFISITESIMAL
CALCULUS.
61
term be negative, ua will be a maximum

positive, ua will be a minimum.
If x a
were to give also
(^^j =0,
if it
be
then the two
series would reduce to
u~u-
- \a&)a
.
+
h'
ld'u\
/d'u\
2.3.4
and thus they would again have different signs.

Hence there could be no maximum and no minimum,
unless
=0-
In this
begin by the term (^J;)
case the t wo series
^\
which,
if
would
positive,

would give a minimum, and if negative, a maximum.

If this term also were to become = 0, we would
have to proceed as before with regard to the subse

quent terms of the series. From all this we may
draw the following conclusion :
the first differential coefficient which does not
become = 0 is of an uneven order, the two series
have opposite signs, and there is no maximum or
If
minimum.
If
the
first differential
= 0 is of an even
which does not become
coefficient
order, the
have equal signs, and there will be a

maximum when their sign is negative, and a mini
two series
mum when the>r sign is positive.
29. The investigation of maxima and minima

may often be simplified.
Thus a constant factor
INFINITESIMAL CALCUL
62
that affects the whole function can
in the differentiation
VS.
be
suppressed
=
for, since we have
the result is independent of any such factor.

So also, if we have a function of the form
Va*x
<
0,
y=
- bx\ we can make y' = n = a'x bx', whence

a1
2bx,
we have x
a'
= -rr
2b
2b.
and
.
Making
0,
This value makes u a maximum
hence it makes if a maximum, and consequently

also y a maximum.
By this artifice we can differ
entiate the function without taking notice of the
radical sign.
And, again, we may simplify operations by tak
ing the logarithms of the quantities to be differen
tiated. Thus, if we have a function
_(x-l)

y~(x + l)
(x 2)
( + 2)'
passing to logarithms, and making log y = u, we

shall have
w=log [x l)+log (x-2) log (x-\-l) log (x-\-2),
and
_\_
dx~ x -1+ x - 2
du_
x+
1_
x + 2~
'
from which we obtain x = V 2.

It is obvious
that, when this value of x makes u a maximum or a
minimum, yalso will be a maximum or a minimum.
When the first differential coefficient is a pro
duct of two or more factors, and one of these fac
tors becomes = 0 for a value of x corresponding to
INF1NITES1MA L
OA LC'UL US.
63
maximum or to a minimum, the second differen

tial coefficient can he obtained without differen
tiating the other factors, as in the following ex
ample.
Let
=PXX*,
P,
Q, and
being functions of x.
The regular dif
ferentiation would give

dx
dx
dx
'

Now, if the factor i2, for instance, becomes = 0 for

a value x a, it is evident that the differential will
reduce simply to
Hence it will suffice, in such a case, to multiply the

other factors by the differential coefficient of the
factor which becomes = 0.
Exercises on Maxima and Minima.
30. The application of the preceding principles

to the solution of problems is not difficult, though
the student may, at times, experience some difficulty
in finding out the mode of expressing the particular
function which is to be worked upon. A few ex
amples will show how the difficulty may be prac
tically overcome.
I. Required the dimensions of the maximum
cylinder that can

cone.
be
inscribed in a given right
64
Let A VB (Fig.
1) be the cone,
and suppose
cylinder inscribed. Let VC

= h, AC=r, VO = y, DO
x. The volume V of the
cylinder will be expressed
by
V=nx'(7>-y).
But from the similar tri

angles A VC and D VO we
have
y : : AC
VC ::r
h, and
hx
Substituting
this value of y in the preceding ex
pression, we have
V= Tx^(r
x).

Hence
Placing
^
d'V
and x =
makes it positive, the second makes it nega

Hence x
tive.
2r
V=
find the roots # =
The first value placed in the expression of
ar
0, we
=0
corresponds to a minimum, and
to the maximum
27
of its base is
required, which will be
Its altitude is
2r
-5-
\o
whilst the radius
65
II. In
tres
the line CC (Fig. 2) which joins the cen

two spheres, to find the point from which the
of
greatest portion of spherical surface is visible.

Let J. be the point
Draw
sought for.
the tangents
= r,
AJ/and
radii CM
the
CM'
r', and
c'<
AM',
MP, M'P'
the lines
perpendicular to CC.
Make CC = a, and
AC=x.
is
The portion of surface visible from A on the

one-half of the sphere, minus
zone
right hand
of the altitude PC, or
2nr*
2zr X
PC;
PC r::r
x, and
x PC -r'
+ rn
P'C r'::r'
2n (ra
But
the total visible surface, we have
Calling
W - 2w' x P'C.
P'C).
a
x;
= 2-
whence
P'C=
r"
a x
and therefore
- x- - a-?)xl
and
(r'
1
+
7iC=
hpnce

is
one-half
and the portion visible on the left hand
of the surface of the other sphere, minus a zone of
the altitude P'C, or
66
ds
dx
and making
0,
we shall find
VP
xa
+ Vrn
Such is, then, the distance from the centre C to the

point A that satisfies the
condition expressed in the
enunciation of the problem.
III. Through a point P
(Fig. 3) a straight line is
drawn meeting the axes OX

and OY at A and B respec
tively. Find, the least length
that this line can have.
Let OMa, and PM=b be the co-ordinates of

the given point
P,
and make the angle
PA0
Then
PA
hence, making
b
^ ,'
sin
AB =
and
PB
a
cos #
u, we shall have
b
'
sin &
'
cos #
whence
du
Making
'
cos
&
sina i?
= 0we shall find
a sin
cos' i?
'
&.
67
From this last equation we obtain

sin
cos
&
and therefore
This is the minimum required.

IV. To find the least cone that can be circum
scribed abou ' a given sphere.
Let SCh (Fig. 4) be the altitude of the cone,
AG It the radius of its
base. Then the expression of
its volume V will be

V=^rtR\
Draw the radius OP r to
the point P where the element
BS of the cone touches the
The similar triangles
. sphere.
SCB and SOP give us
OB
BS:: OP
that is,
B:
OS,
VB* + h*::r
:h-r;
whence, by developing and reducing, we find
R-JYr-
This value of
R substituted
gives
'
whence
in the above equation,
2r
'
INFIX ITESIMAL
68
CALCULUS.
Ttf (h-2r)2h-h
dV_
~
dh
'
(h-2ry
'
from which we obtain

h = 4r, and therefore B? = 2r'.
The volume of the minimum cone will therefore
be
V=
-g
As
surface of this cone is
the
8 87tr',
we see that as its volume is twice that of

the sphere, so also is its total surface twice that of
the sphere.
V. A man being in a boat a miles distant from
the nearest point of the beach, wishes to reach in

the s7wrtest time a place b miles from that point
along the shore. Supposing that he can walk m
miles an hour, but pull only at the rate of n miles
an hour, required the place where he must land.

Let
AB = a
(Fig. 5),
BC= b, BD = x, D
being
the point where the man must

land. The time employed in
rowing from A to D will be
and the time em

ployed in walking from D to
Va*
B will
be 4(6
x);
so that
the total time T employed in

the journey will be
T_
Va' + x'
b-x
m
Differentiating, we find for the minimum
69
This value of x gives the distance BD, and the
point D where the man must land.
will
be
^,_nb
Make a 4,
T=2h 40m.
VI. A triangle
-f a Vm'
n'
mn
m 5, n
8,
then x
and
and a perimeter 2p.

What must its second and third side be, that the
triangle be a maximum
Let the second side be denoted by x the third
will then be 2p x. Its area will then be ex
pressed by the equation
b
has a base
'S,
time
The shortest
isosceles.
VII. To
the triangle being
the dimensions of the maximum

solid cylinder whose total surface is
the alti
Let x be the radius of the base, and
Its total surface will then be
tude of the cylinder.
S.
find
= 2nx*
expressed by
&
2nx.y,
and its volume by Vr.x^.y, or, eliminating y, by
4/I
|/|
x=
us - ft-D =
whence
o,

a maximum when x =
x p).
(b
found by the ordinary process that
(p
x)
be
Vp (p
b)
is
It will
70
or y=2x. Hence Fis a maximum when its alti

tude is equal to the diameter of its base.
VIII. To find the greatest isosceles triangle that
can be inscribed in a given circle.
It will be found that it is an equilateral triangle.
IX. To find the smallest isosceles triangle that
can be circumscribed about a given circle.
It will be found that it is an equilateral triangle.
X. To find the greatest rectangle that can be in
scribed in the ellipse whose semi-axes are a and b.
Its base will
XI.
be a V% and its
the greatest cone
altitude b V2.
that can be cut from
To find
a sphere.
If r is the radius of the sphere, the altitude of the
Ar
2r
cone will be .=- , and the radius of its base V2.

XII.
To find the greatest segment

that can be cut from a right cone.
If It is the altitude of
the cone, and r the
radius of its base, then
the axis of the segment
will
be
XIII.
| Vh' + r\
To
find
of a parabola
the
parabola
maximum
that can be inscribed in
an isosceles triangle
having the altitude h
and the base b.
Let VH= x, and PIT
= y (Pig. 6) be the co
ordinates of the point P, where the parabola
touches the side CA of the given triangle. The
area of the parabola will be A = * YD x DK.
AsCF
=
other hand,
VH= x,
DK* PIT':: VD
:
VD
we have
VB, or
DK'
=.
71
- x.
h
y* ::
On the
-x
x,
and therefore
To eliminate
we have from the similar triangles
ÎDCand PBC
PB: AD:: Off:
CD,
or
?/
:: 2a;
A,
or y =
-^-,
hence
Accordingly,
the equation of the problem becomes

46

Hence
_ 26
<M
and x =
(h
- a;)3
3a;
Consequently FZ>
(h
- x)' _
and
XIV.
DK=
To find the minimum parabola that can be

circumscribed about a circle.
Let r be th<^ radius of the circle (Fig. 7), VB=x,
PH= y the co-ordinates of the point
of contact,
VA = a, and AB = b the terminal co-ordinates,
72
and 2p the parameter of the parabola.

will be A = $ab.
The area
Now, a = VH+ HO +
OA x -\-p + r, and b' =
2pa. On the other hand,

the triangle POH gives
p' = r' p* = 2px, whence
and therefore
2p
r)*
r)a,
or
=p
3p(j? + r)'- (j? + r)'_

:0,
and consequently 2p = r.
3r
in the expres
'
^4 =
dp
whence
j9a
9?'
Hence a
and
'
What must
cone has a total surface S.
its dimensions be that its volume be a maximum
the ra
Let
be the altitude of the cone, and
= nr*
Its total surface will be
dius of its base.
nr V7?
XV. A

Substituting these values of a and

sion of A, we have
r.
&
also
(p
2p
-\-p*
~~
(p
2pr
r'+
~
-f-
"=-2f+r+P
/'
-f
2p
2?a
T*
'
r\
whence
73
On the other hand, the volume will be
Hence
dV
S*
2S7tr*
2SttT1
XVI.
To find the maximum cylinder that can be

cut from an oblate ellipsoid of revolution, whose
semi-axes are a and b.
will
and the altitude
make u
a minimum?
x x'
l+x~^x'
-f-
What value of x
ai/s
XVII.
The function is a minimum when x =
XVIII.
Through the focus of an ellipse two

chords are drawn at right angles. Find when
their sum will be a maximum, and when a mini
mum.
mum when x =
XX.
the least ellipse

scribed about a given rectangle.
To
find
x)
-f-
The solution will be reached through the polar

equation of the curve.
XIX. Show that u sin x (1 cos
is a maxi
5

The radius of the base =
that can
be de
74
Let 2a and
(Fig.
2b
of the given
8) be the sides
rectangle, and let
Ay + B,x* = A2B'
equation of the ellipse.
In all ellipses we have
be the
y*
-x'
yn :: A2
A"
- x"
if
52
b'::A'
A'
5=
a', or
The area of the ellipse is

for B its value,
Ab
hence
dE Tib%2A(A2
E-AB.
- -
A*
=
\y (A" - ay
-j-.
dA
which gives A
=a
in the expression of
the area of the
V2.
a*)
a?
Substituting
n
0,
And this value substituted
B gives Bb
ellipse will
E = tm V2
VA*
A'
VA' a
E = r.b
we take y B and
J, we shall have x = 0.
a, and
hence,
V2.
Accordingly
be
b
V2 2nab.
Scholium. The theory of maxima and minima, as above developed

(No. 28), can be extended to the investigation of the maxima and
minima of any function of two independent variables.
Let the function
u=f(x,
be at
y)
its maximum or minimum, and let

u'
=/(*
h, y k),
and u"
=f(x
+ h, y + Jc),
75
values of u immediately before and immediately after the

maximum or minimum. Then by Taylor's theorem, as extended to
two variables (No. 20, Scholium), we shall have
be the
j-h - du
-r k
dy
du ,
dx
=u
,,
u = "
j-
du ,
du ,
A + j- k
dx
dy
which may be written
(dih
/du
-;-;
dx'
diu 1i?
-r-i
dx>
du
dHi
+ -7
j- hk
dxdy
/dHi ,
du.\
_
+ 2
dyk)+2 (
d'u , ,
d-u
-jj-hk +3-5-5- ~
dxdy
dy' 2
du
k>
+ -y-3 -^
dy2 2
etc.
+ etc.
as Hollows :
u' ~ =
~ /du
d>u 7i'
l/<78w,
d-u
17
dxdyKk
d2
d-u ,\
..
*")
"et0-
e?!if,\
>
>
dyk) &nd+{dIh
du
/du
du
+
-(dxh
dJ,k)
necessary to have
du ~
-Ydx
and
du
-5- =
dy
0.
separately
we must have
(1)
which corre
These two equations will give the values of x and

maximum or minimum of the function.
spond to
T-k
dy
du
are independent of each other,
and
and since
du ,
dx
is
is
and
are very small (as they must be in the
for, when
whole
the
of
the
series
the same as that of its
case),
sign
present
existence
of
maximum
or of
Hence
for
the
minimum
first term.
disappear
it

(du ,
be
if
', and
maximum, then u
u", and the two
If u be minimum, then u <u', and
series must be negative.
But the two series can
u < u", and the two series must be positive.
not have equal signs unless the terms
Now,
Since the first differential coefficients

first term of both series will now
be the
-=-
and
trinomial
-5-
disappear,
the
70
which, if negative,
minimum. Making
will
the trinomial
/efu,.
d'u
will indicate
,,
d!
,,\
a maximum, and,
if
positive,
take the form

+
2Bhk +
CW,
or
or, by adding and subtracting
Now, since
h and
cannot assume
JJ2
-j. and factoring,
7 ,'
and therefore
As
to the second term,
cannot
the first term

be
,
0,
f^
JB, we
+
and is always posi-
it is easy to prove that it
For as the sign of (2) must remain unchanged

cannot be negative.
for all the small values of the arbitrary constants h and k, it follows
that the value of the expression (3) must not pass through zero. But,
if we had AC B2 < 0, we might choose for 7t and k such arbitrary
values as would give
Kk
2)
m-AC
would pass through zero.

Hence the assumption
inadmissible; and we must therefore have either
or AC B* = 0; and thus in both cases the factor
within the brackets will be positive.
Hence the sign of (2) will be
the same as that of the other factor A.
It follows that the existence of maximum or minimum cannot
be inferred from (2) unless either AC> BP, ox AO = B*
that
is
(2)
unless
is,
AC B2<0
AC B? >
0,
that
is,

of the factor within the brackets

tive.
and independent of A and
k are arbitrary,
'
dx*
d>f
>
'
\dxdy)
dxl
'
"dy1
11
\dxdy)
'
'
The values of x and y which ought to satisfy either the one or the
other of these two conditions must, of course, be taken from the
The conditions
and
maximum, and when
dx*
d?u
dx
is
as
the function u
negative
that of
will
positive the function u will be
be
when
always the same
and as
is
it
rplain that
is
2
,
or of the trinomial,
(3),
is
of
the sign
must always be either both negative or both positive
ay
-r-;
dx*
that the differential coefficients
(3) show
'
dû
jjjj
equations (1).
inini-
must then be determined by the sign of the fourth differential

after having ascertained that the third differential coeffi
cients, which have opposite signs, reduce to zero, as the theory (No.
it
but
0,
But let the student remember that, although the existence of

maximum or minimum cannot be tested by (3) when the trinomial
=
yet even in this case there may be a maximum or minimum
is a
mum.
coefficients,
38)
requires.
A cistern which
depth.
The total surface u will bo
u = xy +
a%
a3
=:
a3
xy
+
3
therefore
minimum.
Differentiating first with regard to x, then with regard to y, we find

3a3
du
2a>
dy
x2
du
dx
x'y =
and therefore
3o3
= y*x, and
the base must be

a3
a3
xy
square.
ay'3
hence

is
to contain
is
I.
certain quantity of
water
to be constructed in the form of
rectangular parallelopipedon.
Determine its form, so that the smallest possible expense shall
be incurred in lining the internal surface.
breadth, and
Solution. Let a3 - its content, x = length,
Exami>le
The depth will be
78
the depth must be equal to half the length or breadth.
and therefore
Since
_~ 4,i* _~ 4s
d?u
dx*
tPu
'
dy*
_~
iPn
'
dxfiy
_
~
'
the first of conditions (3) is satisfied, and u is a minimum.

Example II. Find the values of x and y which shall make the
function
it x* + y* boxy*
maximum or a minimum.
Solution. Here we find
~ =
4x3
iay- =
= Aif
0,
8axy 0 ;
hence
- 2a?y/2 =
a?y/~8,
's positive,
dj;' and
ay5
the first condition (3)
12/
ay/%.
8ax = 16a? V2,
satisfied
a a/2 and
and
as the
a//8
v
sign of
make
24a5,
is
and therefore
find
dx*
and
dy1
0.
And
these values
are also satis
of
and
we
since in this case the third differ-
ential coefficients are

d3a
With
and
(-,
a;
and
0.
fied by taking
the equations
0
example,
x
In this
minimum.

^ = 12x*
And again,
y =
if
ay/2,
Zax, x* = %a?x, x* 2a?
x =
y' =
ay'-,
f"r
x3
d'u,
and the fourth differential coefficients
are positive,
19
we conclude that the values x 0 and y = 0 correspond
to another minimum.
Remark.
When u is a function of three independent variables,
the conditions of its maxima and minima are determined by a process

analogous to the preceding, but which is based on the extension of
Taylor's formula to a function of three variables, and is too long to

be inserted here.
The result, however, of such an investigation is
If a function
simple enough.
u=f(x,
has any maximum or minimum,

~
dx
it must

dy~
0'
y, z)
0'
give
dz
_~ q
'
and the values of x, y, z found from these equations
must satisfy the
condition
\ dxi
'
\dxdy)
dy*
'
d'u
dht
\dydz
dx*
'
dx'1
\dxdz)
dz*
tPu\*
dxdz)
dxdy
The function will bo a maximum if the two factors within brackets

in the first member of this inequality are negative; but a minimum
if
they are positive.
Values of Functions which assume an Indetermi

nate Form.
31. It sometimes happens that in giving to the

variable a certain value, the function assumes one
of the forms
0
oo
0, w
Thus the fraction

|j
0
^
X
~
~,
oo , x
ar1
- ~, OXqo
oo ,
when x1, takes the form
though its real value is
2.
The real values of
80
functions that assume the form
can be found by
the following process.
Let z and y be functions of x, and let u =
be-
come r when x = a. Clearing of fractions, and differ
entiating, we have
udy
-f ydu
= dz ;
but when x = a, the term ydw disappears.

(udy)a = (dz)a, or
M.
Accordingly,

j|
Hence
=().
the value of u, when it takes the form
for x=a, will
be
found by differentiating sepa
rately the numerator and the denominator of its ex

pression, and substituting in the resulting fraction
the value x = a.
If
were again of the form
we would
ap
ply again the same process of differentiation, and we

would obtain
if
necessary, we might continue the same pro

cess until a determinate value is reached.
Thus
and,
the fraction
sin
,
cc
becomes
when x = 0 ; but by
the process just explained we successively obtain
Fx
sin
Tl
x~\
cos
81
("sin afl
afl
Tcos
af|
or the form
go
this re-
Thus the function
not needed.
which takes the form
Sometimes
when x =
oo
lo"
-
x a
will give
is
that
easily obtained
The reduction
above explained.
by remembering
and then applying the process

is
to the form
duction
oo
its real value may be found by first reduc-
ing
-
it
^r
or the form
sumes the form
|,
When the function, for a certain value of x,jls-
im
The form
For let
oo
oo
may also be reduced to the form
and w be two functions of x, which
jj.
for certain value of x become infinite.

Then the
function u = w becomes oo oo for that value
of x. But we have
[l--J= -
V
u = v-w =
provided we have
oo
the form
and w = co, the function will take
and when

mediately
0.
If
this
82
condition were not fulfilled, then the equation u
=v
(l
would make the function infinite.
Assume
u
when x
~,
\ sec x x tan x ;
the function
the form
takes
oo .
But we may write
and from this we shall obtain (u)n
1.

32. The indeterminate forms
0, oo, 1", can be

the
reduced by
Let v and w be
following method.
x
of
of
such
two functions
a nature that, when
=
the
cause
x a, they
expression u = vw to assume
one of the forms 0, oo , 1.

the base of the Napierian
Now, the
have " = ewlogu.
each of the three proposed
Ox,
Since v
= &ogv
(e
being
logarithms), we shall
exponent w log in
cases takes the form
which can be reduced to
plained.
EXAMPLES.
as we have ex

io.
=1
r-V-i
up
Jo
11
\a
8.
'
[^]0
cot
<r
X*
_
'
0,
=
4
tan x
~
+ tan x\l
~"|
[a;
a;]0
[tanglog(2-5)] =
\2x- V5x'-aya~
.
Ll r
log
'
5.
[(i_aOtanf]=?,
6.
3.
&H
;T"
tan,-.
=1,
a;
=log-log&.
83
84
III.
SECTION
INVESTIGATIONS ABOUT PLANE CURVES.
33. Let y = f(x) be the equation of a plane curve

MPL (Fig. 9), and let x = OA and y = PA be the
co-ordinates of a point
Fig.
P of the curve. Draw
PT' tangent to the
curve at P, and PX'
parallel to the axis
OX; and make the
angle T'PX' = &.
Let the point
be
consecutive
P.
the
The inflnitesimal increment PQ

of the curve entails an increment AB of the ab
scissa x, and an increment QR of the ordinate y.
If then we represent by s the portion MP of the
curve, then PQds, whilst AJ3 = dx, and QR
= dy. Now, we have
point
AB = PQ
cos &,
QR = PQ sin #, PQ' = PR*+ QR',
dx = ds cos
dy = ds sin
&,
hence
j?,
ds = \fdx'
+ dy',
and
dx
ds
tan
&.

to
As the tangent
85
PT is
but a secant which meets

the curve at two consecutive points, it follows that
the tangent and the curve have a common infini
tesimal element PQ, and that the angle which the
element PQ of the curve makes with the axis OX is
identical with the angle # made by the tangent at
P with the same axis.
The trigonometric tangent of the angle # is taken
as a measure of the slope of the curve at the point
P,
and, as tan # =
the differential
coefficient
of the ordinate of any point of the curve is the

measure of the slope of the curve at that point.
Tangents, Normals,
etc.
34. The equation of a straight
line

passing
of
a
whose
co-ordi
curve,
through two given points
nates are x', y', and x", y", is
v"v'
When the two points are consecutive, as
y' = dy', and x"

(Fig.
the equation becomes
9), then y"
P and
x' = dx'; and
This is the equation of the tangent to the curve at

the point P, whose co-ordinates are denoted by
y\
x'.
Making y =
we find for the point T, where the

tangent meets the axis OX,
0,
86
xX
.y
,dx'
dp"
The subtangent A T is evidently = x'
x= y
,dx'
35. The normal being perpendicular to the tan
dy'
instead of +
1
-j.
7^7
gent at the point of contact, its equation can be de

rived from that of the tangent by substituting
dx'
y-y'=
Hence
dx
3?
0,
is
the equation of the normal to the curve at the

point (x', y').
we find for the point ilT, where the
Making =
normal meets the axis OX,
AN
dx'
evidently equal to x x'
dx'
to
is
36. An asymptote to a curve

line that con
tinually approaches the curve and becomes tangent
a
//
is
T,
10
it
at an infinite distance. Such

line will,
1y
of course, cut either one
or both the co-ordinate
axes at
finite distance
from the origin.
Let the straight line
A T (Pig. 10) be an asymp
tote to the curve LP.
Since A
when infinitely
prolonged,
tangent to
the curve, its equation will be of the form
Fig.
'

The subnormal
is
x --- x'-\-y
dj/
(a?
y-y
dx'
87
x'),
0,
y'
x' and
being the co-ordinates of the point of con
tact infinitely distant from the origin.
This equa
tion, when x
gives
it
0,
and, when
OB;
gives
OA.
If
if
dv'
determined by the value of ~~
If
both OA
it
and OB are infinite, the curve has no asymptote, as

no place can be found for
in the plane of the co
ordinate axes.
37. Let us inquire, for example,
whether the
We find by differentiation
-f 3x ~
_
y
_
dx~
dy
,3x'
+ 3x
s/2x + 3x'
'
has any asymptote.
= 2x +
y*
curve

be
if
is
the values of OA and OB obtained from these

equations are both finite, the asymptote will inter
sect both co-ordinate axes
one of the two values
infinite, the asymptote will be parallel to one of
the axes
both values are zero, the asymptote
will pass through the origin, and its direction will
This value being put in the expressions for OA and

OB will give, after reduction,
88
OA=-
+ az'
And now make x
OA
OB =
V2x +
3x'
Then
~~
3' OB=
V2
Hence the curve has two asymptotes,

intersects the axes at the distance x
x=
and the other at the distance
=
^,
O
one of which
1
5,
y-
y-
J_
Vr6
~V3
Again, let us inquire whether the curve

V = log x
has any asymptote.
Here we have
dx
hence

OA x
(1
- log
'
OB = log x
1.
gives both OB and OA infi
x),
The assumption y = co
nite, and cannot correspond to an asymptote ; but
the assumption y = 00 gives x = 0, whence we
obtain (No. 31)
~]g'
log an
OA = [>(!- log z)]0=rl
[1
Jo
1
= Mo = 0
1^
and therefore the curve has an asymptote which

passes through the origin, and makes with the axis
OX an
angle whose tangent is -~- =

ace
-=
cc
00 ;
that is,
89
the asymptote is at right angles to OX, and co

incides with the axis O T.
Let us inquire also whether the curve
y=
tan
Here we have
has any asymptote.
hence
OA =
Make y
ten-iy-T?L-> OB=tanx--^--
Then
co.
to the
Hence the curve has an asymptote parallel
axis 07, at a distance 5 from the origin.
also to x
corresponds
^~
not only to
= ^
. 71
but
it follows that
^
an
endless series of asymptotes, all
there will be
07, and all at a distance it from
the
axis
parallel to
each other.
To find whether the parabola y* = 2px has
let us put its differential coefficient
asymptotes,
ax
-'m
<^-
the expressions for OA and OB.
We
co
Making
we shall have also x =
oo
shall find, after reduction,

value y=cc
As the
and thus
90
both OA and OB will be infinite.
Hence this curve
has no asymptotes.
In the hyperbola represented by the equation
ay
we have
&
V=
dy _ Vx
~
dx
a'y
- a'b'
'
hence, by substitution and reduction,
OA =
-a'
OB=--.
y
h*
y=co,
we shall have also x 00;

and therefore OA 0 and OB = 0. Hence the hy
perbola has two asymptotes passing through the
origin of co ordinates, and making with the axis
OX two supplementary angles, of which the acute
one corresponds to x and y affected by equal signs,
and the obtuse one to x and y affected by opposite
Making

signs.
Direction of Curvature.
38. Let M, iV, P (Fig. 11) represent three con
secutive points of a plane

If we
curve y = f(x).
draw the chord MP, and
if
Fig.
11
the point
lies above
the chord, the curve is
said to turn its concavity
downwards ; if the point
were to fall beneath
the chord, the curve would be said to turn its con
vexity downwards.
Let ?/, ?/, y" be the equidistant ordinates of the
points Iff, iV. P. Since y' is consecutive to y, and
y" consecutive to y\ we have
jyFIXITESIMAL
CALCULUS.
91
y' y + dy, y" = y' -\-dy' = y + dy + dy'.

If the curve is concave downwards, as it is in our
But BN=y', and BQ
diagram, then BJSf> BQ.
therefore
%(y
+ dy)>y +
<
0,
<
and consequently
If the
dy + dy'
dy > dy', or
and, by reduction,
<fy
ov2y'>y + y",
P"),
dy <
0,
V'>$(P +
y
+
that
or
0.
i (y + y")
is,
or d'y >
0,
0,
is
curve convex downwards, then BN < BQ,

and consequently dy < ^y'
hence dy' dy>
and
> 0-
Accordingly,
39. If, for
d'x
g
ferential coefficient
is positive or negative.
certain value of x, the first differen(Iff

and
tial coefficient -~ becomes =
the second
be negative,
that value of
maximum.; whereas
oVy
if
x will answer to
differential coefficient
if
0,

whenever the second differential co

efficient of the function is negative, the curve is
concave downwards
and whenever the same co
efficient is positive, the curve is convex downwards.
If, in the equation of the curve, we take
as in
reasoning similar to
dependent, we can show, by
the above, that the curve turns its convexity or its
concavity to the left, according as the second dif-
CLX
be
92
positive, that value of x will answer to a minimum,

as we have seen (No. 28).
It is plain, then, that
any maxima and minima can be graphically ex
hibited as ordinates to the culminating points of a
curve.
^ = 0,
When
the tangent
curve at the
to the
go
that is,
the tangent may also be parallel to the
y'
axis of y.
Thus in the ellipse (Fig. 12) whose equation
is
g- =
for
maximum or a minimum for

0,
be a
-J^
point of the maximum or of the minimum is par

allel to the axis of x. As, however, there may also
^,(2ax-x'),
we have
dec
If
and
_
-M-
x)
b(a
a V2ax x*
0,
y=b,
then x
a,
value
-\-b being a maximum, and the value
the
6a
mini--
mum.
If
oo,
then
^=0,
and 2ax x* = 0; and
or x = 2a, the first value being

accordingly x =
minimum and the second
maximum.
The double sign which affects the expression for
equally
affects
the expression for
0,

dy
and
93
therefore while one half of the curve turns its con

cavity downwards, the other half turns it upwards.
The value
expresses
gents at the points
OX, and the value
^=
the fact that the tan
and B' are parallel to the axis

00
expresses
the fact that
the tangents at O and at A are perpendicular to

OX, that is, parallel to O T.
Singular Points.

40. A singular point is a point at which the

curve presents some peculiarity not common to
other points. Four classes of singular points are
"particularly remarkable ; points of inflection, cusps,
multiple points, and conjugate points.
A point of inflection is a point at which the cur
vature changes from concave downwards to convex

downwards, or vice-versa. This change requires that
the second differential coefficient of the function
should change from to + , or from + to ; hence,
at a point of inflection, the second differential co
efficient must be either = 0 or = 00 . If, then, the
co-ordinates of the curve are such that, for values
immediately preceding and following, the second
differential coefficient has contrary signs, they are
the co-ordinates of a point of inflection.
Thus, the curve
gives
a)'
V o + (x
When x = a, then
0.
When x < a, then
94
d'y
<
dx'i
0,
and when x > a, then
x=a
there is a point of in
flection, whose co-ordinates
are x = a, y = b ; and since.
at this point,
= 0,
d'y.
^>
Henoe
0.
at
we have
passing
through it is parallel to the
axis of abscissas, as in Fig. 13
The curve
the
tangent
= a
2/
gives
dy
_a
dx~

When x = \tx, then

jî >
(l
x
c
'
cos
d'y
a
x
=
cos dx
c
c
d'y
= 0.
When x <
\ zc, then
then
and when x > h~c,
'
< 0. Hence at
dx
x = \~c there is a point of inflection, whose coor
dinates are x = $ nc and y = a.
dx
0,
The slope of the tangent through it is
f~=-,
and is a maximum. The curve has a minimum or

dinate (y = 0) at the origin, and a maximum ordi
nate (y 2a) at the point where x xc.
The curve (Fig. 14) extends indefinitely to the
right and to the left of the origin ; for, making
x = nnc, the values
n = h = t,
will
=i
give a series of points of inflection,

whilst the values
P,Q, ft,
n=
will give a
1,
=3, =5,
95
= 0),
series of minimum ordinates
the values
2,
=4, =6,
and
will give a series of equal maximum
ordinates
= 2a).
Fig.
The slopes of the tangents at the points of inflection

will be alternately

41. A cusp is a point at which two branches

of a curve terminate, being tangential to each other.
There are two species of cusps. In the first species
the two branches lie on opposite sides of a tangent
drawn at their common point; in the second species
both branches lie upon the same side of the tan
gent.
Thus, the curve of the equation y =

will have a cusp of the first
M
species (Fig 15) ; for we find
Y
and
(x a)
96
and when x a, we have =
0,
and
co
The curve has, therefore, two branches, PM and

PiV, the one convex, the other concave, downwards,
which meet tangentially at the point P, whose co
ordinates are y = b, x a, and which do not extend
to the left of P, because, when x < a, y is imagi
nary.
The curve of the equation y x' x? will have a
cusp of the second species
Fig. IS
(Fig. 16) ; for we find
fx
2xlat,
and
^V
+iAxi-

and, when x = 0, we have
for both branches
is then positive, both

^Js
brandies at the origin are convex downwards. The
two branches stop at the origin, as x cannot be
of the curve.
Now, since
made negative.
If
x=
we make
64
;
dx'
.. 0,
and therefore this value of x corresponds
to a point of inflection.
if
we
we find for the lower branch
make
0, we
In
the same lower branch,

10
find x = ~, which value cor-
25'
dx
responds to a maximum ordinate. This lower branch
cuts the axis OX at the distance 1 from the origin.
From the preceding consideration it is plain that
97
there is a cusp whenever the differential coefficient

has two values which become identical at the point
where the curve stops.
42. A multiple point is a point where two or

more branches
If
other.
of a curve intersect, or touch each

intersect, '
the branches
will
ax
have as
many values at that point as there are branches

they are tangent, these values will be equal.
Thus in the curve
y=
VI
if
x',
we have
dy
and when x = 0,' then

x'
dx
1,' which shows that
the curve has two branches

intersecting at the origin
(Fig.
17).
ceed 1,
^{Flg'17
As x cannot ex
the curve is limit
ed in both directions.
The
maximum and minimum ordinates correspond to
whence
fill
= 0, in which
case we have
Vl-x*- VI -x'
_^
and the corresponding ordinate will then be
y=h
98
In
the curve y x' Vx
dy
dx
-\- 4x
5a?
2
VaJ+l'
0, then 5r = 0.
When x =:0,
then^
Hence the origin O
(Fig. 18) is a multiple point,

where the two branches are
tangent to each other and
to the axis OX. The curve
cuts the axis at the point
a? =
In
1 ,
where
-f-=
<
Fig.
x' + 2x'y
-^>_
- y' =
V-yyVy
x=
18
the curve
we have
we have
+ 1,
1
Vy
Vy +
y
2
becomes either
o
o
and
0,
can
'=
=
0,
which, when x =
*+*
when
the equation of the curve
(I)
be found by putting
under the form
But the real values of
according as we take the upper or the lower
signs.
0,
3y
This expression, when

or =
Vy
-j-
*"
dy _
"'
0,

whence
may be written thus
it being obvious that
ratio
= 0.
when
99
is nothing else than the
these quantities are becoming each
We thus find
These values show that one branch of the curve

is tangent to the axis
OX at the origin (Fig.
while a second
19),
branch, at the origin,
makes with the same
axis an angle whose
12, and a
third branch, at the
origin, makes with the
same axis an angle
tangent is
whose tangent is = V2. Hence the curve has a

triple point at the origin, with two symmetrical
loops under the axis of x.
Its lowest ordinate is y = 1, corresponding to
x=
1,
for which
we
have
= 0.
curve, at the corresponding points

parallel to the axis OX.
43. A conjugate point is
Hence
the
and N, is
point whose co-ordi

nates satisfy the equation of the curve, but which is
isolated, and therefore has no consecutive points.
Thus the equation
y1 x' (x a)
a
is satisfied by the co-ordinates x
0,
y=
0,
but no
100
other value of x less than a gives a point of the

Hence the point x = 0, y 0 is an isolated
curve.
point. The differential coefficient of the equation,
which is
3x 2a
dy
dx~
Vx-a
'
shows that the curve (Fig. 20) has two branches cut
ting the axis OX perpen
Fig. to
dicularly at the point x = a.
It shows also that when x=0,
is imaginary
which ex
presses the obvious fact that

a solitary point can form no
angle whatever with the axis

of x.
The second differential co
efficient
of the equation,
which is
d*y_
dx,~
(x
- V(x a)
3x
2a
a)'
shows that the curve has two symmetrical points of

and Q, corresponding to the abscissa
inflection,
4a
If
a curve has a series of conjugate points, this

series is called a branche pointillee, or a dotted
branch. For example, in the curve
y*
=x
sin' x,
every positive value of x will give two values for y;

but when x is negative, y becomes imaginary, ex
101
cept when # is a multiple of k, in which case y 0.

There will then be an indefinite series of conjugate
points lying on the axis of x at equal distances, and
forming a dotted branch.
As a second example, take the curve

y = ax* Vx
(1
cos
x).

Here for every positive value of x we have two val

ues of y, and consequently two points, except when
cos x = 1, in which case the two points reduce to
one.
Hence the curve, owing to the periodic co
incidence of such points, will consist of a series of
loops not unlike the links of a chain, having for a
diametral curve the parabola y = ax*.
But for all negative values of x the ordinate is
i maginary, except when cos x = 1 ; and in these
cases we have a series of isolated points situated on
the left branch of the diametral curve.
Order of Contact,
Osculation.
44. Let yr=<p(x) and y, =f(x) represent two

curves.
If x be an abscissa common to both curves,
and if this abscissa receive an
ment h, we shall have (No. 25)
/
in
dy
-l
d'y
infinitesimal incre
d'y h'
Now, if in these equations we have y=ylf the

curves will have a common point : if we have also
î
they will have two common points, i.
e.,
102
will
the
their contact being of
be tangent to each other,
first order.
If
we have also
f-
the
curves will have three common points, and their

contact will be more intimate than in the preceding
case: it will be a contact of the second order. If
,
we had also
d'i/ =
oJyx
gj1
would have a contact
d'y
d'i/,
,.
, . .
of the third,
the curves
fourth
order.

The order of the contact corresponds to the num

ber of successive differential coefficients which are
common to both lines.
Any line which at a given point of a curve has a
higher order of contact than any other line of its
own species, is called an Osculatrix.
Thus, an os
cillatory circle is a circle that has a higher order of
contact than any other circle.
45. If a curve y=f(x) has an osculatrix of the

ft* order, then the osculatrix, at the point (x', y') of
osculation, must have the same co ordinates x', y\

and n successive differential coefficients identical
with those of the curve ; in other terms, it must sat
isfy n + 1 conditions. Hence if a curve of a certain
species is to be made an osculatrix of the nth order,
its general equation must contain ft + arbitrary
constants, by the determination of which the
conditions may be satisfied.
For example, since the general equation of a
straight line is
y = ax-\and contains two constants,
b,
the straight line can be
made an osculatrix
the function y = ax
103
of the first order.
b,
For when
and its derivative
= i
are assumed respectively equal to the functions y'
and
a
^7
of the given curve at the point
(#',
y'), we
have
and thus the equation of our straight line will be

come
dy'
dy'
that is,
y-y'=%
which is the well-known equation of a tangent at a
point (x', y') of the curve. This tangent is an os
Thus also, since the general equation of the circle
(x-ay + (y-p)' = l?
contains three ai-bitrary constants, the circle can be
For, when
made an osculatrix of the second order.
the function y drawn from this equation, and its
derivatives
'
dxi~~
dxx
d'y
/?'
x
dx~~ y
dy
^J^j
are assumed respectively equal to the functions

,

culatrix.
y\
of the given curve at the point (x\ y'), we
104
have the equations
x'
-a _
dy'
dx"
y'-p
_ dy
dx"
'
dx"
and finally

Such is the expression of the radius of the osculatory circle. The co-ordinates of its centre are
dx'1
dx"
Measure of Curvature.
46. Curvature is the ratio between the change of

direction and the length over which such a change
takes place. Thus, if # be the angle that an ele

ment PQ of a curve (Fig. 21) makes with the axis
AX, and if d& TQT' be the change of direction
which takes place in passing from PQ to QJR, then,
denoting by ds the element on which the change
>
105
takes place, the curvature of the curve, at that

element, will be expressd#
If
Fig..Sl
a circle be made to
pass (as is always pos

sible) through the three
points P, Q, R, its curva

ture will coincide with
that of the given curve
at the same points ; and
therefore, designating its
radius CQ by R, we shall
A~
have
ds Rd&,
and consequently the expression of the curvature
will
be
d#_
d&
R'
Now, if x and y be the co-ordinates of the point
P,
we have
+0\dxl
= Vdaf + di/ =
hence
d&
dx^/l +
d'y
dx
ds
(p
On the other hand

ds~ Rd&~
106
and therefore
Mi)?
d>y
da?
that is, the radius of curvature is the radius of

the osculatory circle (No. 45); whilst the curvature
is the reciprocal of that radius.
When the curve bends upward, d& is positive,
and the value of R is positive ; but when the curve
bends downward, d& is negative, and then R is
negative.
We have hitherto assumed that y was

Remark.
the function of an independent variable x ; hence
dx was constant.
If both x and y were functions
of a third variable I, then both dx and dy would be
variable ; and then

a
d&
dy
dx
dxd'y
dyd'x
~
dx'
dxd'y
dyd'x
and consequently
(dx' +
R = dxd'y
dyd'x
dy*)*
or, introducing into this value the differential

the new independent variable,
/dx'
B=
\dl' +
dx d'y
*'
dy'\*
";
i
dy d'x
dl dt'~W d
of
107
Examples. To find the radius of curvature of

the parabola.
The equation y*
= 2px
dy_p
dx
gives
&y
'
dx*
p%
'
y*
these values in the expression for R,
Substituting
we find
p*
y \ then -# = 13.888 . . .
To find the radius of curvature of the ellipse.
Assume
p=
The equation of the ellipse being a'y2

we have
dy ~
_
dx
b*x
'
a'y
d'y
&'
dx*
a'y'
-f&V
'

whence, by substitution and reduction, we find
(ay + b'x*)l
R=
When y =
0,
'- , which is
and
,../,.
a'b*
we have x*
= a\
minimum.
When x = 0, then y'V,
becomes =
a'
-
and
reduces to
which is a maximum.
To find the radius of curvature of an equilateral

hyperbola referred to its asymptotes.
The equation of the curve being xy = m', we
have
dy ~
_
dx
x'
(Py ~ 2y
dx"
x*
'
108
whence,
by substitution
and reduction, we shall
find
~
2mV
'
involutes.
If
we draw osculatory circles to all the points

of a curve, and conceive that a line is drawn through
the centres of all these
circles, this latter line will
be the so-called evolute of
the given curve, and this

47.
given curve will then be

called its involute.
Thus
abed . . . (Pig. 22) is the
evolute of which ABCD
. . . is the involute.
The radii of the oscula
tory circles, being normal
to the given curve, have convergent directions, so
that each radius produced is intersected by its con
It is evident that the distance between
secutive.
two consecutive points of intersection constitutes
an element of the evolute, and that, therefore, the
radius of the osculatory circle is at the same time
normal to the involute, and tangent to the evolute.
The evolute may be constructed by drawing nor
mals to the curve, and then drawing a curve tan
gent to all of them ; the closer the normals, the
more accurate will be the construction.
The involute may be constructed by wrapping a
thread around the evolute, holding it tense, and
then unwrapping it. Every point of the thread will
109
/?
/9.
describe a curve, and every one of these curves will

be an involute of the given evolute.
Since the evolute passes through the centres of
curvature of the given curve, the co-ordinates of
the evolute will be those of these centres, which we
have designated (No. 45) by a and
The equation
of the evolute will therefore be found by combining
the expressions for a and with the equation of the
given curve, so as to eliminate x, y, and their differ
Wy~'
dx'
parabola
shall have to make
dx
we shall find
'
= x + {f
whence
ft
p-v
whence

~.=
dx
and
---.
p\.
ft
and
values of x and
being substituted in the
equation of the curve, we shall find
These
or

and
2px, we
be the
y'
the given curve
y,
da?
If
do?
W]f dx'P-y^
<W
+
^
';
+ dJt
^
dx' dy
y* .
_.
a-X
have (No. 45)
We
entials.
110
which is the equation of the evolute of the para

bola.
the given curve were the ellipse cCif + 6V

= a'P, we would find for its evolute the equation
= (' -&*)*
If
(6/3)*
= (a"
a)*
the given curve were the hyperbola aly* Vx*

aW, we would find for its evolute the equation
(a
(&#)*
(a
a)*
If
6J)i
is
is
is
it
The length of an arc of the evolute is, in all cases,

equal to the difference between the two radii of
curvature by which
intercepted. For, as the
elements of the evolute are differentials of consecu
a sum of
tive radii, any finite arc of the evolute
measured, therefore, by
such differentials, and
the difference between the intercepting radii.
48. There is an interesting curve, the cycloid,

D
whose evolute
its involute.
C
a'
is t
^%
A/

Fig. ts
another cycloid exactly equal to
Ill
The cycloid is a curve generated by a point in the

circumference* of a circle, when the circle is rolled
along a straight line.
Let AB (Pig. 23) be the straight line, and A the
starting point. When the circle has reached the
point N, the generating point will have described
Take the origin of
the portion A M of the curve.
co-ordinates at A, and let AH = x, MH y, LN
= 2r. Then
- NH,
AH=AN
MN AJYbj
r& r sin #.
or, representing the arc
x=
On the other hand, y =

= r r cos #. Hence
cos
*=
sin

r&,
MH= PN = ON
cOS-1
- OP
J */2^?5
Substituting these values in the expression for x, we

have
X:
cos-1
7^
- V2ry - y\
which is the equation of the ascending portion of

the cycloid.
From this equation we obtain
dy
V2ry
y*
whence
da;'
2r
^
_ j'
and
dty
dx dx
_ _ 2r^/
y*
'
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS'.
112
that is,
d*y
dx'
'
To find the equation of the evolute, these values

must be put in the general expres
of -# and
sions given above (No. 45)
T dx'
,
dx*
ft 2y,
Hence
y=
dy
da>
dx*
The result will be
x=
- 2 V2ry
S+
y V
cos-1-^+ V-2rft
- p.
If
AE=a = 7zr
if
now we produce DC to A' making CA' = DC

= 2r, and we then transfer the origin to A', the new
axes being A'X' and A'C, and the new co-ordinates
and ft', we shall have for any point, as M'
a'
a',
EM'
-ft = 2r-ft',
and substituting these values in the last equation,
Tcr-a! =
cos-1
(^-^-~-) +
But
cos"1
(-

evolute
ft
ft,
2rft /?.
and x in the above
Substituting these values of
equation of the cycloid, we shall obtain for the
a
T-=A)
=*- cos-1
V2rft'
ft".
(Â)'>
113
and therefore
tit a' nr
cos
and consequently
a:'
cos
which is the equation of the evolute referred to the

new axes. This equation is of the same form, and
contains the same constant r, as the equation of the
involute. Hence the two curves are equal.
Envelopes.

49. We have
seen
how
e volutes
are formed
by
the intersections of consecutive normals drawn to

There are other
each point of their involutes.
questions whose solution depends upon the inter
section of lines varying in position, or in length, ac
cording to some given law. The simplest method
for answering such questions is the following.
Let F(x, y, a) = 0 be the equation of a curve, in
which a is an arbitrary constant, or, as it is called,
a parameter variable at will. For every particular
value of a we shall obtain a particular curve of
the class represented by this equation. If then a
and a-\-da be any two consecutive values of this
parameter, the two corresponding curves will be re
spectively represented by the equations
F(x, y,
a) 0, and
F(x,
y, a + da) = 0
and the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of

the two curves will be the values of x and y derived
from these equations.
But the second of these equations is equivalent to
114
F(x,
y, a) + da
F(x,
y, a) =
0,
a alone being supposed to vary. And since we have

already the term F(x, y, a) = 0, we shall have also
da F(x, y, a) = 0 ; and the solution of the case will
wholly depend on these two equations.
The point of intersection given by these equations

changes its position for every different value given
to a, and will describe a continuous line when a
If, then, we eliminate
varies without interruption.
a between the same equations, the resulting equa
tion <p (x, y) = 0 will be the equation of the curve
formed by the successive intersection of all the
curves derived from the equation
(x, y, a) = 0,
The
when a is supposed to vary continuously.
curve <p (x, y) = 0 will touch all the curves repre
sented by the equation F(x, y, a)=0, and
therefore, called the envelope of these curves.
Examples.
To find the envelope of a series of
== a (x
parabolas whose equation
a).
Differentiating the given equation with regard to
a, we shall find a = \x. This value substituted in
the equation gives
\x\ or = \x.
y'
if
The envelope will, therefore, consist of two straight

lines.
projectile is discharged from the point

(Fig. 24) with a constant velocity, but at different
inclinations to the horizon. To find the envelope
2.
it
describes.
of the curves
We know by mechanics that
ax-(l + a')
the path of a pro

parabola represented by the equation
jectile
is

is
1.
is,
115
in which x and y are the co-ordinates of the curve,
a the trigonometric tangent of the angle of projec

tion, and h = O V the height due to the velocity of
projection.
Differentiating
this equation with re-
2h
gard to a, we shall find a =
and this value sub-
CO
stituted in the equation will give

x*
= 4h (h
- y)
for the equation of the envelope.
A VX
This envelope is
having its focus at the point O

and its vertex at V, its parameter being = 47i.

a parabola
Given the area of a right-angled triangle, to

find the curve to which the hypotenuse is always a
tangent.
Let the given area be
2m% and let AM= x, MP

3.
= y (Fig.
25) be the co-or
dinates of a point P com

mon to the hypotenuse and
If AT a
to the curve.
be the parameter by the
variation of which the tri
angle changes its position,
we shall have
\\
Fig-
S5
VI
116
AB =
(Xi
y = (a
x) tan
ATB = (a
x)
,
Q*
whence
a'y
4m'
(a x).
Differentiating this equation with regard to a, we
find a =
and this value
equation gives
substituted in our
xy = to' /
and therefore the curve is a hyperbola referred to

its asymptotes.
50. The above theory may also be applied to the

solution of problems in which the parameter de
In this
on the variation of two quantities.
case, the data of the problem must give rise to two
equations. Let us give an example.
pends
The straight line PQ

(Fig. 26) slides between
two
Find
Y'
rectangular axes.
the envelope, or
the locus
tions.
of its intersec
For
the solution, let

AX, A The the co-ordi
nate axes. Let AP = a,
AQ =
PQ =
Then
the equation of the line
b,
PQ will
c.
be
which, for greater

thus :
convenience,
may be written
5+f".
and in which a and
are subject to the condition
&
a"
117
&"
= c\
(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2) with regard to a and

we obtain
a
whence, by eliminating da and
xyfi,
,
a'
Substituting,
obtain
b"
or
a-=-sf
b",
, y
b'x
and , = T
a'
b
in succession, these values in
(1), we
a',
and xc* = a'
b',
yc' =
a x^c',
whence
= ylcl.
b
in equation
Substituting these values of a and
(1), and reducing, we finally obtain the equation of
the envelope, which
is
xt
= c&.
+
yt
Elements of Arcs. Surfaces, and Volumes.
51. We have
if
ds = Vdx' + dy\
is
ds
an in
(No. 33) that
finitesimal element of the line referred to rectan
gular axes, we have
seen

tfy
we shall find
y (a2 + b') V and x (a" + 62) =
or
b,
118
the values of dx&nd dy being drawn from the equa

tion of the line. This equation gives the differen
tial of any arc.
The differential of an
comprised between two
secutive ordinates of
curve. Thus, if AP
BQ (Pig. 27) are two
secutive ordinates, the
area is the infinitesimal area

con
the
and
con
area
APQB will be the differen
tial of the area comprised
between the curve and the
OX. Now APQB=

Hence, denoting APQB by dA,
ydx + \dydx.
axis
and neglecting the term dydx, we shall have
dA = ydx
expression for the differential of a plane area.
If the element PQ of the curve be made to revolve
about the axis OX, it will generate an infinitesimal
element of a conical surface.
Denote it by dS. Its
expression will be

as the
dS =
2zy + 2n (y + dy) \ Vdx' + dy',
or, reducing,
dS = 2nydx' + dy';
and this is the differential of a surface of revolu
tion.
If the area APQB be made to revolve about the
axis OX, it will generate an infinitesimal element of
a conical volume. Call it dF.
Then
dV=\
ny' + (y + dyy + ny(y + dy)
dx,
or,
reducing,
119
dV = ny'dx;
and this is the differential
of a volume of revolution.
Differentials with Polar Co-ordinates.

52. Let
curve
PL
pf(f)
be the polar equation of any

(Fig. 28), the pole being at O, and OX
being the initial line.

At the point
we have p = OP, and

<p
POX.
Draw the tangent PB, the normal PC, and through

the pole O draw BQ perpendicular to the radius
vector. Then OB will be the subtangent, and OC
the subnormal, while OA perpendicular to the tan
gent will be the polar distance of the tangent.
Let ds = PQ be an infinitesimal element of the
curve.
Draw the radius vector OQ, and, with O as
120
centre, the arc PR.

may be considered
at R. Hence
The infinitesimal triangle PQR

rectilinear, and right-angled
PR
PQ? =
+ IIQ\
But PQ = ds, PR = pd<p, RQ dp ; hence, substi
tuting and extracting the root,
ds = Vdp' +
p'd<p\
Such is the differential of the arc.

Let dA be the differential of the area swept over
by the radius vector. The infinitesimal area POQ
may be considered as the area of a rectilinear tri
angle having the base OQ and the altitude PR.
Hence
i OQ x PR =
dA =
Q>
+ dp) pdf,
or, as dp disappears by the side of p,

dA =
p'df.
Such is the differential of the area.

Let V denote the angle OPB of the tangent with
the radius vector.
This angle and the angle RQP,
may be considered equal, as they differ only infinitesimally. Now
therefore
tan
Let OA =p.
V=
?p
dp
We have OA
- OP
sin
therefore
tt
p=PsmV,
or
tan
PVl + t&n'V
OP A ;
121
Substituting the value of tan V, and reducing, we

have
+ p'df
VdP*
'
Such is the polar distance of the tangent.

Let S. T denote the subtangent.
We have
S. T OB=OP. tan V,
or
S.
T-p
dp
Let S . iV denote the subnormal.
OC: OP
OP
::
gives
OB
Let PCf=i? (Pig.
radius of
curvature of the line
PL at the point P.
Drawing OM perpen
dicular to PC pro
duced, and joining
the points O and C,
we have from the
triangle POO

29) be the
OC' = OP' +
The proportion
OB
_ f
p<d.l
dp
Fig.
S9
PC
-2 OP. PC cos OPC.
But OP cos OPC =
PM= OA=p.
Therefore
OC
= p' +
J? -2pfi.
dp
df
122
Now, if we pass from P to Q, the side OC and the

radius R will remain unchanged, p and p alone
being subject to variation. Differentiating, then,
and considering O0 and R as constants, we iind
o
= 2pdp 2Rdp, whence
R = ^-
Spirals.
53. A spiral is a plane curve generated by a
point moving on a straight line while this straight
line is uniformly revolving about a fixed point or
pole. The portion of the curve generated during
one revolution is called a spire. The law according
to which the moving point advances along the re
volving line determines the nature of the spiral.
Denoting by p the radius vector, and by <p the angle
that the radius vector makes with the initial line,
and considering p as a function of , the general
equation of a spiral will be
=/(?).
The most remarkable spirals are the spiral of

Archimedes, the parabolic spiral, the hyperbolic
spiral, and the logarithmic spiral.
54. The spiral of Archimedes is generated by a

point moving uniformly along a straight line uni
/>'
-,
radius of a measuring
=2tt.
correspond to
tp'
as the
<p',
circle (Fig. 30), and let
whence
p'
AC=
Let us take
::
tp
:
p'
<p'
formly revolving. If p and p' be two radii vectores,

and <p and
the corresponding angles, by the law
of uniform variation we shall have
P

Then p =
= a,
TW
^
p
or, making for greater simplicity
= af .
(1)

Such is the equation of the

spiral of Archimedes. Its
form is the same as that of
the equation y = ax of a
straight line passing through
the origin of co-ordinates.
This spiral may be con
structed by dividing the cir
cumference into a number of
equal parts, and the radius
into the same number of
equal parts, and then taking
as many parts of r for the
radius vector as there are
corresponding parts taken
on the circumference.
Differentiating (1) we have

Substituting this
dp = ad<p
in the general formulas of
No. 52, we shall find
ds =
ad<p
V\
dA = fafy'df,
tanV=
-\-
t =w,r'
a
8 T=cup\
123
_
S.N=a.
Fig.
SO
124
It will
remarked that the subtangent CB cor

responding to = 2n is equal to the circumference
of the measuring circle ; for a<p% becomes a(27r)'
be
Hence the area of the
triangle
= tit' = area of the circle.
55. The parabolic spiral (Fig.

f>%
cause its equation
31)
is so called be
(2)
2a<p
2ax of the
Fig. SI
^ will
Differentiating
revolution
give
and * CA =
2a X
(2), we have pdp
r,
2n,
be
and the
r*
equation
we shall have
x
-
then
becomes . Hence after
i'
and
comes
radius of the measuring circle
be the

is
of the same form as the equation

It may be con
parabola.
structed by first constructing
the parabola and then laying
off from A to D along the
circumference of
measur
ing circle any assumed ab
scissa x, and drawing from
the centre
towards D
the corresponding ordinate
Let
as a radius vector.
y"
(2s-)* = 2nr.
ABC is \r x 2r.r
=
or o = .
ad<p.
tuting this in the general formulas of No.
Substi
62, we
shall find
^ = *fyM!V}. dA = afdf,
tan
V=^=2f,
2a ") V'2ap(l+V)
'
56. The hyperbolic spiral is so called because its

equation
P<p=a
(3)
is of the same form as the equation xy m' of the

hyperbola referred to its centre and asymptotes.
From (3) we obtain
hence the radii vectores are inversely proportional

to the varying angles.
Differentiating (3), we have dp ^
Substi

tuting this in the general formulas of No. 52, we

shall find
ds =
^ VT+7',
a
dA =
?0,
V=
tan
- f,
S.T=-a, S.N=--2
<p
The equation of this spiral shows that when <p = 0,

then p = oo ; which means that the curve begins at
an infinite distance from the pole. On the other
hand, p cannot become = 0 unless <p becomes infin
ite ; and this shows that the curve can make an in
finite number of spires in approaching the pole.
126
Again, when <p = 0, the curve and its tangent are

parallel to the initial line CX, and the equation of
the polar distance of the tangent gives p = a.
Erecting at C (Fig. 82) CD = a, perpendicular to
CX, and drawing BR parallel to CX, the line DH,
if prolonged to infinity, would be the tangent in
question.
The equation tan V <p suggests the following
manner of constructing the curve by points. With
S3
Cas centre and CD=za as radius, describe a circle.
Draw the indefinite line CJ/:ind the radius CT per

pendicular to it. The arc AB, which measures the
has
angle A CB =
On CT take
length a<p
CE a<p = AB, and draw EB then from draw
TM parallel to EB. The point M will be a point
of the curve. For, by our construction, we have
<p,
EC=a
tan
CBE =
a tan C'MT =
a<p
= AB,
CMT' =
CMT'
or tan
therefore
CMT
<p
tan
tan
CMT
;
But tan CMT=
tan
<p.
hence

Fig.
= tan
V;
127
hence the point M belongs to the curve.

Other
points may be determined by the same method.
57. The logarithmic spiral is represented
by
the equation

tan
52,
a>
"
'
we
that the angle formed by the radius vec

tor and the tangent is constant, and that the trigo
nometric tangent of this angle is equal to the
modulus a of the logarithms used. In the Napier
ian system we have a I, and consequently
see
V = 45.
Since
- is
the Napierian logarithm of p, the arith
metical progression
a
will entail
a geometric
A
,6,6
1a
progression
2*
A*
,6 a
for the corresponding radii vectores.
Hence,
if
we
128
describe a circle with the radius
a'
and divide its
e"),
circumference into equal parts, and if then from its

centre we draw through each point of division in
definite straight lines, and on these lines we take
such lengths as are required in order to form a
series of radii vectores in geometrical progression

we shall determine any num

(the ratio being
ber of points belonging to the spiral.
PART II.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
58. The object of the integral calculus is to ex
plain how to pass from given differentials to the
functions from which they may be derived by dif
The functions thus obtained are
ferentiation.
called integrals, and the operation by which they
are found is called integration.
To express that a function x is the integral of dx,
we write

and the sign/ prefixed to the differential is called

the integral sign.
Integration and differentiation are inverse opera

tions. It follows, first, that, since the differential
of a polynomial is the algebraic sum of the differ
entials of its terms, the integral of a differential
polynomial must be the algebraic sum of the integ
rals of all its terms.
Secondly, since constant factors are not subject
to differentiation, they are not subject to integra
tion, and may, therefore, be written without the
sign ; thus, if a is a constant,
adx = a
I dx ax.
Thirdly, since a constant term disappears by dif

ferentiation, a constant must be added to the in
tegral obtained, to make it complete. We deter189
130
mine the value of such a constant, in each particular

case, by making it agree with the conditions of the
problem proposed ; but, as it is capable of being
determined by various arbitrary conditions, it is

commonly considered as an arbitrary constant.
Before any value has been assigned to the con
stant the integral is said to be indefinite; when
the value of the constant has been determined so
as to satisfy a particular hypothesis, the integral
is said to be particular ; and when, moreover, a
definite value has been assigned to the variable,
the integral is said to be definite.
59. The following example will show how defin

ite integrals can be obtained.
Let Sx'dx be the
function to be integrated. We already know that
d (x3) = 'ix'dx. We have therefore

and this is the incomplete
integral.
Add to it a
constant C ; then
and this is a complete integral
but it is still in
definite.
Assume now that the particular problem under

consideration requires the integral to be =0 when
x a, that is, that our integral begins at x=.a.
In this case we shall have
0= a' + C,
and consequently C= a'.
Hence we shall write
131
the letter a placed at the bottom of the sign

in
dicating the inferior limit of the integral, viz., the
place where it begins ; and the letter x at the top
of the same sign indicating the. superior limit
where the integral ends.
But, as x is still vari
able, this is a particular integral. If our problem
requires the integral to end at x b, we shall have
at last
and this will be the definite integral.

In general, if we have

assigning to the integral the limits required by the

conditions of the case, say a and b, the definite in
tegral will be expressed by
The present treatise will contain three sections.

In the first we shall explain the various methods of
integration ; in the second we shall apply the in
tegral calculus to many questions of Geometry ;
and in the third we shall solve by it various
mechanical problems.
132
SECTION L
VARIOUS METHODS FOR FINDING IN

TEGRALS.

60. Before we proceed further, let the student

be warned that, although in the differential cal
culus we can always pass, by a uniform method,
from a given function to its differential, in the in
tegral calculus we have no general method for pass
ing in all cases from a given differential to its
integral ; and for this reason we are not unfrequently compelled to make use of devices of
various kinds, the choice and employment of which
is not always exempt from difficulties.
We shall start from the fundamental formulas
which regard the simplest cases of integration ;
after which we shall explain various processes used
for the reduction of other less simple cases to forms
integrable by the same fundamental formulas.
Integration of Elementary Forms.

61. The fundamental formulas of the integral
calculus are found without labor by simply revers
ing the corresponding formulas obtained in the
differential calculus.
Thus,
since the expression
ax+i
has ax"dx for
133
its differential, we immediately see that the integral

of axndx is r
n-\-l
/**>
Therefore
% +
0.
(1)
This formula is general, whether n
be
positive or
The only case

negative, integer or fractional.
to be excepted is n =
1, because in this case
+
Cl&n '
r
n+1
becomes
7; ,
0'
and gives
no differential.
6
On the other hand, ax-ldx is not the differential

of a power, but of a logarithmic function ; for
ax-ldx = a
ad log x ; and thus
fax^dx =
I = a log x +
C.
(2)
The expression ax log adx is the differential of

a" ; hence
&
yfa'dx = ,-^log a +
(3)
'
By reversing
the differential trigonometric for

mulas of No. 17, we shall find the following :
/cos xdx sin x +
/sin
#dfo
C.
(4)
= cos x + C.
(5)
cos' a;
VfJ^.=i2inx+c.
(6)
'
= _cota; + e.
y/l^_
sin* #
(7)
INFINITESIMAL CALCULI'S.
134
^sin
^cos
xdx = vers x +
a^.r
covers x
fsmxdx = secx
/
cos1 a;
i =
/cos^rafa;
sin x
C.
cosec
(8)
+ C
(9)
c
~
x +1 6.
(v
'
(11)
v
In like manner, if we reverse the differential

formulas of No. 18, we shall find the following :

f^r=f
-*-'y
+ c-
(13)
/w^=vers~^+a
^f=i
In
these
latter
cosec~1
formulas,
y+
make
(16)
y=
<19)
for
then
dy
=^
135
dx; and by substitution and reduction
we
shall obtain the following:
/iFFW-a^T+a
C
dX
f^

dx
J vers-1
-+
=-\ covers-1 - +
_1
+ C.
sec-1
f~=t =-\ cosec-1

By these formulas
C.
^+a
(24)
C.
(25)
(26)
(27)
great number of differentials
can be integrated. We give here a few examples

for the exercise of the student.
EXAMPLES.
1.
dy xdx,
2.
,
adx
dy
3.
dy = ax'dx,
yz=.\x*.
,
y=
y=
2a Vx.
4.
dy = 2x^dx,
5.
dy =
y = fr*,
y = ^x-^,
\x-idx,
n-n
6.
di/=x-n dx,
y=
7.
dy = 2x-l dx,
y = log
8.
dy = 1 2x
dx,
y=
x'- log x.
9.
*
dy
cos
y = atln
axfcr,
y
"=
y=
sin 2x.
?/=
2 tan
dy = 2
11.
dy =
12.
<Zt/
13.
dy = x
cos (2a;)
(|)
CO,'
dz,
Ida;,
y=
d#
16.
dy=0^{,
dy =
(x>).
log a
vers (a#)-
covers
x
^
= isin-12ir.
= cos-1
(a;').
= itan-'(^.
- -^j=î
15.
J/
i/f-3^'
,
14 tfy =
cos
,, sin x
y= -a
= sin (a#) (te,
10.

136
dec
1Tdy=m^,
2/
=*
2xdx
19-
2<&r
y=
=ia
sin
A^^
dft
22.
=-3-,
dy
* = ,
1 + sin a;
2S.dy =
cos
~.
1
cl
/#a
V5\
/a;
y = *os"
*V
a;
21-
cofl2-
2dx
-to.
^=~4+^'
nA
vers
137
(2 cos
...
(sin
^
tan-1
'
tan 'a1.
2/=:,
log a
In

the above examples we have omitted the arbi

trary constant, as it had no bearing on the work
proposed.
62. When the fundamental formulas above given

are used for the successive integration of differ
entials of the second, third, or any higher order, a
constant is to be added at each integration.
Thus, if the expression
d'v
^ = ax is to be
integrat
first multiply both its members by dx, which

gives us
ed, we
= axdx, or rather d
= axdx.
138
Integrating this, and adding a constant, we have

as?
d'y _
~
+C2
da?
Multiplying this first integral by dx, we have
and integrating, and adding a new constant,
dx
Multiplying this second integral by dx, integrating,

and adding a third constant, we shall at last obtain
is,
is a general rule that every complete integral

must contain as many arbitrary constants as there
have been successive integrations performed for
of course, to be de
obtaining it. Each constant
termined by taking the integral between the limits
required by the particular conditions of the problem
to be solved.
63. When the proposed differential
is
Reduction of Differentials to an Elementary

Form.
not in the
it
form required for integration,

may often be re
duced to a proper form by some simple algebraic
Thus the differential
process.
(a'

It
xjdx
INFINITESIMAL CALCUL
will
139
US.
reduced to an integrable form by perform

ing the operation indicated by the exponent of the
We shall then have
parenthesis.
{a,
+ x,ydx =
[a'
2a
V + O dx = a\z + ^
Thus also the differential

CL
SO
will
\x\
be properly
As
a
'
'
4- ax 4- a*
=
ax
(x'
reduced by division.
a' +
x/J
dx,
be
hence
_=-_-_-'*- log (a-s).

(ojj-J)x)dx
a'+x7
we might
'
we had a differential of the form
into its parts by writing
adx
a?
a' +
bxdx
a"
+ ar
ic
whence
/(a
In like
+ bx) dx

If
manner the differential
xdx
V2ax x'
will
be
reduced to two integrable terms by simply
IXFISITESIXA L CALCUL US.
140
adding and subtracting the quantity a in its nume

rator. We obtain thus
adx
xdx
V2ax
V2ax x"
(a x)dx
V2ax x7
_
x7
'
whence
/xdx
j=
V2ax x'
= a vers
.
1
x
-
V2ax
x7.
The differential
dx Vaf a'
x
may be reduced to an integrable form by multiply
ing its numerator and its denominator by Vx' a'.
We thus obtain
dx
vV
a'
x'-a'

x Vx*
- tf
,
dx
xdx
Vx*
a'dx
a'
- a'
x Vaf
'
whence
dx
Vx* a" a sec-1
64. Sometimes a differential is reduced to an in

tegrable form by the introduction
variable.
Let
dp = x2
If
i a -4- xdx.
we make a + x = z, whence dx
we obtain
dp =
(z
of an auxiliary
af zi
dz,
dz, x, = (z a)',
141
which, being developed, gives
dy =
(z*
2az%
y=
\A
- \a + \ a'zi,
and
or, replacing
zby a-\-x,
dz,
and reducing,
9/7* i
4./7
+ a'zl)
Again, let it be required to integrate the differen
tial
,
dx
whence
\x + z)dx
dx
z
(dx + dz),
d
_~ dx + dz _
~ (x + z)
x-\-z
x-\-z
Therefore
that
rdix + z)
is,
/dx

Adding
Assume x' a' = z*, whence xdx = zdz.
zdx to both members of this last equation, and
factoring, we have
formula of great use in calculus.

If we had
dx
INFIXITESIMAL CALCULUS.
142
we might
reduce
the denominator
to
the form
V (a-\- x)' a*, and the numerator dx to the form

d(a + x) ; whence by formula (28),
dx
fit
= l0g ia
+ X+ V2ax +
*'}'
(29)
which is another very useful formula.
Integration by Parts.
65. We have found (No.
that the differential

of the product uv of two variables is
12)
d (uv) = udv + vdu ;

and therefore

whence
(30)
By this formula
we are enabled to integrate the

expression udv whenever we can integrate the ex
pression vdti. This method of integration is called
integration by parts.
As a first example, let
dy = x'dx Va'
x'.
To integrate this expression, make

x' = u, and xdx Ya* x* = dv;
then
du = 2xdx, and
= $
Y (a'
a?)'.
143
Substituting these values in formula (30), we have

x'dx Vd'
- xl =
VW=3? +f2jT SW=*)\
and, by integrating the last term of this equation,
y=
fx'dx Va'-af=
- 1 V(di-x'y- ft V
(a'
- xj.
As a second example, let

dy
x log xdx.
Make log x u, and xdx = dv.

x*
;
-g
/'
and
a?
log x
-J -grxdx
==
^'o; log
a*&c
log
a;
-g
is,
that
third example, let

dy
Make
du~
of
=
dx Yd1
dx = dv.
=
;

x log xdx =
As
and formula (30) will give
â
x\
Then
a?,
^/
On the other hand,
tt
Then du =
Va*
- x'
and
144
dx Val x* =
a' x*
_ r
a'dx
afdx
hence, adding together these two equations,
J" dx Va'
x' = x Vc?
/.
-x' -f
J'
-f====
>
whence
a*
,x-
dx Va' x' = g Va' x' + g sin-1
Integration of national Fractions.

66. When a fraction whose terms are rational

and entire is to be integrated, the variable must
have a lower degree in the numerator than in the
denominator. When the degree is too high, it is
reduced by division. The quotient will then con
sist of an entire rational part, plus a remainder
divided by the denominator. Thus
x'dx
As there will
no difficulty in integrating the

entire part of the quotient, we have only to show
here how any remaining fractional part can be in
be
tegrated.
There are four cases. The first regards a fraction

whose denominator has real unequal roots, and can
be decomposed into unequal binomial factors of
The second regards a fraction
the first degree.
whose denominator has some real equal roots, and
145
contains some equal binomial factors of the first

degree. The third regards a fraction whose denom
inator has unequal imaginary roots. The fourth
regards a fraction whose denominator has some
equal imaginary roots.
All
67. First case:
real and unequal.
roots
Let
ri
(2a; 5)
dx
y^(x-1)(x-2)(x -3)'
Assume
(x-l)(x-2)(x
3)
+x
"+P
'
A,
B, and C are quantities to be determined.

Clearing of fractions, we have
where

2x-5 =
A(x~2)(x-3)+B(x-l)(x-3)+C(x-l)
(x-2).
Performing the operations indicated, and equating

the coefficients of the like powers of x, we might
obtain three equations for determining A, B, and C.
But, as our equation must be true for all values of
x, we can adopt a simpler process.
Make
x=l
then 3=2J,
and therefore
Make x=2; then 1 = B, and therefore

Make a;=3
then
= 20, and therefore
(7
A=
1.
f.
Putting these values in the assumed equation, and

multiplying both its members by dx, we shall have
(2x 5) dx
(x-1) (x-2) (x-3)
_~ _ 3
2
dx
x-1
dx
+ x^2 +
dx
^3
'
146
and integrating,
_
-2)
log (*-!)+
,
(x
2)
or finally
Vx
2)
(a?
3)
I<>g
log
(x
dx
(x
5)
(a?
1)
(x -
(2x
3),
-3
EXERCISES.
1
2/
log|(.r-l)'(.T
rt
a-4-a:
= 2^l0g^=
= log
'
,,
dy =
j'JLf
2-
<fr
3.
^tf^.
tZa;
Or*
2)sS.
ar).
(x
The existence of equal roots in the denominator

entails the existence of some factors of the form
a)n, n being the number of the equal roots, or
Now, in the decomposition of
Of the equal factors.
the given fraction, we must obtain as many partial
fractions as there are factors in the denominator.
If we were to assume, as we have done in the first
that
these
Ji
fractions
would
coa
therefore,
to obviate this, we shall assume the frac
tions
single fraction
lesce into
evident
fractions of the form
is
case,
it

68. Second case: Some roots real and equal.
and
'
'
a)n' (x a)n-v (x a)n-%
(#
147
'
"
x~^~a
Let the given differential be
+ x) dx
(x-i)
Assume
(x
(a;
+B
+x=A
(x
x2
we find
z-l
0
By dealing of fractions,
2)'
ic-g
'
1)
{x
- 1)
2)' (x
(a>
'
x^+x _
(x
dy'~(x-2y
(a?
2)
- 2)\
J. =
2,
1,
This equation being true for all values of x, we make

x and we find C=
then we make x =
and
6
1.
2)
dx
x)
dx
(a-
(x
(x' +
6dx
-l)"-(aj 2)"
2dx
a;-2â?
log
(a
log
2)
ar-2
Or
~
0
(a:
2)'
rite
1)
a;)
-+ -
(a?2
(x
Hence
-1),
1)
= logvi
and
#
^(flJ-l)'
2/~
2x +
2/r-f
x>
a;
dx
(x'~
[x* -2)dx
2)
EXERCISES.

0,
and replacing A
lastly we make # =?
=
by their values, we find B
Patting these values in our equation, and multi
plying by dx, we have
find
and
x-1
<fcr
(a?
2)
148
x-2
69. Tliirdcase: Unequal imaginary roots.
We
In this third
and x = a
1,
x = a -\-b
b*
(x
know from Algebra that imaginary roots are found

only in pairs, and that for each pair we must have
factor of the second degree which, when placed
equal to zero, will give the imaginary roots. Thus
= gives the two imaginary roots,

a)'
V
1.
is
and to determine
and
- a)' +
(x
A + Bx
by the ordinary process.
Let, for instance,
xdx
(*
+ l)(a?+l)
+
1)
l)(x' +
Bx
x' +
_A
Assume
(x
Cxi
C.
(A+B)x + A
x = Bx,
Clearing of fractions, we find

it
instead of assuming
partial
fraction for each imaginary factor of the first de
more convenient to assume for each pair
gree,
of such factors (that is, for each factor of the second
degree) a fraction of the form
case,
149
of the like powers of x,
Equating the coefficients

we find
B+C = Q, A + B = 1, A + C=0,
whence
i, = i,
C=-h
Substituting these values in the assumed equation,

and multiplying by dx, we have
xdx
(x +
xdx
dx
dx
l) (x*+i)~ 2\x' + i^ x*+i
x+
xdx
(x
+ l)
(x*
l)-
tan-1 x
(tan-1
i log
a;
1)
log (x +
+ log -^qr^)
tan-
1.
1)'
-î-1)
log
(a?
= log
tan-1^
4)
(3
1)
2)
(x'
(x
dx
1)
{x
(x
dp
1)
EXKRCISES.
2.

or
1),
and
ISFIXITLSIMAL
150
70. Fourth case
CALCULUS.
Equal Imaginary
roots.
In
this case, if n be the number of the equal roots, we

assume n fractions of the form
A + Bx
'
a)' + 6' J"
[ (x
-C+Dx
af +
[ (as
ft']"-1
'
"
" (xM+Nx0'
-af +
of the second and
thus combining the methods

third case. Let us have
Assume
_x'
(af
+ iy
A + Bx
(x' + l)"
'
+ V+_Dx
af + 1
Clearing of fractions, we obtain

af =
A + Bx +
+ Daf + C+ fix,
Caf

which gives
A=0,
-1,
C'
0,
i) = l.
Substituting these values in the assumed equa

tion and multiplying by dx, we have
x'dx
(x7
xdx
+ iy
(af
1)'
xdx
siF+i
'
whence
or
x'dx
(a'
+ !)'
2'
iil+*l0S(a;, + 1)'
(rf +
1)
'
+ log
V + 1.
151
EXERCISE.
dy =
(x
2)
2 (a?
dx
2)
^2 tan-1
+ log Vg+2
a; 1
=
We conclude that all differentials which
are ra
tional fractions can be integrated, provided the
factors of the denominator can be discovered.
Their integrals will depend on one or more of the
forms
Integration of Binomial Differentials.

71. Every binomial differential can
be
reduced

to the form
in which m, n, r, and
whole numbers, and n

positive. The reduction to this form is made by
different means, according to each particular case,
especially by the use of an auxiliary variable.
The factor A may be omitted during the integra
tion, as it represents a constant.
There are three cases in which the integration of
a binomial of the above form can be easily per
formed.
s are
r
The first case is when -e is a whole number.
1NFINITESIMAL
152
CALCULUS.
Then the binomial is rational, and can be integrated

by some of the processes already explained.
The second case is when is a whole number.
For, in this
case,
if
we assume
a + bxH =
or z
s*,
= (a -f
bx*y,
we shall have
i
whence, differentiating, and dividing by m,
and therefore

(a +ba?y>
which
x-1 dx=
expression
dz,
{^^Y
is rational
(31)
and integrable,
if
is a whole number.
The third case is when the sum

number.
For, in this
a -f bx" =
we
shall have
case,
z* of1,
if
I- n
is a whole
we assume
or z =
153
of" an (z" b) n,
and
whence, differentiating, and dividing by m,

of1'1
dx
a*
(2*
&)-n-
z"-1
dz ;
and therefore
(a
r
bxnj' of1-1 dx =
-s.
a*~' (z>
dz,
(32)
which expression is rational and integrable when
h -T is a
771
whole number.

Integration by Successive Reduction.
12. When the proposed binomial does not fall

under one of the three cases just mentioned, and
when its integration can be made to depend on
that of a simpler expression, we can, by a suc
cessive repetition of the process, make it finally de
pend on an expression integrable by some funda
mental formula.
This is the process by which
irrational differentials are integrated when they do
not allow of immediate and direct integration. It
is called the process of successive reduction.
Let
(a
+ baffzm-1 dx
be an irrational binomial differential, p being a

fractional exponent, and m and n any whole num
bers. The difficulty of proceeding to its integration
arises from the value of the exponents, which may
In the former
be either too great or too small.
INFINITESIMAL CALCL'L US.
154
cause the integration to depend on

lower exponents ; in the latter we must try to make
it depend on higher ones. Let us come to particu
case we must
lars.
First
case: To lower the exponent m
variable.
of
the
We have identically
(a
+ bxny
of1-1
tlx = x
(a
-f bxny
x "-1 dx.
Making
= u, and (a + bx*Y x*~l dx = dv,
xm~n
we shall have
Jo*)"
xm-1
dx
-ST,
and
^ nb(p+l)JX ^
ax-
consequently
Xp
a?"-1
A *
n6(jp+l)
(fe = -7-7 i-^p6 (p+
1)
Transposing the last term to the lirst member, and

reducing, we get
&(/i
x
l)J*
X'**"
!)
nb(p

or, making, for greater simplicity, a
(et
and, integrating by formula (30),
axa
(m-n)
nb(p +
r*
l)J
155
and dividing by the coefficient of the first member,
y~ X" xm-1dx =
Xp+1 xm-n
r?
-\
_
.
of1-"-1
/r Xp
\
rr -n)
a(m
,_.
dx.
(33)
of Xp af"-1 dx is
made to depend on that of X" xm-n-1 dx, where the
exponent of the variable is diminished by n units
at each application.
The formula fails when
np + m 0 ; but then the integration can be made
by formula (32).
Second case : To lower the exponent p of five bi
nomial.
By this formula
the integral
We have identically
(a
+ bxn)p = a(a +
bxn (a
bxn
X" \
bat1)"-1
+ bx*y-\
or

X' = aX"~1
wlience
fxp xm-1 dx=ajxp-1 xm-1 dx-\-b J"xp
x*"
dx.
Now, the last term of this equation can be reduced

by formula (33) ; for, changing m into m + n, and
p into p 1, and multiplying by b, that formula
gives
b
fxp~l
x"+n-1
dx=z
Xp xm
np + m
Substituting
am
np + m - fxp-1x-1
dx.
this for the last term of the above
156
equation, uniting the similar terms, and reducing,

,
we obtain
fxpxm-'dx=
(34)'
np-\-mJ
np-\-m +7^fx>-lxm-1dx.
the integral of Xp x-1 dx is

made to depend on that of Xp-l xm-l dx, where the
exponent of the binomial is diminished by unity
at each application. When np + m = 0, this for
mula fails ; but then the integration can be made
By this formula
by formula (32), as already remarked.

Third case: To increase the exponent of the
variable.
When m is negative we tnay need to diminish
it arithmetically or increase it algebraically.
To
'
do this we proceed as follows.
Reversing formula
(33), we obtain
fxp of1-n-1
dx =
Xp^
a (m
n)

bjnp + rn)
a(m
n)
This equation, by changing m into
J/>*-<&.
m
become
PX^'x
+ n, will
Xp x-n-1dx =
am
+ n)rXPx.m^dx
^(np-m
am
1
By this formula
the integral of
that of Xp
Xp
x-m-1
dx is
x-m+n-1 dx, where the

made to depend on
exponent of the variable is increased by n units at
each application.
Fourth case : To increase the exponent of the
binomial.
IXFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
157
we proceed as follows.
it,
When p is negative, and we need to increase
Reversing formula (34), we
obtain
1>
into
This equation, by changing
'
X" a--1 dx.

fx*' af-1 dx= - ~P-anp + VBf
anp
will
become
m-\-nnp
an (p1)
of1
an (p
1)
I-"'1
or-1 dx.
(36)
the integral of X-p of1-1 dx

made to depend on that of X-"+1 xm-1 dx, where the
increased by unity
exponent of the binomial
at each application.
is
is
By this formula
V2rx
x'
dx (2rx
is
- x')-i=(2r-x)-i a9-* dx.
Now, representing (2rx)-i by

with formula (33), we have
a = 2r,
whence
b=-l,
n = l,p =
X-i,
and comparing
m =
x3
i,
can be made to depend on that of

like expression,
in which the exponent
diminished by unity.
We have identically

73. The integration of the expression
i;
ISFINITESIMA L
158
(np + m) =
p-}-l
a (m n) =
q,
CA LCUL US.
i,
m n
=q
(2q 1),
i.
Substituting these values in (33), we find
afldx
If
of-1 dx
V2rx-x7
(gg
"
a?
1)
V2rx
x*-1
x*
Jf
V2rx
that
is,
X-l&-ldx =
V2rx
In like
vers
manner the integration of the expression

x9
dx
\'2rx-\-x'
is
formula ought to be changed.
is
can be made to depend on that of a like expression

in which the exponent
diminished by unit.y.
For the only difference between this case and the
now positive instead of
that
preceding one
which
and therefore
(np + m) =
negative,
shows that the signs of the second member of the
is

dx
positive, by a successive appli

cation of this formula, we ultimately arrive at the
form
be entire and
Accordingly
/a?
dx
~
V2rx + x'
x-1
_ r (2g
V2rx-\-x'
?
1)
159
dx
x*-1
'
'
V2rx+x*
Formulas (33), (Si), (35), (36), (37), (38) are called

formulas of reduction, and have a wide range of
application.
EXAMPLES.
1.
To integrate
afdx
dy =
Here we have
X= ra
- x\ a r',
By formula

fx
(33) we have,
^
x' dx=
1,
2,
for this
, m
3.
case,
- zj/ ^ dx,
that is,
/x"
dx
r'
dx
a
or
/3?
2.
cLo?/
)C
7*
4 Ob
sin-1 -
To integrate
dp = afdx Vr*
x\
Here we have
X= r' x\
= r\
1,
n=
2,
p=
3.
INFISITESIMAL CALCULUS.
160
Formula
(33) gives,
fx\
dx =
x*
that is,
fx* dx
in this case,
Vt^x* =
^-
X* dx,
- xV^-^' + r' Jdx Vl^:
To integrate the last term of this equation we

use formula (34), in which we shall make
X= i*
x\
a r', n = 2,
p = ,
m = 1.
Substituting
this in the
VF~-^x,
sin-1
preceding equation, we
have
To integrate
r7.r
d,y.
7i
2,
1,
X=
Here we have
m =
2.
sin-'
1.
3.
-f
V(f=F?+1^ VF=tf
dx Yr' x' =
2,
Jaf

dxVY~^x* =
12
Xidx = *i? + ?fx-idx,
that
is,
We obtain
By formula
161
(36) we have
that is,
or
tan
xfl5.
Integration of some Trinomial Differentials.

74. A trinomial differential of the form
xm
dx
can be made rational in terms of an auxiliary vari

When p
able, when p and m are whole numbers.
is even the expression is already rational ; when_p
is odd, then, makings = 2n-\- 1, the expression be
comes
(a
bx
z*f (a-\-bx
a?"
dx,
x*
Va + bx
x,
bx
z*
from which we shall get

2zx,
-f-
bx
x'.
in which the only irrational part is Va
positive we obtain a rational form by
When x'
assuming
is

(a-\~bx x*f
162
and
y/a
"
+ bx-\-x' =
6-
'
Tims the given expression will become rational in

terms of z, and therefore integrable. After the in
tegration it only remains to substitute for z its value
x + Va -\- bx + x\
and
i (x h) (x k) = (x
z,
a?
are the roots of the equation

a?
bx a =
0.
where
bx
ia+
7i)
When x' is negative let us assume
= (x
Kf
*>
(k
x)
h)
bx x*
(x
We then have
h)
x =
(x
or
z'.
and
^)'
'
2(k-h)zdz
(1
aX~
Thus the given expression will become rational

and integrable in terms of 2. After the integration
will only remain to substitute for its value
z
it

Hence
Ik
- .t
163
EXERCISES.
Integration by Series.
75. When an expression Xdx, in which X is a
function of x, is to be integrated, it is often con
venient and useful to develop A' into a series by
any of the known methods, and then to integrate
each term separately. This is called integration
If the series obtained be convergent for
by series.
any particular value of x, we shall obtain the ap
proximate value of the integral for that particular
value of x.
Thus, given
dx
we may, either by the binomial formula or by mere
division, obtain
^
+x
X*
+ X2
x'-\-
xdx -f x*dx
x'dx + x'dx
Whence
dx
\+x
= dx
and
/dx
1+^
a?
a?
xK
^-2+3-4
which is the expression for log
(1
+
-J-

x'
5-
x).
ISFIXITESIMAL
164
Again, given
dy =
CALCULUS.
dx
+ x'
'
we may, by simple division, obtain the series
jJL-î
whence
-r
\-\-x
= dx
x'dx +' x'dx
+1 x'dx
x*dx
and
/dx
x'
x7
x1
x*
which is the expression for tan-1 x.

In a similar manner, if we have
dx

we may obtain,
by the binomial formula,
(!-*')-* =
+
whence,
+ 2.4 +
2.4.6
2.4.6.8
multiplying by dx, and integrating,
find
/ax
W=7
dx
+ 2.3 +
=
3x^
2.4.5
&5af_ +
+ 2.4.6.7
3.5.7a;'
2.4.6.8.9
which is the expression for sin-1 x.
'
we
165
76. Let us have to integrate the general expres

sion
dy = Xdx,
X is a function
where
we have
y = Xx
of x.
-JxdX
Integrating by parts,
-J
dX_ f&
J
dX
Xx
xdx.
dx
This last term, again integrated by parts, will give
rdX
dx
xdx_^_
"
dx
'
d'X
dx
This last term will give, by the same method of in

tegration,

rx' ' d'X_

~
2
dx
rx'
2
(PX_a^
dx*
~2.3
&X_
da?
r
2.3
'
d?X
dx'
'
and continuing to integrate in the same manner, we

shall find
J^Xdx
dx '-2 + da?
'
2.3
da?
'
2.3.4
'
'
This elegant
formula, by which the integral is

obtained through successive differentiations, was
discovered by John Bernouilli, and bears his name.
.
Integration of Trigonometric Expressions.

77. Trigonometric expressions can be reduced to
integrable forms by suitable transformations based
on the correlation of trigonometric lines.
166
1.
-doc
dy
* = sin
a;
Given
we have
from trigonometry
sin x =
sin
cos
&r == 2 tan
\x
cos* &c
whence
dx
dx
sin x
tan $x cos" $x
tan
and therefore
V=f
2.
tfcg
cos" %x
a;
<Z
(tan frg)
tan $a;
~ = log(taniaO.
Given
cos
(39)
a; '

we have cos x = sin (90 x). Hence, substituting

90 x for x in (39), we shall have
y=f hv = ~ log [tan (4 _ **)]3.
y
^x
*
tan x
Given
we have
dx
tan
a;
cos xdx
sin x
(Z
(sin x) ,
'
sin a;
and therefore
dx
y=/ta*
= log(sina:)-
(40)
'
167
we have
dx
cot x
_
~
sin xdx
cos
d (cos x)
cos
,
'
whence
5.
Given
dx
dy:
we have
sin x cos x = sin
2#.
Substituting, and integrating,

sin x
/<&c
cos
6.
sin
..
(tan
#).
v
'
Given
dy =
a?
.
jr- = log
= //* -2dx
2a;
it will
be convenient
sin
cosn axftr,
to transform this differential
into an algebraic expression by assuming sin x =. s,

whence cos x = Vl z% and
dz
dx--
Vl
-z'
'
Thus we shall obtain the differential in the form

dy =
(1
z>)
3m
ds,
which can always be integrated when m-\-n is a

whole and even number (No. 71).
If m-\-n is a whole but uneven number, then
the integration may be made by formula (33) or
168
by which the exponents will be gradually

reduced till we reach some simple and elementary
(34),
form.
(33)
will
At i- zry*\m
dz =
Formula
give us
(l-W*1
.
1
m-j-n
_ tfr
Ai
m-\-nJ
1n
dz,
or
#<fa:
sin"-1 x cos"+1 #
m
w
if
sin"
we obtain
sin"-1 # cos
a;
Formula
y"(i
(34)
- 2')^
/*. _ .
/sir^^xdx.
will give us
2m <fe
+n
^m +
nj
rj
atffcr
0,
from which,
/*. __,'
_
xcosTxdx;
/sin"
m-\-nj
m 1
az>
or
x cos*
sinm+1 # cos"-1
Js'mm
.n

-f-
cos"
H,
sin"
- .
if
from which,
7"
cosn
m = 0, we obtain
,
sin x
xdx =
cosB_1
.
'
n~l
n
169
__,*
/cosn
xdx.
Integration of Logarithmic Differentials.

dy =
78. Let
be proposed
and af-1 dx
(log x)n dx
a?n-1
for integration.
= dv,
we obtain
&
<#&
Assuming (log x)n u,
dx,' and =
m
Hence, by formula (30),
ix"11 (log x)n dx =

1
.
(log
xf
fx1 (log xf-1 dx.
(43)
The formula fails

log # by 1 at each application.
for m 0 ; but then the integration is obvious.
If we reverse (43), we obtain
(log x)n-l dx =
XT
if
we change n
dx
into n, we shall have
/of1-1
(log x)n
a?
(log
1)
xm-l (log x)n dx,
xf-l
n-ljr
m
of-1 dx
(log x)-1
....
>
and,
(log a;)"
X**-1
'
(to
and by this formula we are enabled to reduce

the exponent of the denominator by
at each ap
1

By this formula we can reduce the exponent of
170
JNFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
plication.
when to =
The
0
formula fails when n = 1

and n 1, the integral becomes
/dx
#
log x
d.logx
-ilog
rc
dx
To integrate dy
[^77^.?
= 2,
whence
And,
as
e*
a;
= e*, dx =
+ 2 + 3. +
but
= ,log
n (log
v
6 rr).
1
it suffices to make log x

e*
and dy =
dz ;
.
<r^ ~H
tUe
t^z
inte~
gration is obvious.
Integration of Exponential Differentials.

dy xmaxdx
79. Let .
proposed for integration.
be
dx = dv,
ax
we obtain du mx*

Assuming
yCxm a" dx = log a - log a
fxm
At each application of this formula

x will be lowered by 1, till we reach
= u,
ax
tfrr,
xM
log a
ax dx.
'
;
(45)
v
the exponent of
the simple form
dx.
When to is negative, by reversing the formula

we
first obtain
y\.
, ,
x-1 ax
dx =
xm ax
to
log
a
S
to
r _ a:
/af
dx.
then, replacing to 1 by to, and reducing,
dx
/axxm
_~
(to
ax
1) xm-1
log a raxd,x
m^lJ
xm-1
'
)}
171
By this formula
the exponent of the denomina

tor is lowered by 1 at each application.
But the
formula fails when m = 1 ; and in this case the in
ax
tegral of
dx
is obtained by changing ax into its
sc
development
l+(loga):r+(loga)'|V(logfl)'|^+
X being a function
of x.
have
JfXa*
dX.
^- - J/12
log a
dx =
log a

dx,
dX' = X"
ax
X'ax
dX_ (log
log a
r(loga" aj
and so on.
a)'
dX,
aJL
dX" = X'"
dx,
we obtain
Jf
Integrating by parts, we
we take the successive differentials of

place
dX X'
dy = Xaxdx,
80. Let
If
-_ X"a*
(log a)'
J
_ r
J
r
Hence, by successive
ax
(log a)'
ax
(log a)'
X,
and
dx,
dX,
UjSl '
dX
substitutions, we
shall find
a.
Xax dx =
(
log a
rcf
TJ
X'
(log ay +
dX(n)
(loga)n+1-
X"
(log a)'
' '
'
X(n>
(log
)n+1
.
^47)
If X is
...
such a function that one of its differential

coefficients X', X",
is constant, then the
next differential coefficient will be =0, and the
dXw will
rî
integral will be exact.
case the
have
dy = (a?
X= a?
If)
vanish.
In
Thus,
we
if
such
-rj
/a"
dx,
ex
- h\ dX= 2xdx, X' =
X"
2,
2x, dX' = 2dx,
dX" = o. On the other hand, log = 1.

Substituting in (47), we find
then
= (7(x,-h'-2x + 2).
Integration of Total Differentials of the First

81. The total differential of
Order.
function
in which
-=-
ce
dxdx
du ,
du
dydy>
dx and 3- dy
partial differen
a are the *
dy
tials of the function. We have also
seen
whence
follows that
Ht) "Q
dx
dy
'
(No. 25,
Scholium) that the existence of an exact total dif
ferential of such
function entails the existence of
the relation
it

du =
is, as we have seen (No. 19),
u=f(x, y)
differential of the form
du = Mdx+ Ifdy
will
be an exact
are such as
173
M and N
total differential when
will satisfy
the condition
^=^^;
for, in such a case, we evidently have M^j^
If
and
dy
the condition is satisfied we may immediately

integrate the partial differential Mdx and write
u=
Y exhibiting
Mdx+
Y,
a function of y which is to be deter
mined so as to satisfy the condition
= JY.
Ac
we now differentiate our integral with

respect to y, and, dividing by dy, we have
cordingly,

du_dfMdx
dy
dy
dY=N
dy
'
whence
_ d/Mdx
~
dY=
dy
and
Tand finally
u=
dy
J ('-V->*
C
/ 'Mdx V
Ir Mdx+ Ir lN~ dfMdx\

dy'~)
V'
(48)
174
EXAMPLE.
Let
du = (2axy
3bx'y) dx
+ (ax'
bo?)
dy.
Here we have
2axy 3bx*y,
N=ax*
bo?,
whence
dx
dy
Hence our total differential is exact and immedi

ately integrable. Integrating the partial differen
tial .3/dx, we have
(2axy
3bcr\'/)
T= ax'y
bafy-\- T.
this integral with respect to y, we
Differentiating
hnd
f
dy
= ax'-bx' + d*=N,
dy
whence
|- = N-
(ax*
- bx') =
0,
and
Y-C.
bx'y
C.
u = ax'y
-f-
And therefore
du=x^^,
x'
+
O.
C.
u=
dy,
(2y-^)
u x'y*
X-
2afydy,
y*
du=d^
du = 'Sx'y'dx
y'
2.
1.
EXERCISES.
3.

dx +
= tM- xV+C.
ISFIXITESIMAL
CALCULUS.
175
Integration of the Equation Mdx + Ndy=0.
82. The implicit function
where
ax
and
-i-
differential (No. 21)
ay
(x, y)
=0
has for its
are the differential coefficients
the function taken with respect to x and y.

by iV,
the differential
the form
Mtfx
iV^y =
Now, this equation, whenever we have
will
Repre
0.
will take
by 31, and
senting
of
differential (No. 81), and may be

integrated by formula (48) but, as we have here
the integral will be n C.
du =
When by any transformation the equation can be
placed under the form
Xdx
Ydy=0,
X being a function
of x alone, and Fa function of

alone, the integral can be found by taking the
Thus
sum of the integrals of the two terms.
Ydy =
C.
Xdx
Ydx
Xdy =
0,
When the equation can be placed under the form
or under the form
XYdx + X'Y'dy =
Q,

0,
be an exact
176
the variables can be separated by division.
dx
dy
'
Y'
Thus
-grdx+y- dy = 0,
and when the variables are thus separated the in

Hence the separation
tegration becomes possible.
of the variables has been one of the main objects of
study on the part of mathematicians.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Given ydx
-^y =
0,
xdy
log
Divide by xy.
0.
Then
x- logy = C= log c;
and therefore
x
-=
y
2.
Given xy'dx
c,
or x cy.
+dy = 0.
Divide by
if
x'y =
2(Cy+l).
Then
whence
- ^,
____
Given (1
a?) ydx
vide by x'y. Then
3.
or
a?
(1
- y')
x*dyz=0.
,
1-__ dy-0,
Di
177
whence
~
~ X ~
log V +
or
I=
equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is

homogeneous with regard to the variables, that is,
when the sum of the exponents of the variables is
the same in Mas in N, the variables can be sepa
rated by the aid of an auxiliary variable. Let
83.
When
the
x'dy
y (x + y) dx
This equation being
0.
we
homogeneous,
y = zx, and
assume
therefore dy = zdx-\-xdz.
Substitut
ing these values in the equation, we have
x'zdx-j-x'dz
and, dividing by
+ x'z) dx =
(z'x'
0,
x\
xdz z'dx =
and
0,'
=
-r
Z'
X
:'
whence
log x =
In like
1-
C= C
'
;'
and y .
C log x
manner, the equation
x'
4-xt/
!
dy
''
=0
ydx
u
being homogeneous, we assume
zx, dy
= zdx + xdz,
and we find, by substitution and reduction,
178
(1
z)
dz + 2z'dx = 0, whence
and
log^=|-ilog^ = ^-log //l+C.

-f-
= dx Vx'
axfy
y'
Again, the equation
we assume
= zx, dp
zdx
xdz,
-f-
being homogeneous,
and we find, by substitution and reduction,

ô;
rZ2
s;
whence
,v
= dx
c,
j)
yi
(I
vi + 2') = log
an integral which, freed from transcendentals and

radicals, reduces to
x' = 2C1y + Cl\
-f
84. When Mdx
Ndy =
is
being an arbitrary constant.

0
xydy
#')
it
C.
a?
(.!
becomes an exact differential

2x, and gives the integral
if
?/) dx
(1
it
is
it
ferential,
possible to reduce
ferential by an integrating factor.
not an exact dif

to an exact dif
Thus
0
Cl

log x = log
(*
Accordingly
be multiplied
by
179
The multiplier 2x is termed an integrating factor.

The same equation might have been made an exact
differential
by
the
factor
integrating
'
g~jr~*\
whence
5 + r^ =
0'
and
log* + ilog(l + y*) =
6V
result identical with the preceding one, though

under a different form.
The expression Mdx + Ndy can be written as
follows :
+*(!&"- Ny)
\ (Mx + Ny)
*jf)
Since
log
y,
dy
, dx
xv
log
and
,y
s
(a)
-ity) d. log
Ny
happens to be identically =0,
Mdx + Ndy
Tr
at
Me ivy
,
=i log .
a;
;
if
Now,
Mx-\we shall have
d. log a>y+(Jfo
(Jfe + Ny)
we may write also
that is.
jx
an integrating factor.
is
is
and because the second member of this equation

an exact differentia], the first member
also one
is

dy- d.
'
dx
CALCULUS.
LXF1N1TES1MAL
180
on the contrary, Mx
identically 0, we shall have
If,
Mdx + Ndy
Ny
happens to be
is
is,
where, because the second member is an exact dif

ferential, the first member is also one ; that
j^rj^Vty
then an integrating factor.
0,
if
is
iden
neither Mx-\-Ny nor Mx Ny
equation (a) divided by Mx-\-Ny
tically =
But,
gives
,1 MxNy
Mx+Ny =idAeW+2MxTX
lg
y'
Mdx4-Ndy
(b)
case, then, the
y
as
is
is
it
or
a homo0,
of the degree
first member of
perfect differential, and the inte
grating
8 factor will be
6
Mx + Ny
Mx Ny
will also be
(b)
that
if
y,
x
-
geneous function of x and
In such
function of log
is,
Ny
function of
Mx
is
-ry- rsM
-f-
if
generally
differential,
<p
nor Mx Ny
neither
identically =
equation (a) divided by Mx Ny
is
-f
0,
Again,
if
,
x
+
id-lZy
=2~Mx^Ny-d]0SXy
,
'Mx-Ny
Mx+Ny ,
Mdx-\-Ndy
gives
1

and the last term of this equation will be an exact
(c)
181
and the first term of the second member
of this
I ' _ZV?y
ATcc
will be an exact differential if , , '
equation
H
Mx
_y
Ny
is a function of log xy, or generally of xy, that is,

if it is a homogeneous function of x and y of the
second degree, as is <p (xy). In such a case the first
member of (c) will also be an exact differential, the
integrating factor being
Mx\_ Ny
To give an example of this process of integration,

let
(x' + y*) dx xydy = 0.
Here we have
M= x' + y%
and JY xy.
Consequently
Mx
- Ny = x' + 2xy',
Mx + Ny = x\

and
Mx Ny _ x' + 2xy' ~
Mx + JSTyx*
(yV '
Hence, by formula (b),

(a?
-f- y")
_~
x'
i<Uogay +
i(l+2 ~)d.\og
Integrating this expression, we have
Jloga^ + ilog5+y|i tf.log

But, making
zi we
^1K^
|=
0.
182
r/.log
2
2a
2za
And, therefore, the whole integral will reduce
U/
'
to
As the proposed differential was homogeneous,

we might have integrated it by assuming p = zx,
according to the method explained above (No. 83).
We would thus have found dx = zxdz, whence
,
,
dx
= zdz,
and

a result identical with the preceding one, as was to

be expected.
Integration of other Differential Equations.

85. We have seen in the preceding pages that
our success in the integration of a differential fre
quently depends on our ability to give it a simpler
form. Though we have pointed out many such
cases, many others would have to be examined, if
we had to give an adequate idea of the resources
But, as this is an elemen
offered by the Calculus.
tary work, we must content ourselves with giving a
few examples of a certain number of other pro
cesses frequently adopted by analysts for the trans
formation of differentials not directly integrable.
I. Let
dp
aydx =f(x) dx.
(1)
If
183
we make y = uv, we have dy udv
+ vdu,
udv
-J-
by substitution,
vdu auvdx
=/(x)
dx.
As one of the two quantities u and

trarily assumed, take
and,
can be arbi
vdu = auvdx, or du = audx.
(2)
Then the above equation will be reduced to

(x) dx.
udv
Now, (2) gives log u = ax, or u =

substituted in (3), gives
,
eax
(3)
and this,
fix) dx
II. Let
rf(x)dx
~\
the integral required.
a)
and
assume the two equa
|-^
0,
fx-Ky
z,
To simplify this expression,

tions
an auxiliary variable, whilst

and
to be determined.
Differentiating
first of equations (2), we have
is
where
constants
- = = k'z
dx
dx
'
^M-k
dx*
-1

which
is
ff(x)dx
Whence
(2)
are
the
IXFIXITKSJMAL CALCULUS.
184
or, since z
ky, substituting and reducing,
which, compared with (1) gives k-\-k' a, and

kk' b.
Now, from the second of equations (2) we have
= k'dx,' and
z
z = e*'x+c, or z C&'*:'
hence, substituting in the first of equations (2), and

multiplying by Ux,
dy
kydx =
Ce*
dx,

an equation of the same form as the one which we

We
liave integrated in the preceding example.
shall have, therefore,
But
fCe**dx
a,
M.IV
7W
Ce<*
-*
therefore
and C, being two arbitrary constants.

This same integral could be easily obtained by
another method which deserves special notice,
owing to its simplicity and the range of its applica
tion. In the equation
Ct
185
(1)
make y = C.e**.
Then, differentiating, we have
and therefore, substituting in (1),
-4b
*,
_ a-
0.
Va' 46
2
'
Va'
2
1._a +
*~
ak
'
the
rejecting
k*
factor, 6Y,t*z,
This auxiliary equation gives
or,
-f-
-ak + b)=0,
(k'
2,
make a
Cj*x.
3,
(1), we
= C^'x
If, in
we shall find
The complete integral of differential equation of the second order must not
only satisfy that equation, but also contain two arbitrary constants (No. 62). The
= Cxek'*, and
= Cae*, satisfy equation (1) for they give
particular integrals
(?,*(*'- a*
0,
= <);
single arbitrary constant.

y
but each contains only
and
b)
- ak'
(*''
C,<?*'-
The integral
= C,e"'*+ C,e**,
Hence
= Cje*''
+Cfe"
is
our complete integral.
0.
- ak
b)
it
(*
(C,'
is
the sum of these particular integrals, contains two arbitrary constants, and
equally satisfies equation (1) for
gives
which

b,
are connected by the re

and these two values of
as in the preceding
lations
-\-k' = a, and M' =
solution. We have, therefore, two particular in
= Olekx, and
= C,ekx, which, added totegrals
*
gether, will give us for the complete integral
186
k' =
1, &
= 2; and
y=Cle"+C,t*.
III.
integral
the complete
will
be
Let
differentiating, and substi
Assuming ?/C'emx,
tuting in (1), we find
Cemx (m*
+ 13) =
4rn
0.
Solving the auxiliary equation m' 4m +

we obtain
m'
= 2 + 'dV
-1,
m"
= 2 3V
13
0,
l;
and the complete integral will be expressed by
This integral, by referring to De Moivre's formulas

(No. 26), may take the form
Ce*x
(cos 3a;
+V
e**
1
+
(C + C.) ete cos
3a;
"'^
sin
3a;)
(cos 3a;
C.e2*
+ (C
C.e**
C.)
e~**
vri
- V~\
^"^1
sin
e2"
3a;
-f-
or, replacing C + C, and (C C,) V

bitrary constants,
y = Ae^ cos
Be2x
sin
sin 3a;)
3a;,
by new ar
3a;.
the form of the integral, when the auxiliary

This
equation has two unequal imaginary roots.
is

y=Ceu.
IV. Let
dx'
dx'
dx^y
K>
187
m' to
0,
to3
-j-
Assuming y = Ct"'x, and differentiating, we find the

auxiliary equation
1.
is
O,
-j-
1
,
1,
1,
1,
to, =
to, =
the roots of which are m, =
we shall have in the
Owing to the root to, =
to, =
integral the term Ce~x. The roots to, =
will give the terms
+ C,^- But these two terms
coalesce into the single term (C,
Q) e*, where
equivalent to a single arbitrary constant,
to,
by
whereas the complete integral of (1) must contain

To remedy the defi
three arbitrary constants.
ciency, let us begin by supposing to, to differ from
small quantity h.
Then
and, developing by the exponential
formula (No.
must become less than any assign

in order to verify the equation
to, = to yet the product CJi may remain finite,
we assume
greater than any assignable quantity.
be a new arbitrary constant.
Let, then, CJi =
The complete integral will be
and, in our case, wi th to,
(C,
Csx),
to, to,
1,
Cem'x
1,
C,
Ct
if
Now, though
able quantity

24),
= Ce-*+e*(Cl+C,x).
V. Let
(1)
auxiliary variables.
sumed equations,
dx =
zef d&,
e*
dz
we have
(f
dy
xz e?z,
and being two
Differentiating the two as
and
Assume x =
c*,
IXFIXITESIJIA L CALCUL US.
188
d&,
whence
d&
d^y_
~e
dx'
dz\
_2y
W ~rd#)~af'
((Vz
'
(ty_dz_
~
dx
and suppressing the com
and (2) becomes

Cem
(m*
+m
Then
Cem'.
0.
gives to,
4/
,
But
and
e*
2.
The auxiliary equation m' -\-m 2
Hence
m2 =

To integrate this, assume
= x.
Therefore, finally,
1,
therefore, substituting,
mon factor e~',
_ 2z _
2ez
2)
2y
But
189
VI. Let
To get rid of the term mx, we shall assume
y = z + Px+Q,
P and
Q being constants to be
(2)
suitably determined.
Prom (2) we obtain
dy
_ dz
dx~
dx
p'
d%y
dx'
_ d'z
dx'
'
These values substituted in (1) give
â<gaP
+ bz + bPx +
Now, let bP m, and

be reduced to
d'z
bQ=TaP.
dz
bQ = n,x. (3)
Then (3) will
and (2) will become
y^+jST-gr-
(5)
Equation (4) will be easily integrated by the

method which we have followed in examples II
and III. When z has been found, the integral
of (1) will be known by equation (5).
VII. Let
(1)
INFINITESIMA L CAL CUL US.
190
To get rid of the term
e*, we
shall assume
y = e*(z+P%
being a constant to
From (2) we obtain
be
(2)
suitably
determined.
Substituting these values in (1), and cancelling the

common factor ex, we have
<g-2(*-l) |g+(*_l)'s + P(*-l)' = l.

Hence,
if
(3)
we make
P(*-l)'
l, orP
(Tâ,

we shall have
y=e.(2+__L_).
and
now make z emx, the integration of the last

differential equation can be made to depend on the
auxiliary equation
If we
m'
2m (k
which gives m.k

of example IV,
1)
+ (k
=m*.
1)'
= 0,
Hence,
by the rule
191
and
y e'.e*-1** (C+
Ctx)
(k-iy(k-iy
In this
d'z
j-j
(1)
1,
example,
and
if k
equation (3) reduces to
1,
P disappears.
In this
case,
equations
and (2) will become
S-2i+^
Hence,
and
integrating the equation
d'z
1,
we shall
have for this case,

|+
Cfc
C;,
and y =
e*(^ +
Cx+c).
VIII. Let
^^rey
Assume y = z +
cos ax.
where h is a constant to
be determined in view of a future

We shall have
dy
dz
d'y
dx
d*z
a*
dar
3^3
dx
dx
(1)
sin ax,
T
h
simplification.
192
Thus (1), by substitution, will become

d>z
j-z
dx
a'
,
r- cos ax 4h
n'
nz +
.
7- cos ckt
'
cos ax,
or
d'z ,
-y-i
dx +'
Take h = n'
n'
= cos ax
a%
and the equation will redu
7i
To integrate this, assume

find, by differentiation,
m'em*
a'
,
nz
+ raV" =
from wl
emx,
or i' +
0,
and therefore, m = n V 1.
method followed in example III,
tf =
0,
1
J.
cos w#
-\-
is,
Hence,
sin
wa;,
and
and
being arbitrary constants.
cos nx 4-
sin nx
+.
cos ax
-5
;
,
Integration by Elimination of Differenti
,,-M^
86. Tliere are differentials of which the inu6iai
of
can be found without direct integration.

They are
those whose form admits of
ready elimination
the differentials themselves.
We shall show by
few examples how this method can be utilized.
a

that
cos ax.
193
I. Let
Making
^=p,
dypdx, the equation
whence
becomes
a;
Differentiating
=a+
(2),
we have
7ip*.
(2)
dx = mdp
whence
or dy = mpdp
-f Znp^dp,
3np'dp,
and
y = bmp*+frip< +
C.
(3)
If we
can eliminate
between (2) and (3), we shall
have the expression of the complete integral.
n. Let

-)+
Making
^=p,
(2)"
the equation becomes
y=
mp*
+ 2np\
(2)
Differentiating (2), we have
dy = 2mpdp + 6np*dp =pdx ;

whence
dx = 2mdp + Qnpdp,
and therefore
x = 27rep +
37ip'
From this equation we have
C.
(3)
194
This value of p being placed in (2), we shall have

the complete integral of the proposed equation.
III. Let
+=
Dividing by
^ =p,
'
we obtain
y = xp +
(2)
Differentiating, dividing by dx, and reducing, we

have
m\
This equation must be satisfied either by
bya;- =
0.
If
0,
then
0,
or
and (2) be

comes
I
/7t
y=Cx
+ ^.
c
n
If
0,
then
- 1
p=
(4)
which
value sub
stituted in (2) will give

y*
= 4mx.
(5)
any arbitrary constant, that is,

solution ; * whereas equation (4) gives
an integral without
a singular
*
By lingular solutions we mean such results
as nrc not contained in, or cannot

whatever particular value be assigned to the
arbitrary constant.
They can only be obtained by differentiating the complete in
tegrals with respect ,to the constant alone, considering it as a variable parameter, as
we have done above (Nos. 49, 50), and substituting its value, in terms of the vari
be obtained from, the complete integrals,
195
the complete integral, and represents the tangents

by whose intersections the parabola y' = 4mx is
generated.
IV. Let
We write, as usual,
x-\-py
ap'
=0
(2)
(2) we have
-^
From
0.
ydp -\-pdy 2apdp =
dx
-f-
whence
(3)
Substituting
this
in (3) and reducing, we find
-x
xdp
Vl +p'
,
a
adp
Vl+p*'
of the integrals.
^/
alone, we find
ables,, in the expression
V1 +p% will take the
is
the integral of which
= apdp,
Thus, differentiating
value which will reduce (4) to
(4)
with regard to
-{p*
pdx Vl
(1
+p')
which, being divided by

form
= 4mx.
It not our purpose to discuss the relations existing between the complete in
We will simply state that, owing to such rela
tegrals and the singular solutions.
tions, as interpreted by Geometry, the latter are often called envelopes of the former.
This subject has been very deeply treated in the excellent work of Mr. George Boole
is

dx
on Differential
Equations.
MFISITESIXAL
196
Lt!
= a log
CALCULUS.
p+
1/1
C,
or
x=
(c+
a log CP +
(4)
Now, from (2) we have
_
This value of
>,
*V + 4aa?
placed in (4), will give the com
plete integral.
V. Let
ydx
Dividing by
da:,
xdy = n Vdx* +
and making
dy2.
^.=P,
(1)
as usual, we
shall have
y=px+n Vl+p\
(2)
whence
dy =pdx +
axZp
~=2
>
or, since dy=pdx,
dp(w+-^L=)
Q.
(3)
=
This equation must be satisfied either by dp
by x A
^ = 0.
If
dp = 0, then
(2) becomes
y = Ox +
7i
Vl +
6>",
0,
or
C: and
197
an integral without any arbitrary constant, repre

This solution is the
senting a singular solution.
locus of the intersections of all the straight lines
obtained by varying the constant C in the complete
integral.
Double Integrals.
87. When an infinitesimal
rectangular
sion is the infinitely small rectangle of which dx
and dy are the sides ; and thus dA = dxdy.
To find the area A, we must integrate between
proper limits with respect to each variable in suc
This double integration is indicated by
cession.
writing the sign of integration twice before the
quantity to be integrated. Thus we have the
double integral
dydx.
of these integrations can always be per
formed, so that we may have either
Then,
if
area be
xdy +
O.
or
C,
ydx
-f-
One
the equation of the line that bounds the

=/(%), or x f(y), we shall have either

area is referred to
co-ordinates, its most general expres
198
f(x)dx+C,
or
<p(y)dy
C,
that is, a function of a single variable, to be in

tegrated within proper limits, as usual.
In like manner, an infinitesimal volume may be
expressed by the product of its infinitesimal di
mensions dx, dy, dz. Hence
d V dxdydz, and V
J^J*f dxdydz,
a triple integral, to be taken between proper limits

with respect to each variable in succession. The
If it
order of the integrations is wholly arbitrary.
is found convenient to integrate first with regard to
z, the integral, between z = 0 and z z, will be
dxdy.z,

and if z = f(x, y) be the equation of the surface

that bounds the volume, then we write
and we proceed to the double integration, as we

Some examples of this
have just explained.
method of integration will be given in the following
section.
SECTION
199
II.
APPLICATION OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS

TO GEOMETRY.
88. Our object in this section is to find definite

values for the length of some curves, for their areas,
of revolution, and volumes of revolution.

The operation by which we determine the length of
a "curve, is called rectification ; no curve, however,
is properly said to be rectified, unless its length be
expressed by a finite number of algebraic terms, to
the exclusion of transcendental s. The operation by
which we determine areas and surfaces, is called
quadrature ; and the operation by which volumes
are determined, is called cubature.

surfaces
Rectification of Curves.
89. The arc
axes
will
of a curve referred to rectangular
be found by integrating between proper
limits the formula (No.
51),
ds = Vdx'+dy*.
Example I. Let the curve be a parabola y' = 2px.

Thenete =
*.
P
formula, we have
Placing this value of dx in the
200
and integrating by formulas (34) and (28),
or, taking the integral between y 0 and y = y,
*-_ y Vy'+p* +2p

2^
II. Let
Example
(No. 48), dx =
+
l0g (y
+^'\
'
Then
the curve be a cycloid.
y&y^
V2ry-y*
Placing this value of
dx in our formula, and reducing, we have
Hence
s
= V2r.2 V2r
y+C;
and taking the integral from y =

Make y =
(- 2
2r;
^27-
0toy
= y,
-iy + 2 V^r).
then * ;= 4r = one-half of the cy-
cloidal curve.
Example
III.
Let the curve be a circle.
equation of + y* = r' gives
Vr'
x*
stituting this value in our formula, we get

ds dx
Make r =
1.
\f
Then
s=J dx(l-x')~$ =
j =
Its
Sub-
201
and integrating from x 0 to x = x,
1.3.5
1.3
x +
S~x + 2.dX , +, 2.4.5 ^, +
2.4.6.7
1
90. Let
tan-1
ential will be
Its differ
be a circular arc.
a;
dx
or developing the second member of this expression

ds = dx
x' + x> x* + )
This, integrated from x = 0 to x = x, will give
s
= tan

When x =
(1
x=x
i}
then s =
1,
+ 5
.
"y
Hence this series may
serve to calculate the value of jr. However, as it

converges but slowly for = 1, the calculation has
been facilitated by the following artifice :
By trigonometry we have
tan a + tan 5
tan (a 4- b)'
1
tan a tan 6
a = tan-1 m,
Make
and
(a
6)
'
= tan-1 n,
tan-1 z = tan-1 m
tan-1 n.
Then
3
= tan ( +
But tan a =
m,
&)
and tan
m-\-n
z = - !
1
mn
tan
a+
tan & !
1
tan a tan o
b
n ; and therefore
whence =
l-\-mz
202
Now, assuming z =
m = , we find ?i = $ .
1,
There
fore
tan-1
Assuming
= tan-4 +
tan-1
= t, w = i, we find
f.
T\.
Therefore
tan-^^tan-H + tairSV
Assuming z =
^,m
tan-1
Assuming z =
fore
= h we find = A-
^=
tan-1
ft,m = h
tan-1
A=
tan-1
we find n =.
tan-1
Therefore
A-
- *h-
There
tan-1 ^y.
Hence, by successive substitutions, we at last find

tan-1 =
4 tan-1
tan-1 -fa.
Thus, if we make x = \ in the formula, we find

the value of tan-H, and in like manner, if we make
we find the value of tan-1 ^. The calcula
x=
tion of six terms for tan1!, and of two terms for
tan-1 ^b)
will
Slve tne vale o* 2 UP to tne tenfcn
decimal.
91. The differential of an arc, when expressed in

function of polar co-ordinates, is (No. 52)
ds
.=
Vdff + rW,
being the radius vector, and 
makes with the initial line. The integration will
be made as follows.
203
Example I. To find an arc of the spiral of

Archimedes. The equation of the curve is p = a<p,
a =
where
Hence
d<p
~'
and
ds = ^dp Va' + p\
Integrating by parts,
fdP
voir?
-f-^f
and the last term, integrated by formula (33), gives
Hence

and taking
from p =
the integral
to p = r,
we
have for the first spire

S
2^r^+7+2
r
or, sinoe a =
r + VV + r"
5
To obtain the length of n spires, - it suffices to

take the integral from p = 0 to p = nr.
Example II. To find the length of the curve
traced by the end B of a tense string AB (Pig. 33),
whose other end A is fixed on a circle around which
the string is being wrapped.
204
= I, and AC=r, and let E be a point

Draw ED tangent to the circle, and
on the curve.
draw the radius CD.
Fig. 33
and B
Make A CD =
the
arc
consequently,
AD = r&. Then the in
finitesimal arc ds =
described by ED will be
equal to ED x d&. But,
by the nature of the
Therefore
case, ED = AB AD = l-r&.
Let
AB
EF
ds = (l r#) d&.
Integrating from
=0
to
lS- br\
#,
we have
As a particular case, assume I = 2nr / then the

whole curve will be described when &=2it. Then

= 2aV, or s r=
Quadrature
of
Curves.
92. The differential of the area of a curve re

ferred to rectangular axes is (No. 51)
d A = ydx.
This equation, integrated between proper limits,
will
give us the area intercepted between the curve,

the axis of x, and the limiting ordinates.
Example I. Let the curve be a parabola y' = 2px.
Then dx =
whence
dA =
&
P
INFINITE SUIAL
Integrating from y =
pjo
II. Let
Example
CALCULUS.
205
to y y, we have
y
Sp
Then
the curve be a cycloid.
dx JjîL whence
\2ry
y*
V 2ry y'
Integrating by formula (37), we have
_ _ y V2ry - y' ^ Sr r ydy

2
2J Y2ry-y''
i/2ry-y
tfdy
and again, by the same formula,
ydy
Y2ry

y*
- V2ry
'
tf
+ r
'
vers-1
rf
Substituting this value in the last term of the pre

ceding equation, and taking the integral from y = 0
to y 2r, we have
,
-4
3r'
.2r
-rr- vers-1
2
3w"
This is the area of a semi-cycloid.
The area of the

whole cycloid is therefore 3w', or three times the
area of the generating circle.
Example III. Let the curve be a circle. In this
case, since
Vr* x', we have
dA - dx
whence (No. 73)
Vr*
INFIMTESIMAL
206
CALCULUS.
Taking this integral from x =
0 to
x = r, we shall
have
and therefore 4J. = ct-' for the
for a quadrant,
whole circle.
Example IV. Let the curve be the logarithmic
y = log x.
Then
dA
log xdx.
Integrating by parts, we have

log xdx x log x
I dx = x (log x
Taking this integral from x =
to x x
= x log x x +
l)-\-C.
we have

for the area extending above the axis of x, so long

as we take x > 1. But if we take the integral from
x = 0 to x = 1, then we find
[x (log x
1)
]0
that x log x x = 0 when

x = 0. Thus A = 1 is the area extending to infin
ity beneath the axis of x from x = 1 to x = 0, that
is, from ?/ = 0 to ?/ = oo .
Example V. Let the curve be the equilateral
for we know (No.
hyperbola
#3/
37)
Then y
= m'.
and integrating from
a;
to
A=m? log
hence
x = x,
x,
When m =
207
log x. Thus the Napierian

logarithms, whose modulus is 1, exhibit so many
areas taken in the hyperbola xy = 1. Hence they
are also called hyperbolic logarithms.
1,
then
93. When the curve is referred to polar co-ordi

nates, then (No 52)
dA =
In
the
and dp =
fyi'dy.
spiral of Archimedes, in which

ad<p ,
a<p ,
we have
=
dA = $a'<f*d or dA = ^ or
p*dp. dA
^ p*dp.
Integrating the first expression from <p = 0 to

2n, and the second from- p = 0 to p = r, we

2tt,
2a?ra.
55),
this
surface
becomes
INFIS1TESIMAL CALCULI'S.
208
In
da,
spiral, in which
the hyperbolic
p

and integrating from p =
to p = p,
Surfaces of Revolution.
94. The area of a surface of revolution will be

found by integrating
the
differential
expression
(No. 51)
dS = 2ny
Vdx>
Example I. Surface of a
-f dy\
The convex sur

face of a cone is generated by a straight line y = ax
revolving about the axis of x. We have, in this
case, dy = adx; hence
cone.
and integrating from x = 0 to x =
l;
7i,
dS = 2naxdx Va' +
209
2nr.
which
is
then a =
be the radius of the base
Let
S=7tah' VaF+l.
and
the common expression
dS = 2ny
hence
dx*
a;
d-ra
= 27rr<fo;
to x = 2r,
S=4xr\
the surface of the sphere.
Example III. Surface of a paraboloid of revolu
= 2px of the parabola,
tion. From the equation
V2px
dx' = 2ndx V2px -\-p'
and integrating from x =
2n
hence
dS =
we have dy
9 =
y'
which
is

^'
(r
dx;
dy = - (r
x)
in Geometry.
Example II. Surface of a sphere. From the
= V2rx x* of the circle, we have
equation
of
to x
= x,
210
Example IV. Surface generated by a cycloid
revolving about its base.
In
V2ry
the cycloid we have
y'
hence, by substitution and reduction,
dS=2nVr
ydy
\/2r y
y=2r z\
making 2r y z\ whence
or,
dy=
2zdz,
dS =
and
S=
An
4tt
V2r (2r
V2r (2rz
and
dz,
z*)
- |)
or

S = 4nV2f(2rV2r-y-$V (2r
Taking the integral from y =
-y)*) +
C.
y = 2r, and re
0 to
ducing, we get
Hence the whole surface generated
will
be =
V w1-
Solids of Revolution.
95. The volume of a solid of revolution will be
found by integrating between
differential (No. 51)
d
proper limits
the
V= Tty'dx.
Example I. Volume of the frustum of a cone.

The cone is generated by the revolution of a line
211
y= ax about the axis of

y' = aV. Substituting this
x.
Hence we have
value of y% and inte
grating from x W to x = h, we find for the volume
of the frustum
V= n %
(h>
- hn) =
no?
(V + hh' + h"),
^-^'
o
where h 7a' is the altitude of the frustum, na?h? its

lower base, na'h" its upper base, and na'hh' a
mean proportional between the two bases, accord
ing to a well-known theorem of Geometry. Mak
ing h' = 0, we find for the volume of the whole
cone,
V
T7-
Tty
Example
A
75
II.
Volume of the sphere. The equa

tion of the generating circle being y' = r' x% our
differential formula becomes
dV=n(r,-af)dx;
Example
to
x = r,
III.
We
have
hence
it
V=
(a"
#')
<&r,
x= atox
v_ 4nb'a
= a,
'
about its transverse axis.
?/'
Volume of the prolate spheroid,

which is generated by the revolution of an ellipse

whence, integrating from x =
(a'x');
212
Example
ISFISITEMMAL
CALCULUS.
IV.
Volume of the oblate spheroid,

which is generated by the revolution of an ellipse
about its conjugate axis. In this case, the differen
tial of the volume is d V = xx*dy. Now
*- =
|!(&'-y');
hence
dV=x
(b'-y>)dy,
and integrating from y = b to y =
V=
b,
tea'b
3
Example V. Volume of the paraboloid of revolu
tion. The equation of the revolving parabola being

y1 = 2px, we shall have

dV= 2npxdx,
to
x = x,
V=xpa? = ny*.ji,
which is equal to the volume of a cylinder having
the same base, and half the height of the parabo
loid.
Example VI. Volume generated by the revolu
tion of a cycloid about its base. Since, in this case,
dx=
-A
v2ry
the differential becomes
V2ry
By formula
(37)
213
y*
applied three times in succession,
we shall find
V=
i
7t
^ *
- 2y'+5ry-\-15r'
V
0
l/s
V2rp-yt+
.
Taking the integral from
2/
5r*
-j vers-1
0 to
y
*
C.
y = 2r, we have
for one-half of the volume
hence the whole volume
will
be
5Ttr'
X nr.
Other Geometrical Problems.
96. Problem I. To find the curve whose sub-

tangent is constant.
The expression for the subtangent is (No. 34)

Hence
if
a be the constant,
ydx
,
dy
_ a.
Consequently,
ay
and x = a log
"y 4- ft
This equation shows that the curve is a logarithmic.

Problem II. To find the curve whose subnormal
is constant.
The expression for the subnormal is (No. 35) ^~
Hence
if a
be the constant,
ydy =
a
dx
ydy = adx, and
= 2ax
C.
axis of x.
Problem
is
therefore a parabola whose parame

2a, and whose vertex lies anywhere on the
III.
To find the curve whose normal
constant.
The expression for the normal
is
is
ter
is
The curve
y1
-\-
Consequently,
= a, whence dx =
j/l
a be the constant,
circle having the radius a.

To find the curve whose tangent is
constant.
The expression for the tangent
is
therefore
Problem IV.
= a'.
The curve
- Cy
y*
(x
or
x Va' -y' +
C,
and integrating,
is

Hence,
if
ds
Hence
V
if
\/
215
a be the constant,
= a, whence dx =
Multiplying and dividing by

dy
dx=
a*-jf_
Va'-y*
'
2/
_T
vV
Va'
- y\
y', we find
y^y
a'V
Va'-y*
Va'-y*'
and
2aV
Va
dz
3*
a"
then
a-z/
2a
And therefore
dV
~-
yVa'-y*
Consequently
_ a w
log
Va*
a*
a*-z*
1, a Va,
= - log +.
a+
-1,log6
ga-2~2a10g a"-2*
1
2a
yt
But
Jf

/dy
whence ay =
'
- y' =
Make a'
z%,
a;
216
x=Va'-y'â log
SL+f . +
The curve of this equation is called the tractrix.

Problem V. To find the curve in which the
square of the arc is proportional to the ordinate.
The equation of condition will evidently be
s* = ay, a being a constant.
Differentiating, we
2sds ady,
have
ady
ady
whence
dx = dy
y -14p
Making a = 8r, we shall have

dx-. dy
y/2r -
whence
dy
<fo
y
v^ry
Now, this equation differs from the differential

equation of the cycloid in this only, that we have
-rr-
dx
instead of -=-
dy
It
follows that our equation
belongs to a cycloid whose vertex has the axis of x

for tangent. Hence the curve is a cycloid gene
rated by a circle whose radius is
r %.
o
217
Problem VI. To find

the curve whose evolute is
a circ'e.
Let
AB = r
(Pig. 34) be
the radius of a circle, and
let the curve start from
the point B. Let M be
a point in the curve,
whose co-ordinates are x?
and y'. Draw MT tan
gent to the circle, and
therefore normal to the
curve ; then MT\v\\\ be the radius of curvature at
the point M, as is plain from the theory of evolutes
(No. 47).
Now, the equation of the normal is (No. 35)
since the line passes through the point T,

whose co-ordinates we shall designate by a and
we shall have
assuming x = a and
ft,
ft,
(i)
MT
tangent to the circle at the point

(a, ft), we have also from the general equation of
the tangent (No. 34)
But, as
is

and
Therefore
da/
dy'
da
r\
ada
therefore
and consequently
-idfi =0,
-\-
/? =
or, omit
and
a'
%
;
since
Now,
218
ting the accents, and clearing of fractions,

ady pdx =
0.
(2)
(2)
and (3) we obtain
_~
r'dx
xdx ydy
-f-
reduces
r\
(3)
r'dy
#<&r
'
'
From
-j-
ax
to
a*
and this, owing to the relation
r\
On the other hand, equation (1) will become
ydy)* = r2 (dx'
/?
(axfcc
dy').
= a?+?/,
be the radius vector AM. Since
BMs,
we shall have pdp = xdx -{-ydy; also,
we shall have da;" + <%* =
Therefore, substi
if
Let
/>
tuting, and extracting the square root,

pdp rds
(4)
When
0,
then
= 2rs+
p=r.
C.
P*
whence
Therefore
s=
2rs
-f-
accordingly
p*

-(-
Squaring these equations, adding them together,

and changing a*
into r\ we find
r\
C=rt;
and
MAB
Let the angle
<p ;
and (4) becomes

pdp
219
then ds = Vdp* + p'dy'
= rYd[?+p'd9\
whence
rd<p
- Vp* t*
and multiplying and dividing this by

integrating,
f=
When
f 0,
Vp2
r\
and
~ i*
+ sin-1 - + C.
we have p =
r;
hence C =
*
;
and
therefore

<p
Vp*
r'
cos-1
(5)
Such is the polar equation of the curve required.

To find a corresponding equation with rectangu
lar coordinates, we may remark that equation (5)
gives
r=
cos
QVp'-r'-y),
or
r-
cos
<p
cos - Vp*
- r" + sin
<p
1
sin - Vp*
But
p*
+ y\
cos
<p
sin
<p
r".
Therefore
r')
sin
Vaf+y'-r'}
The radical Va?

co-ordinates.
presents the radius of curvature.
y'
the equation of the curve with rectangular
Such
tV +
cos
is
r=x
2/
220
r'= TM
Problem VII. A ship starting from
re
it
have
cos
AB AO'.d
r
d&,
BC = BO.dl = rdl;
CAB
m* rW\
AB BC tan
cos'
we have
(1)
a,
Since
ds*
AC2 =
r'
whence
a,

is
it
it
it
it
given lati
and
given longitude #0, cuts at
tude
given
a
meridian
which
every
through
passes.
angle
be when
has reached
In what latitude will
And where will
be when
has
longitude
travelled statute miles
Let us assume, for greater simplicity, that our
perfect sphere and that the ship finds
globe
no obstacle in its way.
Let OP = (Fig. 35) be
the radius of the globe.
AVhen the ship reaches
place A in latitude
let AC
and longitude
be the direction of its
in
course.
Taking
we
shall
finitesimal,
that is,
221
cos ).d& rdk . tan a.
(2)
This being squared, and substituted in
= fdX
eW
+1 tan' )'
(1
x
(1), we have
7-W
-
cos
hence
,
<#s
As
=0
rdl
cos a
when
(2)' we
cos a
.14- C.
cos a
(X-*o).
(3)
cos a
= tan a
obtain
cos
whence
<7.
(|
tan a log tan
hence
-*o)
then
kj
#0
#0,
|
/0
But, when
= tan a log. tan

#
-+-
(No. 77)
l)
(2
tan
j ~
= tan a log
tan
and therefore
&

From
we shall have
0
and therefore
(4)
222
tan
2
tan-1
and
*=6-*)-
tan
tan-1
This value substituted in
(3) gives
tan
2 tan-1
= 45,
J?
rr:
0.
r= 0,
2tt.
Make
tan-1
^=z.
tan-1
4-
Then e* = cot \z
Then the ship starts from the equator in the direc

tion north-east or north-west, and traverses all the
meridians. Then we have
and tak
0
.
283 85
434294
2
.
=
X
2n.\og
^z
log. cot
ing the logarithms,

(?
and the problem is solved.

As a particular case, assume
728749,
of 06'25".2.
which corresponds to the cotangent

Therefore
2
= 0
12' 50* .4,
and
223
90 0 12' 50". 4.
The ship will therefore be in latitude 89 47' 9'. 6.

Calculating the value of s and assuming the radius
of the earth = 3,960 miles, we shall find * = 8,774
miles.
The assumption
gives
oo ;
hence
the
ship can never reach the pole. Indeed, if its course

constantly makes an angle a with the meridian, it
is plain that whilst the meridian traverses the pole,
the ship must always be at either side of it.
Problems
soloed by Double
or Triple Integrals.
97. A few examples will show how geometrical

problems may be solved by double or triple inte
gration.
Problem I. A circle AMB (Fig.
the axis OZ.

To
find the surface gene
rated by the circumfer
36)
revolves
about
ence
of that circle.
Let
CM=r, CN=x,
NM=y,
and OG=R.
The distance of the point
M from the axis OZ will
be R-\-x; hence the in
finitesimal element ds of the circumference, while
describing an infinitesimal angle dd, will generate
a surface
dS= (li+x)ddds.
224
Therefore
which is in
The integral from
We integrate first with respect to

dependent both of s and of x.
d = 0 to # = 2x will be
S=2x
&,
x)ds;
J%(R +
= 2*/- (jS sin-1
- i2
between
sin-1
x=
V?
0.
integral
1)
This
sin-1
the
taking
is
and
= Inr .nR.
the area of the surface generated
by the
is
The surface of the

semi-circumference AMB.
whole ring
therefore =.2zr .2ttR.
Problem II. The axes of two equal right cir
cular cylinders intersect at right angles. To find
of the solid
common to both.
Let us take the origin of co-ordinates at the in
tersection of the axes, the one being the axis of x,
and let
the other of
be the radius of the base
of the cylinders.
will
be
the volume

And
= 2w
flf
that is,
a;')
or, since
The equations of their surfaces
225
whilst the volume of their common part will be ex

pressed by
^fffdxdydz.
Integrating first with respect to x, and reflecting

that the integral must begin from x = 0, we have
V=
ffxdydz,
or, substituting for x its value Vr* z',
V=JYdydz
Vr'
- z\
Integrating now with respect to y from y =

y = |V z1, we have
to

V=fdz (r' - z').

Integrating finally with regard to z, from z = 0 to
z = r, we have
3
This is one-eighth of the intercepted solid.

whole is = -=-
Problem
The
III.
To find the volume of the ellip

soid with unequal axes, whose equation is
* X.tji-i-l
226
The general formula
V=
fff
dxdydz
being integrated from 2 = 0 to z z, then substi

tuting for z its value, we have
Integrating with respect to y, we have

/}? (a*
f?
Ir ft'te'-aQ
_ X*)
a*
_ b2(a'-x2)
y"dy
5
av
aV
?/
6' (a' x")
And, taking the integral from y =

b
Va'
0 to
x'
and reducing,
dir.
This, integrated from x =
_ n be
I' a*
'
227
to x = a, will give
_ it
2a'
~3~2'
dbc
'
and, as this volume is only one-eighth of the whole

ellipsoid, the entire volume will be
3

If a b
'
= c, the ellipsoid becomes a sphere, and
228
SECTION III.
APPLICATION OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS

TO MECHANICS.

98. Before attempting the solution of any me
chanical problem, it is necessary to give an exact

definition of Force. This word Force is often pro
miscuously used as synonymous .with quantity of
action, quantity of movement, quantity of pres
sure, quantity of acceleration, etc.. and a great
deal of confusion has been created by this loose
employment of the word.
When an agent exerts its power to produce or
modify movement, it acts; and the quantity of its
action is a dynamical force, which is measured by
the change that would be produced in the quantity
of movement if the action lasted for a second of
time.
A quantity of movement is
force; it is measured by the
kinematic or kinetic
product of the actual
velocity of the movement into the mass in motion.
A quantity of pressure is a statical force ; it is
measured by the quantity of movement that the
pressing mass would acquire in the unit of time if
all obstacle to motion were suppressed.
Though a body in movement can do work, as we
shall explain, yet movement, as such, is not a
a
229
force, but only a change of position due to an exer

tion of power. Velocity is the act or form of
movement ; hence, when a body moves with a con
stant velocity, its movement is said to be uniform.
Velocity has intensity, but the space measured by
Time is the actual
the body has only extension.
ity, or duration, of movement ; and if the movement
be uniform, time is the ratio of its extension to its
intensity, that is, the ratio of the space measured
to the velocity with which it is measured.
Velocity, on the other hand, is measured and ex
pressed by the length which it causes to be meas
ured in the unit of time ; in other words, the
intensity of the movement is measured by its ex
tension in the unit of time.
Hence, if the velocity
v remains unaltered, the space s measured in a
number t of seconds, will be s vt.

Velocity is always gradually acquired, or grad

ually lost, through a series of infinitesimal incre
ments or decrements corresponding to the series of
infinitesimal instants during which the body is
acted upon. This is true even in the case of the
so-called instantaneous forces, v. gr., in the com
munication of velocity by impact. Even in this

case, the action is really continuous ; and the only
reason why it is called instantaneous is, that its
continuation is too short to allow us to value ex
actly its duration. This short duration we often
call an instant, though it is a finite length of time,
and comprises a series of infinitesimal instants. It
follows, that all velocity is gradually acquired, or
lost, by infinitesimal degrees, through some con
tinuous exertion of power. It also follows, that a
constant continuous action, all other things being
230
equal, is proportional
to the
length of time during
If, then, an agent

which it is allowed to continue.
by its continuous action is competent to impart to
a body a velocity v in the unit of time, the same
agent, all other things remaining equal, will in the
instant dt impart a velocity vdt ; for 1 : dt : : v : vdt.
Let us conceive a free material point, which
under the continuous action of an agent A meas
ures a space a; in a time t, and at the end of this
time has a velocity v. If left to itself, the point
will, with this velocity, measure in the following
infinitesimal instant dt an infinitesimal space dx ;
and as movement during an infinitesimal instant
cannot but be uniform, we must have

dx = vdt,' and
^.
dt
But, if the agent A continues to act after the time

t, then the velocity v in the instant dt will undergo
an infinitesimal change dv. Let, then, a represent
the intensity of the action at the end of the time t,
Since this action will in the instant dt produce the
change dv, we shall have
adt = dv, or a
dv : : 1
dt
which means that the actions, all other things

being equal, are proportional to their duration.
From adt = dv, we have
a=
dv
m,
or a =
d?x
w,
which is the general expression of the action that

modifies the velocity of the movement.
Its effort
is called acceleration.
231
If, instead of
one point, we have a mass contain

of points, and if the agent A acts
ing a number
equally on each of them, its total action will be
,.-
-,r
dm
Ma=Mm
,r
d?x
Mw>
and this is called a dynamical force, or better,

quantity of the action after the time t. It is
product of the acceleration into the mass of
body acted on.
The quantity of movement of the mass M at
end of the time t, is evidently

Mv, or
M^
the
the
the
the
and this is a kinetic force. It is the product of the

mass into its velocity.
The quantity of pressure, or the statical force, is
expressed by Mv like the kinetic force, v represent
ing the velocity which the mass M would acquire
in a second of time, if no obstacle existed. It is
the product of the mass into its virtual velocity.
Work.
99. A body moving under a continuous resist

ance is said to do work. The work is by so much
the greater according as a greater mass measures a
greater space under a greater resistance. Hence
the unit of work will be the work done by the unit
of mass, measuring the unit of space, under a unit
of resistance ; and, if m be any mass, R the resist
ance,
have
8 the
space measured,
W m.R.
S.
the work, we shall
232
are going to show that, if u be the initial

velocity of the mass m, the total work which this
mass can do, is always = \mv?.
When the moving mass, after a time t, has
measured a space x, its velocity may be expressed
We
dice
;
and the resistance, which is an action modi
fying that velocity, and opposed to
product
m, dx, and
of the three factors,
work
will be the
to the instant dt,
corresponding
o
dW
Hence the infinitesimal
pressed by
d,x
will be ex-
it,
by
d?x
^r
dW=
mdx
Therefore
dt
Integrating this, we have
we
Therefore C= \mv?.
W=
When
the
total
have
n
-im (dx\
{dt)+a
.
W=
and
cLcc
^7
= u.
Hence
%mu?
km
work has been
Therefore the total work
done,
then
is
0,
when
But,
0,
d'x
W=-mJ df-di
0.
%mu\
The total work of which a mass

capable is
often designated by the name of energy, or work
is

rdx
stored up in the mass m.
INFINITESIMAL
Example
CALCULUS.
233
I.
Work under constant resistance.

A body m is thrown up vertically with an initial
velocity u. The resistance is here the action of
gravity, which we represent by the letter g. Hence
we have
Multiplying both members of this equation by dx,

and integrating,
When t =
0,'
dx
we have x 0,' and -jn u.
dt
There-

fore C = $u*; and
But, when the whole work is done,

and x=S.
by m,
Therefore
gS=\u\
m.g.S=
Example
II.
or,
then
dx
0,
multiplying
kmu*.
Work tinder a resistance varying

in the inverse ratio of tlie squared distances. Let
a mass m with the initial velocity u recede from a
centre of attraction whose action at the unit of dis
Let a be the
tance we shall designate by A.
original distance of m from the centre of attrac
tion.
Then, every particle of the mass m, after a
time t, will be subject to a resistance or retardation
234
A
dt' ~(a + x?
d'x
'
Hence
Adx
dx d'x _
dt ~dt~~ (a + x)'
When x =
\dt)
= u:'
we have
0,'
(dxY ~
'
hence
dt
Substituting, and reducing,
1
(dxY
\dt)
_ iU,
.
n
+
a+x
C=
'a
Ax
a(a+x)
When the whole work has been done,' then

and x = S.
sr =
dt
0,
Hence
iu
~a(a + S)
'

and multiplying by m,
a(a + S)
where the resistance
between the initial resistance

sistance
:^
(a + sy
-.
Examplk
is a geometrical mean
.
ft
and the final re
III.
-Res/stance proportional to the

velocity of the movement. In this case, if a be a
constant, we shall have
d'x
dx
d'x
j7 =
dt
x=
When
then
0,
ax +'
u;
235
G.
hence
Cu;
and
therefore
'
dt
whence
As 2 =
gives
a;
0,
hence
log .
There
fore
1
ax

When the whole work has been done, then

x= 8=
and t =
It
oo .
^-
would, therefore,
0,
take
infinite time to measure the finite space S, and to

exhaust the velocity u.
Introducing the value
into the general
equation
find R = \au. Thus the mean resistance is here
an arithmetical mean between the initial resistance
au and the final resistance zero. Therefore the
mass m would, under a constant resistance \au
we
measure the space
S=
INFIMTESIMAL
236
Example
IV.
Resistance proportional to the

In this case, if a be a constant,
space measured.
we have
_
_-ax,
d*x
When x =
0,'
CALCULUS.
dx d'x -_
dtat-
then -^-.u.
dt
Hence
ucdx,
0=u\
There-
fore
When the whole work has been done,' then

x=
=.
Va
8.
dt
= 0,'
Hence
m.S.R=m Generated on 2015-06-02 02:42 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015063880952

dX
-37
Va
R = %mu*
and therefore R \u\fa. This mean resistance is

an arithmetical mean between the initial resistance
zero and the final resistance u Va.
It may be observed that the
/dx\*
{dl)=u-ax
which, when x =
integration
glves
S=
Va
reduces
to
of
237
sin_1l
2Va
Va
This shows that the time employed in doing the

whole work would be independent of the initial
velocity, and of the space measured.
Uniformly Varied.
Movement
100. When the velocity of
a mass m increases
or decreases uniformly, its movement is uniformly

accelerated or retarded ; which implies that the
action, under which the movement varies, must be
constant. Assume m = l, and let the accelerating
action be g. Then the equation of the movement
will
be
-37-,
= g ; whence
and s = igt' + Ct +
C,
being the space measured at the end of the time

ds
t. The constant C is what the velocity
becomes
-^
s
t.
is
0.
is
that
= 0;
t,
gt
is,
the initial velocity.

will be =
Hence, if there be no initial velocity,
=
what
The constant C
becomes when
that is, 0" is the initial space, or a space already
measured before the beginning of the time
Hence, when the space is reckoned from the begin
will be =0. Supposing
ning of the time
therefore (7=0 and C =
in the above equations,
the velocity
acquired in the time will be
when

g =gt + 0,
(1)
INFIXITESIMAL CALCULUS.
238
and the space traversed in the same time

s
= igf.
(2)
This last equation, being multiplied by

2gs = g't\ or
= 2gs, and v = V2gs,
(3)
is,
0'
2g, gives
is
s
is
s,
is
that
the velocity acquired or lost by a body
while measuring a space
with uniformly accele
rated or retarded movement,
equal to the square
root of twice the product of such space into the
accelerating or retarding action. Such velocity
whilst
styled the velocity due to the space
itself
called the space due to the velocity v.
Movement not Uniformly
Varied.
in general, varies inversely as the squared distances

of the bodies attracted. Let be the radius of the
g
the intensity of its attraction at its surface,

earth,
the intensity of its attraction at a distance s.
g'
r'
-,.
whence
g'
r*
::
Then
g'
We shall have, therefore,

d's _
r'

101. The attraction of the earth, and of planets
where the second member has the negative sign,

because the action tends to diminish the dis
tance s.
Multiplying
this by
and integrating,
2ds,
239
we
have
Let
=h
when
i=0
then
ds
0,
and
hence
(S'-wG-i)-
Such is the velocity acquired by the body while

falling from the original height h to the height s.
Let h = oo , and * = r. Then equation (1) be
comes

and, as
gr
= 2gr,
hence
32.088 feet,
r=
= V2gr,
20,923,596
feet, we shall
find
v
36,644 feet.
Thus a body falling upon the earth from an in

finite distance would reach its surface with a veloc
ity of nearly 7 miles a second.
attraction of the sun at its surface is
g = 890. 1 6 feet, and its radius is r = 430,854 . 5 miles.
With these data, we find that a body falling upon
the sun from an infinite distance would have a final
velocity of about 381 miles per second.
From equation (1), extracting the root, and tak
ing the negative signs (as ds diminishes when dt
The
240
INFIX ITES IMA L
CALCULUS.
increases), we obtain
dt--J
dsVs
a/
which may be written thus,"

h
Hence
,
2s

But, when t =
0,
we have s = h.
Therefore
And therefore
This equation, when s = r, will give the time re

quired for a body to fall from a distance h to the
surface of the attracting body.
The mean distance of the moon from the earth is
The time re
60r, r being the radius of the earth.
quired for a body to fall from the moon to the
earth would be t = 417,881 seconds, that is to say,
4 days, 19 hours, 56 minutes, and 21 seconds.
241
Composition and Decomposition of Forces.
102. Before we proceed further, we must say

few words on the composition and decomposition

of forces.
Dynamical forces are usually repre
sented by lines proportional to the velocities which
they impart in the unit of time ; kinetic forces by
lines proportional to the spaces measured in the
unit of time ; statical forces by lines proportional
to the spaces that would be measured in the unit
of time, if no obstacle existed.
Let two equal forces P and P (Fig. 37) be applied
to a point A, and let them make with each other an
If we
angle PAP = 2x.
can find a single force R,
which applied to A will
produce the same effect as
the two forces P, this new a
force will be called the re
sultant of the forces P,
whilst the forces
P will be
The resultant will evidently lie in

its components.
the plane of its compcnents ; and when the two
components are equal, it will bisect their angle.
The value of the resultant depends both on the
intensity of its components, and on the angle at
which they meet. Hence the resultant R of the
two equal forces P may be expressed by
R = 2Pf(x),
f(x)
being a trigonometric function of the angle x.

This function is easily determined. For we know,
that when x 0, the resultant is R 2P. Hence
/(0) = 1. We know, also, that when x 60, the
242
resultant is R = P. Hence /(60) = J. We know

in like manner, that when x = 90, the resultant is
R 0, as the two forces then neutralize each other.
Hence
Now, the only trigonometric
(90) = 0.
function which can satisfy these conditions is the
cosine of x; for
cos0
= l,
cos60 =
cos 90 = 0.
Therefore the resultant of the two equal forces
R = 2P
is
cos x.
which will intersect AR at right

angles in D, we have AD = P cos x ; and there
fore R = 2AD AR. Thus the resultant is repre
sented as to its intensity -and direction by the
diagonal of the rhombus constructed on the two
equal components.
Drawing
PP.

103. Let now two unequal forces

at
applied to the point
right angles (Fig. 38), and
let x and y be the angles
which the resultant shall
make with P and Q respec
tively.
If P
be
conceived
as
and Q be
Fig.
SS
resultant of two equal forces

p that make with it an angle
x, one of these components will lie in the direction
of the resultant, and the other in the direction Ap.
If, in like manner, Q be conceived as a resultant of
two equal forces q that make with it an angle y,
one of these components will lie in the direction of
243
the resultant, and the other in the direction Aq.

And we shall have (No. 102)
P 2p cos x,
2q cos
y.
Now, evidently, the resultant is the sum of the two

forces p and q which lie in its direction, while the
other two forces p and q which lie in the direction
Ap and Aq, are directly opposite, and must neu
tralize each other. Therefore p =q, and R 2p2q.
Hence
cos x
or
cos x =
P,
cos y
R cos y =
Q.
Squaring these equations, adding them together and

remarking that in our case cos y = sin x, we obtain

R' =
P' +
Q',
that is, the resultant of two forces meeting at a

right angle is the diagonal of the rectangle con
structed on its components.
If
and Q do not form a right

the forces
as the diagonal
angle (Fig. 39), then considering
104.
P
_
of a rectangle of which
n
one side Ap lies on the
Q
resultant, and Q as the
!
diagonal of a rectangle
!
of which one side Aq
Q
lies on the resultant,
1
then the resultant will fi
be the sum of Ap and
Aq, and the other components Ap' and Aq' will be
opposite and destroy each other. Now, if x and y
244
be the angles
that
and Q make with the result
ant, we shall have
R = Ap +
Squaring,
1
sin* x,
Aq
cos x 4- Q cos y.
and changing cos" x and

and 1 sin3 y, we have
2? =
P'-f #'-P"
But,
as
sin' y+2PQ cos
sin'
Ap' = Aq', we have P/i =
cos' y into
sin x Q sin
cos
or
Qq,
y/
hence
P" sin' x= PQ sin
a?
sin y =
Q* sin2
and
P" sin'
a: +<2"
sin" y
= 2PQ
sin
a;
sin
/.
Theref ( >re, substituting,

-f-
2P$
(cos x cos
sin x sin y),
+ 2P
cos (x
P2 = P2
2/)
or finally
which
the expression for the diagonal of
paral
contain the angle
lelogram whose sides P and
x -f- y. Hence the resultant of two forces meeting
at any angle is the diagonal
the parallelogram
constructed on those forces as sides.
When the forces are more than two, their resxiltant is obtained by successive compositions. On the
other hand, every resultant can be resolved into
for the same line
components, in many manners
may be the diagonal of many different parallel;
<
is

R* = P" -j-
ograms.
245
Moments.
105. Let
rigid rod AB (Fig.
40) be acted on
by a force P applied ;it A, and by a force Q ap

plied at B. If the direcFig. 40
tions of PA and QB con
verge towards a point M,
we may, without altering
the system, apply the two
forces
at M, and find
their resultant MN. Pro
longing MN towards R,
and taking OR = MN,
/
line
the
Pi
OR will represent
the resultant of P and Q
applied to the rod at the
point O, and producing
the same effect as the
forces P and Q applied at

and B.
To determine the posi
tion of the point O on the rod, draw NH and Op
perpendicular to AM, also NK and Oq perpendic
ular to BM. The similar triangles NPH and NQK
will give
NH: NK:: NP
NQ :: Q
P.
On the other hand
NH: NK::
therefore
Op
Q :: Oq
Oq
Op
or making Op =p, and Oq q,
::
p, whence Pp =
Qq.
246
If
and Q were parallel, we could,

without altering the system, apply at the extremi
ties A and B of the rod (Fig 41) the equal and op
posite forces AX and BX, which being com
pounded with P and Q respectively, would give the
two converging resultants
AP' and BQ'. These re
sultants would now be
transferred along their
direction to M, and de
composed there, the first
into P and MX, the sec
ond into Q and MX; and
the forces
MX
de
there
since the forces

stroy each other,
Q,
:
:
Q'
P'.Op' = Q'.Oq'.
But the similar triangles AOp' and
P:
P'r.Op' OA,
:

Q.
is,
would remain only

and Q; that
the resul tant would be P +
Prolonging MP towards
B, and taking OB =
P + the force OB ap
plied to the rod at the
will produce the
point
same effect as the two forces P and
applied
at A and B.
To determine the position of the point
on the
rod, draw Op' perpendicular to AM, and Oq' per
pendicular to BM. Then, by the preceding de
monstration, P'
and
Oq' Op'
PAP'
give
247
and the similar triangles BOq' and QBQ' give
Q:Q'::Og'
OB;
therefore
P.OA
P.Op',
and Q.OB = Q'.Oq'.
Hence we have also
P. OA = Q.OB,
or, making
OA=p, OB
= q,
Pp=Qq,

as in the preceding case.
The products Pp and Qq are called moments.

Hence the moment of a force with respect to a
point O is the product of the force into the perpen
dicular drawn from O to the line of its action. The
moment is the expression of the effort with which
a force tends to turn, the rod about the point O,
when this point is fixed. In this case, the fixity of
the point O will neutralize the resultant of the ac
tions ; and the equality of the moments Pp and Qq
shows that the efforts of the forces P and Q balance
each other, and that the rod is in equilibrium.
When the forces P and Q are parallel, their re
sultant is parallel to them, as is evident from the
mode of its construction ; and the same is true of
the resultant of any number of parallel forces.
106. When two forces, or more, act in the
same
plane on the same point, the moment of the re

sultant taken with respect to a fixed point is equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments of its compo
nents with respect to the same fixed point.
2-48
P and
(Fig. 42) be two forces acting on the

point A, and let R be their resultant. Let AO be
a rigid rod which can re
volve about the fixed point
0. This point O will then
be styled the centre of mo
Draw Op, Oq, Or
ments.
perpendicular to AP, AQ,
AH respectively. Denote
the angle BAP by a, RAQ
(or its equal ARP) by
we have from the
Since PR =
and RAO by
PR the equations
triangles APJY and
Q
Q,
sin
/?
cos
RQ
/3
If
-4-
P sin

+ sin
cos
/?
(sin

sm(f +
Or
3*
But
Or =
Op
=p,
Oq =
Rr = Pp
and reducing, we have

Qq,
q,
substituting in the preceding equation, making

r,

<p,
a.
and the second by

and adding together the results, we find
Multiplying the first by sin

cos
cos
a,

WFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
249
as was to be proved. And, if we regard Q as a re

sultant of two forces, and these again as the
resultants of other forces, our conclusion can be
extended to any number of concurrent forces acting in the same plane, and thus we may write in
general
Rr = Pp + P'p' + P"p" + P"'p"' +
within the angle formed

by the resultant and any of its components, then
the moments of such components are negative ; for
When the point
O lies
sin (f a) is then negative.

Hence the above sum
of moments is algebraical, not arithmetical.
Virtual Moments.
107. When two forces
extremities
and Q applied at the
AB
(Pig. 43) are

in equilibrium about the
fixed point O, if the equi
librium be disturbed or
by an ex
endangered
traneous force, the points
A and B will describe, or
tend to describe, similar
arcs A A' and BB' about
the point O ; and we shall
have the proportion
the lever

A and B of
Fig, is
A A1 BB'r.OA
:
OB.
Projecting A A' on the direction of P, and BB' on

the direction of Q, we shall have also
Aa
Bb-.-.AA'
BB'
250
and therefore
Aa: Bbr.OA
and because OA
OB::Q
P,
Aa: Bbv.Q: P,
OB;
therefore
P.Aa = Q.Bb.
or
The lines Aa and Bb represent the so-called

virtual velocities of the forces P and Q. Not that
these forces have any velocity at all, but because
Aa and Bb are the measure of the virtual velocities
which rule the ascent or descent of the points of
application of the forces. The former, Aa, which
falls on AP is considered positive ; the latter Bb
which falls on the prolongation of BQ is taken as
The products P.Aa, and Q.Bb are
negative.
called the virtual moments of P and Q.
The virtual moments of P, Q, and their resultant
R (Fig. 42) are P.Ap, Q.Aq, R.Ar. Resuming
the equations
Q cos
/?
sin
/3
multiplying the first by
P cos a,
P sin a,
f,
the second by sin

and subtracting the second from the first, we find
(cos
sin
cos
sin
sin
00s
ylr
2o'
cos W
cos
+/?)
An
2lo
'
But
-f-
(y>
cos
=P
a)
cos
a)
or
f)
f + sin
/9
(cos a cos
tpy
9?)
y>
/9
tp
cos
(^
cos

cOS
251
(f + 0 = -^.
Substituting in the preceding equation, and reduc

ing, we have
R.Ar P. Ap + Q.Aq;
that is, the virtual moment of the resultant is equal
to the algebraic sum of the virtual moments of its
This conclusion extends to the re
components.
sultant of any number of forces that lie in the same
plane.
The virtual velocities Ar, Ap, Aq, etc., are
usually represented by 3r, dp, Sq, etc. Hence we
may write, in general,

fidr = Pdp + P'dp' + P"8p" +
where the character d denotes an infinitesimal vari

ation corresponding to an infinitesimal instant dt.
The point O with regard to which the virtual
moments are taken, is the centre of the virtual
moments.
When the algebraic sum of the virtual
moments of the forces is =0, the system evidently
is in equilibrium about the point O.
Attraction of a Sphere on a Material Point.

108. Let C(Fig. 44) be the centre of a spherical
shell of infinitesimal thick
and
a material
point at some distance
from the shell.
If the
mass of the shell be de
noted by m, the mass of
the infinitesimal zone AB,
whose centre lies at a dis
tance CD x from the centre
ness,
of the shell, will
252
be expressed by dm =
being the radius of
the shell. The

upon the point
action of this infinitesimal mass

P is the resultant of the equal ac
tions of all its particles, and is equal to the sum of
such actions multiplied by the cosine of the angle
APD
Let
(No. 102).
AP = z.
By the Newtonian law, if the ac

particle at the unit of distance be = 1, its
tion of a
action at the distance z will be =

action
cos

PD
D71 =
APD
-rr> =
AP
.
where a = CP.
PAC we have
z1
on the point
mdx
But
A P1 =
AB
of the zone
d<p
CP-
Hence the
will
be
jtn
CD
a-x
'
On the other hand in the triangle
- 2ar
= a' + r*
cos
A CD
= a* -j- r* 2ax
therefore
to
2/-
(a
x) dx
V (a' + r'
'
2ax)'
or
,
to
xdx
adx
Now
adx
V
(aa
+ r*
2ax)3
V a' +
r*
2ax
253
and
x
a Va? +
V a' +
2ax
a'
-2ax~^~
r2
'/'"
xdx
Hence, substituting, and reducing,
(a
r)
-\-
a
+
a-\-r
(a
2ra*
TO
and taking the integral from x =

reducing,
to x =
r,
- 2ax + 0;
and
_m
a'Va2 + r*
r)
2r
ax
to
centre.
109.
If
the point
were
placed anywhere within the
spherical shell (Fig. 45), the
resultant of all the actions of
would con
the shell upon
stantly be =sO, and therefore the point
it
For, in this case,

remain in equilibrium.
ferential equation would be
a) dx
'
r'
(o^
2r
(x
df
'

is
if
it
if
is
that is, the total action

the same as
the whole
mass of the shell were concentrated in C. The same
being true of all the shells into which solid sphere
follows that the action of a
may be decomposed,
sphere formed of homogene
Fig. 45
the same as
ous shells
its
mass were concentrated in its
~2axJ
would
the dif
254
which differs only by the sign from the equation

of the former case.
Hence the integral will be
r'
"
ax
taken from x =
if
and this,
2ra* \
_l c
to x
= r, will give
- a) _ r (r + a) _
a
r -j-a
r (r
r
>
And this is true of all the shells whose radius is
greater than CP. Accordingly, if the point P were

placed within a solid sphere, it would be attracted
as if the shells beyond CP had no existence ; that
is, it would only feel the attraction of the nucleus
PQIt.
If an
opening were made along one of

the diameters of the earth, and a body allowed to
fall through
the body (abstraction being made
from the resistance of the air) would be urged to
wards the centre by an action varying as the simple
distance from the centre.
the density (sup
For, let be the radius, and
Its mass will then be
posed uniform) of the earth.
r,
g::s
=
g'
centre
g'
distance
whence
or
^, and
s T
action of the nucleus at
g= -
the earth at its surface
PQR will
Now, the action of
being its radius.
p,
the mass of the nucleus
g'
4ttS*
whilst
is
be
p;
-5o
4ivr'
is

it,
Corollary.
the
from the
255
Hence the equation for the movement of a point

approaching the centre, is
d's
gs
dJ'~~V
Multiplying by 2ds, and integrating, we have
gs'
(ds\'_
Making
-^
when
= r,
we
have
C=
Therefore
()'=*=? *'-'>
-w
When the body reaches the centre, then
0r
the maximum velocity.

When the body has reached the centre, its velocity
will carry it further on, and. as s changes its sign,
the motion will be retarded instead of accelerated,
until v reduces to zero when s= r. Then the
body will fall again towards the centre, and meas
and

v=
Vg/-,
which
is
ure backward the same diameter, and perform a

continuous series of oscillations of the same kind.
Extracting the root of equation (1) and taking
the radical negatively, because ds and dt have op
posite signs, we find
Vf'-s'
V g
and this integrated from s =

y
to
s=
r, gives
This is the time of one entire excursion.
This time
256
INFINITESIMAL
OA
LUULUS.
is equal to that in which a body would measure the

semi-circumference r.r with a uniform velocity
The time t of the excursion is independent of the

distance from which the body begins to fall. For,
since we have
r g::s
:
g',
we can replace the radical
without
altering the value of t. Hence all the excursions

will be isochronous, whatever may be their simplitude.
But these results would be greatly modified
by the resistance of the air, which we have
neglected.

Centre
of Gravity.
110. The centre of gravity of a body is a point

within the body, through which the resultant of
the actions of gravity on each particle of the body
All these actions are directed
always passes.
towards the centre of the earth ; yet they may,
without error,
be
considered parallel.
Hence their
resultant is their sum (No. 105).

It is obvious that the centre of gravity of a
straight line is at its middle point ; also, that the
centre of gravity of a plane figure is in that plane,
and if the figure has a line of symmetry, its centre
of gravity is on that line. In like manner, if a
solid has a plane of symmetry, its centre of gravity
is in that plane.
The centre of gravity of a homogeneous body
257
does not depend on the intensity of gravity or on

the density of the body. Its position depends only
on the form of its volume. We may therefore sub
stitute volumes for masses and weights, and con
sider only the relative position of the elements of
which the body is composed.

Let M (Fig. 46) be a homogeneous
body of any
form. Draw rectangular axes, and let the plane
be horizontal.
The action of gravity will be
parallel to the axis AZ. Let to be an element of
the body, and let its co-ordinates be x = qn, y pny
If dv be the
z = mn.
< :/
volume of thtj element
to, its moment with re
spect to the axis A Y
will be xdv. Every other
element of the body M
will give a similar mo
ment, the value of x
XY
varying between
the
limits of the body. Hence
the sum of the moments
of all the elements with
respect to the axis
A Fwill
be
I xdv.
Let now O be the centre of gravity of the body,

and x0 = DC, p0 = BO, z0 = OG, its co-ordinates.
Since the resultant of the actions of gravity passesthrough O, the moment of the resultant with re
spect to the axis A
will be
xn
the theory of moments (No. 106),

x
/dv.
I do = I xdv ;
Hence, by
258
and therefore
xq
If
axis
the moments
AX,
we
xdo
were taken with respect to the
would find in like manner

y<i=
7^
and if the figure were turned about so as to make

the axis of x vertical, we would have also

z0-
j* zdv
7^
Such are the values of the co-ordinates of

centre of gravity of the body.
the
111. Centre of gravity of a circular arc.
Let
the axis
OX
(Fig. 47) bisect the arc

ABC. Then OX will be a line of
symmetry, and the centre of gravity
will lie on OX. Let AC=c be the
chord, and OA = r the radius of
the circular arc. If O be the origin
of co-ordinates, the equation of the
circle will be
tt =
ra
-x';
and therefore
dv = VbW+dy1 = dy
dy
x
rdy
Vr*-tf
'
259
Substituting in the above expression for
x0,
we have
J'rdy
/rdyVr*
y*
and integrating from y = \c to y = $c,
Xo~
rc
c\\ arc. ABO'
rc
(sin- 2- sin-^
I
.(
?,
= 2r sin
we have
Making the angle AOX =
whilst the arc ABC

2r& whence we get also
-~ J~
Vr'y
xdv = 2y'dy;
dv = 2ydx =
/2y2dy
Vr'

(33),
yl
'
whence

112. Centre of gravity of a circular segment.

Referring to Fig. 47, where the segment ABC is
bisected by the axis OX, we find
to
yy,
by formula
_ sin
Cos
<?
"
sin*
"
_2r
T0
substituting and reducing,

&
sin
<?,
and, since y
we have
&
2C.0
113.
O,
Centre of gravity of a circular sector.

Referring again to Fig. 47, let us conceive that the
sector OABC has been divided into equal infini
tesimal sectors, every one of which may be looked
and an
upon as
triangle having the vertex in
The centre
infinitesimal base on the circumference.
of gravity of every one of these sectors, or triangles,
as can
will be at
distance \r from the centre
In
114.
ABC~
sin
'
arc
_ 2r
3
ABC~
'
arc
2r
3
Xa
x
jg
Ill,
of gratity of a parabolic area.

= 2px, we
parabola, whose equation is
Centre
hence
V2p. x^dx,
xdv =
\^2p
x*dx
= 2ydx =
dr)
y*
the
have for an area comprised between the curve and
a double ordinate,
2

it
be shown by a simple geometric construction.

Hence the whole series of these centres of gravity
will determine an arc of circle similar to the arc
ABC, but having a radius fr. As the matter of
each elementary sector can be considered concen
trated in its centre of gravity,
follows that the
centre of gravity of the whole sector is the same as
the centre of gravity of said arc. Hence, applying
to our case the result of No.
261
x dx
x dx
Let a be the terminal abscissa of the area in ques

tion. Integrating between the limits x 0 and
x = a,
we shall have
a value independent of the parameter of the curve.
115. Centre of gravity of a paraboloid of revo

lution. In this case
dv
ny^dx,
xdv = ny'xdx,
that is,
dv = 2n.pxdx,
xdv = 2jt .px'dx.
Hence
&o
= Jx'dx
-r
/ xdx

and integrating from x=.

Xq
to x
a, and reducing,
8^5
a value independent of the parameter of the curve.
116. Centre of gravity of

Let O (Fig.
a right pyramid.
and OA = h
the height of the pyramid, o"
Calling b the base, any section
parallel to it at a distance
48) be the vertex,
x from the vertex, will be =

tesimal volume will be
, -
x1
and its infini-
Hence
IXFIXITESIMAL CALCULUS.
262
dv
= i2 afdx,
therefore
x0
and xdv
J/
x*dx;
afdx
;
x'dx
to x = h, and reducing,
x0= \h.
For the frustum of a pyramid, the integral is to
be taken from x = h' to x = h. This would give
Xq
_ 3 '
hl
h'
- h"
h'1
If

the base of the pyramid becomes a circle, the

above equations will give the centre of gravity of
the cone, and of the frustum of a cone.
117. Centre of gravity of a spherical zone.
We
have from Geometry
dv 2zr . dx, and xdv
= 2nr xdx ;
.
whence
xdx
dx
or, integrating from x a to x r, and reducing,
If
0,
we have
ity of the surface of
#0
for the centre of grav
a hemisphere.
263
118. Centre of gravity of a spherical
sector.
The spherical sector may be conceived as a sum of
equal infinitesimal pyramids having a common
vertex in the centre of the sphere, and an infini
tesimal base on its surface.
Each such pyramid
has its centre of gravity at a distance fr from the
centre of the sphere ; so that we may consider the
surface passing through all such centres of gravity
as forming a spherical zone with a radius fr.
Hence the centre of gravity of the whole spherical
sector will be found by substituting fr and fa for
r and a in the result of No. 1 17. Therefore
o
f (r + a).
a = 0, then x0 = f r will be the distance of the

centre of gravity of a solid hemisphere.

If
Moment of Inertia.
119. Let OA r (Fig. 49) be the radius of a
If its axis be hori
cylinder having a mass ra.
zontal, and a weight P be attached
Fig' 49
to the cylinder by a string wrapped
around its surface, the cylinder will
be caused to revolve about its axis.
Let be the angular velocity im

parted to every element of the mass
at the time t. Then any element
dm, whose distance from the axis is
OC,
will
have a velocity x
d&
-57- ,
and its quantity of movement will be dm.x
d&
IXFIXITESIiTAL CALCULUS.
264
P on
The accelerating action of
will be, at this instant, dm.x

with respect
such an element
and its moment
d'&
axis will be dm.x'
to the
Hence
on the whole mass

the moment of the action of
m will be the sum of all such moments (No. 106),
that is,
(afdm
dt
+ x'\lm' +
x"2d?n"
),
or, briefly,
dt
But the moment of the action of
pressed by
-nGenerated on 2015-06-02 13:20 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015063880952

dt
Pr ;
J/
is also ex
hence
x dm = Pr, and
The quantity
rtdm
x'dm is called the moment
inertia of the mass m with respect

passing through its centre of gravity.
forming the integration we find
J* x'dm = ink',
of
to the
If
axis
by per
(1)
k is called the radius of gyration, inasmuch as the

movement will be the same as if the whole mass m
were collected together at the distance k from the
axis of rotation.
120. It is
remarked that the moment of

inertia varies in the same body according to tne
to be
265
position of the axis of rotation. To investigate the

law of its variation, let ABGD (Pig. 50) be a section
of the mass m by a plane
Fig. 50
perpendicular to the axis of
rotation, O the point where
the axis is cut by this
plane, and O the point where
a
axis passing
parallel
through the centre of grav
ity of the mass is cut by the
same plane.
Considering an element dm of this
mass occupying any position E, and denoting OE
by x, OE by z, and OO by p, the triangle OOE will
give us the equation
a?
? + p*
2pz cos
OOE.
Substituting in (1), and separating the terms, we

have

mk*
P fdm +
p'dm 2
P pzdm
or, since the distance p is constant,
m&'=
J* z'dm + mp'
2p
and
cos
OOE,
Pdm = m,
dm.z cos OOE.
But z cos OOE OH the lever arm of the mass

dm with respect to the axis passing through the
centre of gravity of the body.
Hence
zdm cos OOE
is the algebraic sum of the moments of all the par
ticles of the body with respect to the axis passing
through its centre of gravity ; and this sum, by the
266
of moments (No. 106) must be = 0, be

cause the moment of their resultant is also = 0.
principle
We have, therefore, simply

mk' =
Now
J*
z%dm
J'
z'dm-\-mp'.
is the moment of inertia of the mass
m with respect to the axis passing through the

centre of gravity.
Denoting it by m?02, we shall
have
mro
mk%
+ mp'.
(2)
Therefore, the moment of inertia of a body with re

spect to any axis is equal to the moment of inertia
with respect to a parallel axis through the centre
of gravity of the body, plus the mass of the body
into the square of the distance between the two axes.

121. Moment of inertia of a rectangle.
Let PQ
(Fig. 51) be an axis passing through the centre of

gravity of a rectangle, and
J7
lying in the plane of the
p
0
to
rectangle perpendicularly
its length AB. Let m be the
mass of the rectangle, and A
B
D
Q
AB = 2a. The infinitesimal
element CD = dm placed at any distance x from
the axis, will be found by the proportion
2a
dx : : m
dm ': or dm = ^ dx.
2a
Substituting in (1), we have
267
and integrating from x = a to x = a, and reduc

ing,
Hence the radius of gyration is here k
This result is independent of the altitude of the
Hence considering the straight line AB

rectangle.
as a rectangle having an infinitesimal altitude, its
moment
of inertia will also be m
a?
-~
m denoting
the mass of the line.

122. Moment of inertia of a circle, when the

axis coincides with a diameter AB.
ss
Let OC r (Fig. 52) be the radius of
the circle, CD dm an element of
/^-^~~\o
its area parallel to the axis, OEx

its distance from the centre O. We /
I
shall have
itr*
2ydx v.m: dm, or dm
^ ydx.
Substituting in (1) and remembering

that y is = Vr' x', we have
By formula
(33) we have
and by formula (34),
/_
/\
Ey
268
- arfdz = i Vr' -
(f
sin-1
x-
Substituting, and taking the integral from x =

to x = r, we have
mk' = m
-4
i*
Hence the radius of gyration is here k = g
133. Moment of inertia of a circle, when the

axis through the centre is perpendicular to the
With a
plane of the circle.
radius OC=x (Fig. 53) describe
circle, and give to its circum
Then 2nxdx
ference a width dx.
will represent an element of the
area, and thus

nr'
2nxdx::m
dm;
or
dm = r xdx.
1*
Substituting in (1), and integrating from x = 0 to

x = r, we have
mk1
= m
r*
g-
This formula is independent of the thickness of the

circular plate ; hence it will be true for any thick
ness. It therefore expresses the moment of inertia

of a solid cylinder of any length, revolving about
its axis.
124. Moment of inertia of a circular ring with
Let
respect to an axis perpendicular to its plane.
r and r' be the extreme radii of the ring, and m its
mass.
Taking x between r and r', we have
* (r*
r")
2nxdx
: :
/ and dm
pi
Substituting in (1), and integrating from

x = r, we find
'
mk =
m r*
-7T
2 r*
r"
75
r"
m r*
+jr
2
a;
x^x-
= r'
to
This formula, being independent of the thickness

of the ring, will be true for a hollow cylinder of
any length.
and let BD be
an element perpendicular to
the axis of the cylinder, at
a distance OC = x from the
axis of rotation. Let r be
the radius of the cylinder,
and ft the mass of the element BD. The moment
of inertia of this element with respect to one of its
Q
cylinder,
r'
diameters would be (No. 122) = ft j-
but its mo
will be //
^-
ment of inertia with respect to the axis PQ parallel

to that diameter, and placed at a distance OC=x,
x'^j

125. Moment of inertia of a cylinder with re

spect to an axis perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder. Let the axis PQ
(Fig. 54) be taken through
the centre of gravity of the
as we have
shown (No. 120).
270
2a, or
/-<
m::dx
fi
Now, let 2a be the length, and m the mass, of

We shall have
the cylinder.
= ~- dx;
sion
2 ( J"
x'f
and therefore the moment of inertia of the whole

cylinder will be found by integrating the expres
d& between x a and x
a.
Integrating, and reducing, we shall find

nik'
=m
(?+!)-
126. Moment of inertia of a sphere.
Let the
axis pass through the centre of the sphere. Let
radius of the sphere and

the mass of an
elementary segment perpendicular to the axis,
placed at distance x from the centre, and having
radius y=Yr'x'.
The moment of inertia of
this element with respect to the axis
(No. 123)
Now,
if
01
'
11
is
m be the mass of the sphere, we have
whence
in the above ex
and substituting this value of
pression, we shall have for the moment of inertia
fi

ft
be the
271
of the elementary segment

3m
8r
(r'-xjdx.
Integrating this from x

we get, after reduction,
mfc1
to x = r,
2mr'
for the moment of inertia of the whole

sphere.

127. Problem. As an application of

the theory of the moments of inertia,
let R and r (Fig. 55) be the radii of two
to
solid cylinders having the same hori

zontal axis, M being the mass of the
larger and m that of the smaller ; and
let the weights p and P be applied to
them respectively by a thread wrapped
on their surfaces.
If the two cylinders
are so connected that they must rotate
together, and if the weight p acts in a
direction opposite to that of P, what
will be the movement of these weights
after a time t ?
Solution. Adapting to our case the
formula (No. 119)
Pr
y x'dm
and reflecting that the moments of inertia of the
272
two solid cylinders
M R
are
and m respect-
ively, and that the moments of the accelerating

forces are Pr and pR, we shall have
_ Pr-Rp
d'd
~
dV
Let now
MIt'
mf
Pr-Rp
MR
mr%
'
M'
and m' be the masses of the weights

P and p respectively. Then g being the action of
gravity, we have P = M'g, p m'g. And there
fore
dW_
~
dV
- Rm'
MR M'r
mr*
and integrating from t = 0 to

d&
dt
_~ 0,
9
M'r
Rm'
MR' -mr*
'
t= t,
9
'
MR -
M r - Rm'
M'r
mr*
'

Curvilinear Movement.
point M (Fig. 56) cannot move in a
curve, unless its direcFig.se
tion
be
continually
changed by an action pro
ceeding from some other
Let us con
direction.
ceive this action decom
posed into two, X and
Y, respectively parallel
to the co-ordinate axes
OX and OY. Draw MN
normal, and M T tangent
to the curve at the point M.
Resolve X into MT
128.
A free
273
tangential, and Mp normal, also Y into MT' tan

Then the
gential, and Mq normal to the curve.
forces X and Y may be replaced by a tangential
force TMT MT', and by a normal, or centri
= Mp -j- Jl/i?.
petal force
Now, calling # the angle that the element ds of
the curve at M makes with the axis of abscissas,
If
we have
MT- X cos
Mp =
Hence
0,
X sin
MT' = Y sin
Mq = Y cos
&,
#,
&.
T= Xcos#-Fsin#,
N= Xsintf + Fcostf.
But, according to our usual notation,
Y__ dty
dt'
W
d'x

sin
Therefore
dy
,,
dx
cos v -*-
__ d!#
<fa;
ds
&
= ~r
ds +
~
d'y dp
df
ds
'
df ds'
The first of these equations can be reduced to
_ df
rp_ d (dx' + dtf) ~ d ids') ~

_ 2dsd's
dt'. 2ds
-ids
2dsdf
_ d's
df
'
The second, being multiplied and divided by ds\

becomes
274
."-'W
dtf
- d'xdy
tfydx
ds'
and this, according to the remark made by us on

the expression for the radius of curvature when t is
the independent variable (No. 46), will become
_ _ dS

df'R~
B'
Such is the expression of the centripetal accelera

tion. Hence the centripetal force is equal to the
product of the mass into the square of the tangen
tial velocity divided by the radius of curvature
The moving point, while obeying the centripetal
action, always keeps its tendency to follow a
straight line, that is, the tangential direction, and
thus to recede from the centre of curvature. This
centrifugal tendency, so far as counteracted and
thwarted by the centripetal action, is usually called
the centrifugal force, and its intensity is measured
by that of the action by which it is thwarted.
Hence the centrifugal force is equal to the centri
petal, and directly opposed to it. The centripetal
and centrifugal forces are commonly called central
forces.
(Fig. 57)
Y be
roll down a curve OMC

under the action of gravity.
Let OX and
129. Let a point
the co-ordinate axes, and let the ordinates

downward be positive. "When the moving point
has reached any position M, the action of gravity
MO, by which its movement is accelerated, may be
O
decomposed into MN normal, and MT tangential

to the curve.
The first will be destroyed by the
275
resistance of the curve, which we assume to be in
variably fixed, and which is

thus playing the part of a
The sec
centripetal force.
ond will have its whole effect.
Let # be the angle that the
curve at M makes with the
axis OX. Then
MT =
g sin &
--
ds
Fig.
57
>
or
d's
~ y
dt'
ds
Hence
2ds d's

dt
dt~
- %gdy, and
(!)"=*
This velocity is the velocity due to the height y

(No. 100). Therefore the velocity acquired by a
body rolling down a curve under the action of
gravity, is equal to that which it acquires by falling
freely through the same vertical height.
This result is true not only when g is constant,
but also when g varies according to a fixed law ;
for, even in ihis case, g may be regarded as con
stant from element to element, inasmuch as the
same law of variation applies to the elements of the
curve and to those of the vertical line. Hence a
body falling toward the sun on a spiral line will
have the same final velocity as though it had fallen
directly towards its centre.
130: The simple pendulum.
material point
276
(Fig. 58) suspended from a horizontal axis by

a rigid line AO without
weight, and free to oscil
late about that axis, con
stitutes a simple pendu
lum.
Let AO = I, the angle
AOCâ, and the angle
When
the
MOC = &.
point A under the action
of gravity reaches the point
M, it will have acquired a
ds
=
velocity
^ V2gy (No. 129), y being = BE. But
ds -- ld&, and y
OE OD
I (cos &
cos a)
therefore

= V2gl
(cos # cos a)
whence
dd
V cos
J? cOS
Prom Maclaurin's formula we have

cos,? =
008
l- + or4-
0=1
-I+OT4-
'
'
hence, if the arc J. 6T be small enough to allow us

to neglect all the terms of the series after the sec
ond, we shall have cos # cos a = $ (a' #'), and
Integrating from
a to
&
a,
277
we shall have
This is the time of one excursion, or semi-oscilla

tion, of a simple pendulum, when the amplitude of
the excursion is small; that is, not exceeding 9 or
10 degrees.
131. Planetary orbits.
By
the first of Kepler's
laws, the orbits of planets are ellipses, of which

one focus is occupied by the
SUn.
PMA
Let

Jlg..59
(Fig. 59) be a
the
planetary orbit, and
focus occupied by the sun.
Let the planet, at a given pr
v.
instant dt, be moving from
M towards the perihelion P.
Make FM = p, the angle
MFA =,
OQ
= x, MQ =
y
^
y,
OF
= c,
and let <p be the solar action at the unit of distance.

We shall have, from the inspection of the figure,
FQ
= p cos v = FO + OQ = c
MQ =
-f x,
sin v = p,
whence
cos
X
C-\p
sin
IXFISITESIMAL
278
CALCULUS.
The action of the sun at a distance p being ^

have also
_
d"x
_^co6B
dv
<c
we
(c + x) ,
-?-7
Multiplying the first of these equations by dx, and

by dy, adding the products, and re
marking that we have
the second
we find
dx (Fx
dy d'y _
(c + x) dx -+- ydy
dt ~df+dtW~~<f % | (c + xY+y^'
'
and integrating,

dx' +
or, since
dif
-f-
2y
<7y*
= JfiV"'
2y
ds*,
the velocity of the planet at the perihe

Calling
we have
lion P, and making PF =
Therefore
()'=--HH)-
(2)
279
Calling V" the velocity of the planet at the aphe

lion A, and making FA p", we have
Therefore
and eliminating
ds
between (2) and (3), we obtain
V"' = V-2f
g>-~).
(4)
Now, by the second of Kepler's laws, the areas

described by the radius vector are proportional to
the times in which they are described.
Hence two
areas described in a second by the planet must be
equal ; and therefore V'p' = % V"p", whence
V=
This value of
V"
Py
substituted in (4) will lead to
But, if a and b be the major and minor semi-axes

of the orbit, we have
P'
+ P" =
2a,
p'p"
(a
c) (a
Substituting in (5),
ft'
+ c) = a'
& = V.
IyFISITESIMAL
280
CALCULUS.
Comparing equations (3) and (5), we obtain
(ds\ _
oir
4_
which, owing to (6), will be reduced to
(S'-*G-s)=>-!!erj-
*>
And now, from the general equation

ds'
= (pdvy + dp'
we have
by con
from which we shall easily eliminate

sidering that, since the area described by the

radius vector in the time dt is ty'dv, the area described in the unit of time will be ip*
But we
have already found that this area can be expressed
byiV'p".
Hence
{pdcy
\dt)
or substituting
and reducing,
_-
V^fT
the value of
p~
'
V from
equation (6),
This being substituted in
(ds\_f
V#/
~ff
Now, eliminating
(7),
ds
we have
(8),
'
281
fdpy
\dt)
between
'
this equation, and
we shall find
\dt)
a'
p*
whence
-vl
(p*+a)dp
a)'
Vc'
If
-a)')
is,
c,
/>
A,
we
when
we reckon the time from the aphelion

=
= a+
that
shall have
when
a = c; and then C0.
Therefore
Vc*-(p-ay
(p-a)dp
adp
Vc'-(p-
- a/
'
(P
f\j
V&-(p-af
of which the integral
is
Such
the expression for the time taken by the
planet in measuring any portion AM of its orbit,
being the radius vector of the point M.

_ _ ./a
pdp
is
f'
dt=-\/~-
<p'
b'=a'
V2ap p' b'
c',
or, since
dt.
INFINITESIMAL OALCUL
282
US.
The time T employed in measuring the semiorbit

will be found by taking
AMP
(>
Then
(9)
=a
c,
or p a =
c.
gives
(10)
This equation shows that the squares of the times

of the revolutions of two planets are to each other

directly as the cubes of the transverse axes of their

orbits. This is the third among Kepler's laws.
The same equation shows also that the time of a
revolution is independent of the minor axis b of the
orbit. Assume b so small, that the ellipse may
sensibly be reduced to a double straight line.
Then the focus will sensibly coincide with the ex
tremity P of the transverse axis, and T would be
the time taken by the planet in falling directly
upon the sun from the distance AP = 2a.
From
(10) we have
T
/a- =
Hence (9) may
be transformed into
and if
be the eccentricity of the orbit, we may
substitute
for
and reduce the equation to the
form
283
Lastly, making
COS #
(11)
(& +
sin
ft'
the equation will take the form

(12)
will
e5
cos
(13)
a~l-
is
The formulas (11) and (12), and the polar equa

tion of the ellipse, which
to determine the time taken by the

reckoned
planet in measuring any given angle
from the aphelion, when the eccentricity of the
v
suffice
is
is
2.
is

is
orbit
known.
The eccentricity of the terrestrial
Scholium.
=
orbit being
0.016833, and the earth, during the
tropical year, measuring only 359 59' 9".8 around
the sun, the longitude of the aphelion (which
reckoned from the vernal equinox, and which on
the 1st of January, 1800, was 99 30' 8*. 39)
in
The length of the
creasing every year by 50".
= 365".242256. Will the student,
tropical year
with these data, and with the aid of the last three
formulas, try to determine the length of the four
seasons for some given year?

Elements of Infinitesimal Calculus

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ELEMENTS

JOSEPH BAYMA, S.J.,

S.J., Santa Clara, California.

Transcendental functions of one variable,

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Maxima and minima,

Investigations about Plane

Elements of arcs, surfaces, and

Differentials with polar co-ordinates,

PART II. INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

I. Various Mel hods for Finding Integrals.

Integration of elementary forms,

Reduction of differentials to an elementary

Integration of logarithmic differentials,

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Integration of other differential equations,

Application of Integral Calculus

Other geometrical problems,

Problems solved by double or triple integrals,

Application of Integral Calculus

Movement uniformly varied,

Movement not uniformly varied

and decomposition of forces

Attraction of a sphere on a material point,

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Hence infinitesimals of time and of length are not

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3. Modern authors often define the infinitesimal

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length of duration, that is, it has a duration strictly

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Therefore the ratio of the two movements is, at

the zero represents an infinitesimal quantity.

quantities that admit of being divided in infinitum :

hand, the above equation gives

and this does certainly not mean that the finite

5. We have said that infinitesimals have no value

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* Mr. Albert Taylor Bledsoe in his Philosophy

and this equation, taking

which shows that the addition of a finite quantity

and multiplying this by

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In this last equation, if

the second member be

Multiply both members of this by

and from thi?, by reduction, we have

This clearly shows that the equation 1=0.999999

is plain, therefore, that an

mitted by suppressing an infinitesimal by the side

which we shall have to speak throughout our treat

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As to the different orders of infinitesimals, of

vidual, and the genus infinitely above the species.

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we assume x = m, it is plain that the first term

be an infinitesimal of the first order,'

-5 of the second order, CO of the third, etc.

7. The problems whose solution depends on the

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infinitesimals must remain in the final solutions,

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