Financial Management

Chapter#01
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
WHY STUDY FINANCE?
Accounting and Finance

Accountants are required to make financial decisions as well as understand the
implications of new financial contracts
Financial analysts make extensive use of accounting information
What is Business Finance?
In order to start any new business, the following issues become vital
What long-term investment should be taken on?
From where to get the long-term financing to pay for investment? Bring in other owners or
borrow the money?
How to manage everyday financial activities?
The Financial Manager

To create value, the financial manager should:
Try to make smart investment decisions.
Try to make smart financing decisions.
Business Finance and Financial Manager
Financial Management Decisions
Capital Budgeting
Capital Structure
Working Capital Management
Financial Management Decisions
Capital Budgeting
The process of planning and managing a firms long-term investments
Financial managers concern with how much, when and how likely is cash expected to receive
Evaluating the size, timing and risk of future cash flows is the essence of capital budgeting
Mr. Tahir Abbas
University of South Asia (HIC) layyah Campus
The Corporate Firm
The corporate form of business is the standard method for solving the problems encountered in
raising large amounts of cash.
However, businesses can take other forms.
Forms of Business Organization

There are three major forms
01. Sole proprietorship
02. Partnership
General
Limited
03. Corporation
Limited liability company
Sole Proprietorship
A business which is run by one Person
According to D.W.T. Stafford
It is the simplest form of business organization, which is owned and controlled by one
man.
Sole proprietorship is the oldest form of business organization which is owned and controlled
by one person. In this business, one man invests his capital himself. He is all in all in doing
his business. He enjoys the whole of the profit. The features of sole proprietorship are:
Advantages
Easiest to start
Least regulated
Single owner keeps all the profits
Taxed once as personal income
Disadvantages
Limited to life of owner

Equity capital limited to owners personal wealth
Unlimited liability
Difficult to sell ownership interest
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Partnership
According to Partnership Act 1932:
Partnership is the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on
by all or any of them acting for all.
Partnership means a lawful business owned by two or more persons. The profit of the business shared by
the partners in agreed ratio. The liability of each partner is unlimited. Small and medium size business
activities are performed under this organization
Advantages
Two or more owners

More capital available
Relatively easy to start
Income taxed once as personal income
Disadvantages
Unlimited liability
There are two types of partnership
General partnership
Limited partnership
Partnership dissolves when one partner dies or wishes to sell
Difficult to transfer ownership
Corporation
A business created as a distinct legal entity owned by one or more individuals or entities.
Advantages
Limited liability
Unlimited life
Separation of ownership and management
Transfer of ownership is easy
Easier to raise capital
Disadvantages
Separation of ownership and management

Double taxation (income taxed at the corporate rate and then dividends taxed at personal rate)
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Goal of the Corporate Firm
The traditional answer is that the managers of the corporation are obliged to make efforts to
maximize shareholder wealth.
Alternatively, the goal of the financial manager is to maximize the current value per share of the
existing stock
The Set-of-Contracts Perspective
The firm can be viewed as a set of contracts.

One of these contracts is between shareholders and managers.
The managers will usually act in the shareholders interests.
The shareholders can devise contracts that align the incentives of the managers with the goals of
the shareholders.
The shareholders can monitor the managers behavior.
This contracting and monitoring is costly.
Managerial Goals
Managerial goals may be different from shareholder goals

Expensive perquisites
Survival
Independence
Increased growth and size are not necessarily the same thing as increased shareholder wealth.
Do Shareholders Control Managerial Behavior?
Shareholders vote for the board of directors, who in turn hire the management team.
Contracts can be carefully constructed to be incentive compatible.
There is a market for managerial talentthis may provide market discipline to the managersthey
can be replaced.
If the managers fail to maximize share price, they may be replaced in a hostile takeover.
Managing Managers
Managerial compensation
Incentives can be used to align management and stockholder interests
The incentives need to be structured carefully to make sure that they achieve their goal
Corporate control
The threat of a takeover may result in better management
Other stakeholders
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Financial Market
There are two type of Market
01.
Primary Market
When a corporation issues securities, cash flows from investors to the firm.
Usually an underwriter is involved
02.
Secondary Markets
Involve the sale of used securities from one investor to another.

Securities may be exchange traded or trade over-the-counter in a dealer market.
Dealer Vs. Auction Markets
Auction markets are different from dealer markets in two ways:

Trading in a given auction exchange takes place at a single site on the floor of the exchange.
Transaction prices of shares are communicated almost immediately to the public.
Listing
The Balance Sheet

An accountants snapshot of the firms accounting value as of a particular date.
The Balance Sheet Identity is:
a. Assets Liabilities + Stockholders Equity
When analyzing a balance sheet, the financial manager should be aware of three concerns:
accounting liquidity, debt versus equity, and value versus cost.
The Balance-Sheet Model of

the Firm
Total Value of Assets
Current Assets
Fixed Assets
1. Tangible
2. Intangible
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Total Firm Value to Investors

Current Liabilities
Long-Term Debt
Shareholders Equity
Net Working Capital

Net Working Capital Current Assets Current Liabilities
NWC > 0
NWC < 0
NWC = 0
when
when
when
Current Assets > Current Liabilities

Current Assets < Current Liabilities
Current Assets = Current Liabilities
NWC usually grows with the firm for the healthy firms.
The Balance-Sheet Model of the Firm
The Net Working Capital Investment Decision
Current Liabilities
Current
Assets
Fixed Assets
1. Tangible
2. Intangible
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Net
Working
Capital
Long-Term Debt
How much shortterm cash flow does a

company need to pay
its bills?
Shareholders Equity
The Financial Environment
In varying degrees, all businesses operate within the financial system, which consists of a
number of institutions and markets serving business firms, individuals, and governments. When
a firm invests temporarily idle funds in marketable securities, it has direct contact with financial
markets.
More important, most firms use financial markets to help finance their investment in assets. In
the final analysis, the market price of a companys securities is the test of whether the company
is a success or a failure. While business firms compete with each other in the product markets,
they must continually interact with the financial markets. Because of the importance of this
environment to the financial manager, as well as to the individual as a consumer of financial
services, this section is devoted to exploring the financial system and the ever-changing
environment in which capital is raised.
What is financial market?

Financial markets all institutions and procedures for bringing buyers and sellers of
financial instruments together
The Purpose of Financial Markets

The purpose of financial markets in an economy is to allocate savings efficiently to ulti-mate
users. If those economic units that saved were the same as those that engaged in capital
formation, an economy could prosper without financial markets. In modern economies,
however, most nonfinancial corporations use more than their total savings for investing in real
assets. Most households, on the other hand, have total savings in excess of total invest-ment.
Efficiency entails bringing the ultimate investor in real assets and the ultimate saver together at
the least possible cost and inconvenience.
Mr. Tahir Abbas
What are the different types of financial market?

The types of financial market as under
Money market
The market for short-term (less than one year original maturity) government and
corporate debt securities It also includes government securities originally issued with
maturities of more than one year but that now have a year or less until maturity.
Capital market
The market for relatively long-term (greater than one year original maturity) financial
instruments (e.g., bonds and stocks)
Money and Capital Markets:

Financial markets can be broken into two classes the money market and the capital market.
The money market is concerned with the buying and selling of short-term (less than one year
original maturity) government and corporate debt securities. The capital market, on the other
hand, deals with relatively long-term (greater than one year original maturity) debt and equity
instruments (e.g., bonds and stocks). This section gives special attention to the market for longterm securities the capital market
Primary market
A market where new securities are bought and sold for the first time (a new issues
market)
Secondary market
A market for existing (used) securities rather than new issues
Primary and Secondary Markets. Within money and capital markets there exist both primary
and secondary markets. A primary market is a new issues market. Here, funds raised through
the sale of new securities flow from the ultimate savers to the ultimate investors in real assets.
In a secondary market, existing securities are bought and sold. Transactions in these already
existing securities do notprovide additional funds to finance capital invest-ment. (Note: On
Figure 2.1 there is no line directly connecting the secondary market with the investment
sector.) An analogy can be made with the market for automobiles. The sale of new cars
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provides cash to the auto manufacturers; the sale of used cars in the used-car market does not.
In a real sense, a secondary market is a used-car lot for securities
Chapter#02
The Time Value of Money

Contents
01. The Interest Rate
02. Simple Interest
03. Compound Interest
Single Amounts Annuities Mixed Flows
04. Compounding More Than Once a Year
Semiannual and Other Compounding Periods
Continuous Compounding
Effective Annual
Interest Rate
05. Amortizing a Loan
06. Formulas
07. Questions
08. Problems
09. Solutions
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The Interest Rate

Interest Money paid (earned) for the use of money
Which would you prefer $1,000 today or $1,000 ten years from today? Common sense tells us
to take the $1,000 today because we recognize that there is a time value to money. The
immediate receipt of $1,000 provides us with the opportunity to put our money to work and
earn interest. In a world in which all cash flows are certain, the rate of interest can be used to
express the time value of money. As we will soon discover, the rate of interest will allow us to
adjust the value of cash flows, whenever they occur, to a particular point in time. Given this
ability, we will be able to answer more difficult questions, such as: which should you prefer
$1,000 today or $2,000 ten years from today? To answer this question, it will be necessary to
position time-adjusted cash flows at a single point in time so that a fair comparison can be
made.
Simple Interest
Interest paid (earned) on only the original amount, or principal, borrowed
(lent)
Simple interest is interest that is paid (earned) on only the original amount, or principal,
borrowed (lent). The dollar amount of simple interest is a function of three variables: the
original amount borrowed (lent), or principal; the interest rate per time period; and the number of time periods for which the principal is borrowed (lent). The formula for calculating simple
interest is
SI=P0 (i)(n)
Where
SI=simple interest in dollars
P0=principal, or original amount borrowed (lent) at time period 0
i=interest rate per time period
n=number of time periods
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For example, assume that you deposit $100 in a savings account paying 8 percent simple
interest and keep it there for 10 years. At the end of 10 years, the amount of interest
accumulated is determined as follows:
SI=$100(0.08)(10)
SI=$80
Future value
Future value (terminal value)The value at some future time of a present amount
of money, or a series of payments, evaluated at a given interest rate
To solve for the future value(also known as the terminal value) of the account at the end of 10
years (FV10 ), we add the interest earned on the principal only to the original amount invested.
Therefore
FV10=$100 +[$100(0.08)(10)] =$180
For any simple interest rate, the future value of an account at the end of nperiods is
FVn=P0+SI=P0+P0 (i)(n)
Or
FVn=P0 [1 +(i)(n)]
Present value
The current value of a future amount of money, or a series of payments,
evaluated at a given interest rate
Sometimes we need to proceed in the opposite direction. That is, we know the future value of a
deposit at i percent for n years, but we dont know the principal originally invested the
accounts present value(PV0 =P0 ). A rearrangement of Eq. (3.2), however, is all that is needed.
Mr. Tahir Abbas
PV0=P0=FVn /[1 +(i)(n)]

Now that you are familiar with the mechanics of simple interest, it is perhaps a bit cruel
to point out that most situations in finance involving the time value of money do not rely
on simple interest at all. Instead, compound interest is the norm; however, an understand-ing
of simple interest will help you appreciate (and understand) compound interest all the more.
Compound Interest
Compound interest interest paid (earned) on any previous interest earned, as well
as on the principal borrowed (lent).
The distinction between simple and compound interest can best be seen by example. illustrates
the rather dramatic effect that compound interest has on an investments value over time
when compared with the effect of simple interest. From the table it is clear to see why some
people have called compound interest the greatest of human inventions. The notion of
compound interest is crucial to understanding the mathematics of fin-ance. The term itself
merely implies that interest paid (earned) on a loan (an investment) is 3The Time Value of
Money
Future value of $1 invested for various time periods at an 8% annual interest rate
YEARS
2
20
200
AT SIMPLE INTEREST
$ 1.16
2.60
17.00
AT COMPOUND INTEREST
$ 1.17
4.66
4,838,949.59
Single Amounts
Future (or Compound) Value. To begin with, consider a person who deposits $100 into a savings
account. If the interest rate is 8 percent, compounded annually, how much will the $100 be
worth at the end of a year? Setting up the problem, we solve for the future value (which in this
case is also referred to as the compound value) of the account at the end of the year (FV1 )
FV1=P0 (1 +i) =$100(1.08) =$108
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Interestingly, this first-year value is the same number that we would get if simple interest were
employed. But this is where the similarity ends. What if we leave $100 on deposit for two
years? The $100 initial deposit will have grown to $108 at the end of the first year at 8 percent
compound annual interest. Going to the end of the second year, $108 becomes $116.64, as $8
in interest is earned on the initial $100, and $0.64 is earned on the $8 in interest credited to our
account at the end of the first year. In other words, interest is earned on previously earned
interest hence the name compound interest. Therefore, the future value at the end of the
second year is
FV2=FV1 (1 +i)
=P0 (1 +i)(1 +i) =P0 (1 +i) 2
=$108(1.08) =$100(1.08)(1.08) =$100(1.08)2
=$116.64
At the end of three years, the account would be worth
FV3=FV2 (1 +i) =FV1 (1 +i)(1 +i) =P0 (1 +i)3
=$116.64(1.08) =$108(1.08)(1.08) =$100(1.08)3
=$125.97
In general, FVn , the future (compound) value of a deposit at the end of nperiods, is
FVn=P0 (1 +i)n
or
FVn=P0 (FVIFi,n)
Where we let FVIFi,n (i.e., the future value interest factor at i% for n periods) equal (1 +i)n
Discount rate:
Discount rate (capitalization rate) Interest rate used to convert future values to present
values
Finding the present value (or discounting) is simply the reverse of compounding. Therefore,
lets first retrieve Eq.
FVn=P0 (1 +i)n
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Rearranging terms, we solve for present value:
PV0=P0=FVn/(1 +i)n
=FVn [1/(1 +i)n]
Note that the term [1/(1 +i)n ] is simply the reciprocal of the future value interest factor at i%
for n periods (FVIFi,n ).This reciprocal has its own name the present value interest factor at i%
for n periods (PVIFi,n) and allows us to rewrite Eq as
PV0=FVn(PVIFi,n)
A present value table containing PVIFs for a wide range of interest rates and time periods
relieves us of making the calculations implied by Eq. as
PV0=P0=FVn/(1 +i)n
=FVn [1/(1 +i)n]
Every time we have a present value to solve
Annuities
Annuity a series of equal payments or over a specified number of periods in an ordinary
annuity, payments or receipts occur at the end of each period; in an annuity due,
payments or receipts occur at the beginning of each period
Ordinary Annuity An annuity is a series of equal payments or receipts occurring over a specified
number of periods In an ordinary annuity, payments or receipts occur at the end of each
period. Expressed algebraically, with FVAn defined as the future (compound) value of an
annuity, R the periodic receipt (or payment), and n the length of the annuity, the formula for
FVAn is
FVAn=R(1 +i)n1 +R(1 +i)n2 +... +R(1 +i)1 +R(1 +i)0
=R[FVIFi,n1+FVIFi,n2+... +FVIFi,1 +FVIFi,0]
As you can see, FVAn is simply equal to the periodic receipt (R) times the sum of the future
value interest factors at ipercent for time periods 0 to n1. Luckily, we have two shorthand
ways of stating this mathematically:
Mr. Tahir Abbas
FVAn = R([(1+i)n -1] -1]/i)
or
FVAn=R(FVIFAi,n)
where
FVIFAi,n stands for the future value interest factor of an annuity at i% for n periods.
we can write the general formula for the present value of an (ordinary) annuity for nperiods
(PVAn) as PVAn=R[1/(1 +i)1] +R[1/(1 +i)2] +... +R[1/(1 +i)n]
=R[PVIFi,1 +PVIFi,2 +... +PVIFi,n]
PVAn = R[(1-[1/(1+i)n ])/i]
and can be expressed even more simply as
PVAn=R(PVIFAi,n)
The present value of the $1,000 annuity for three years at 8 percent The PVIFA8%,3 is found
from the table to be 2.577. (Notice this figure is nothing more than the sum of the first three
numbers under the 8% column in Table of PVA) Employing Eq. (3.11), we get
PVA3=$1,000(PVIFA8%,3)
=$1,000(2.577) =$2,577
Unknown Interest (or Discount) Rate

A rearrangement of the basic future value (present value) of an annuity equation can be used
to solve for the compound interest (discount) rate implicit in an annuity if we know: (1) the
annuitys future (present) value, (2) the periodic payment or receipt, and (3) the number of
periods involved. Suppose that you need to have at least $9,500 at the end of 8 years in order
to send your parents on a luxury cruise. To accumulate this sum, you have decided to deposit
$1,000 at the end of each of the next 8 years in a bank savings account. If the bank compounds
interest annually, what minimum compound annual interest rate must the bank offer for your
savings plan to work?
Mr. Tahir Abbas
FVA8=R(FVIFAi,8)
$9,500 =$1,000(FVIFAi,8)
FVIFAi,8 =$9,500/$1,000 =9.5
Reading across the 8-period row in Table 3.5, we look for the future value interest factor of an
annuity (FVIFA) that comes closest to our calculated value of 9.5. In our table, that interest
factor is 9.549 and is found in the 5% column. Because 9.549 is slightly larger than 9.5, we
conclude that the interest rate implicit in the example situation is actually slightly less than 5
percent. (For a more accurate answer, you would need to rely on trial-and-error testing of
different interest rates, interpolation, or a financial calculator)
Unknown Periodic Payment (or Receipt)

When dealing with annuities, one frequently encounters situations in which either the future
(or present) value of the annuity, the interest rate, and the number of periodic payments (or
receipts) are known. What needs to be deter-mined, however, is the size of each equal
payment or receipt. In a business setting, we most frequently encounter the need to determine
periodic annuity payments in sinking fund (i.e., building up a fund through equal-dollar
payments) and loan amortization (i.e., extinguishing a loan through equal-dollar payments)
problems.
How much must one deposit each year end in a savings account earning 5 percent com-pound
annual interest to accumulate $10,000 at the end of 8 years? We compute the payment (R)
going into the savings account each year with the help of future value of an annuity In addition,
we use Table to find the value corresponding to FVIFA5%,8 and proceed as follows:
FVA8=R(FVIFA5%,8)
$10,000 =R(9.549)
R=$10,000/9.549 =$1,047.23
Therefore, by making eight year-end deposits of $1,047.23 each into a savings account earning
5 percent compound annual interest, we will build up a sum totaling $10,000 at the end of 8
years
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Perpetuity
An ordinary annuity whose payments or receipts continue forever
Perpetuity is an ordinary annuity whose payments or receipts continue for-ever. The ability to
determine the present value of this special type of annuity will be required when we value
perpetual bonds and preferred stock in the next chapter.
PVA=R [(1 [1/ (1 +i) ])/i]

Because the bracketed term [1/(1 +i)] approaches zero, we can rewrite Eq as
PVA=R[(1 0)/i] =R(1/i)

Or simply
PVA=R/i
Thus the present value of a perpetuity is simply the periodic receipt (payment) divided by the
interest rate per period. For example, if $100 is received each year forever and the interest rate
is 8 percent, the present value of this perpetuity is $1,250 (that is, $100/0.08).
Annuity Due:
In contrast to an ordinary annuity, where payments or receipts occur at the
End of each period, an annuity due calls for a series of equal payments occurring at the
beginning of each period Luckily, only a slight modification to the procedures already outlined
for the treatment of ordinary annuities will allow us to solve annuity due problems.
FVADn=R(FVIFAi,n)(1 +i)
PVADn=(1 +i)(R)(PVIFAi,n)
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Compounding More Than Once a Year

Nominal (stated) interest rate:
A rate of interest quoted for a year that has not been adjusted for frequency of
compounding. If interest is compounded more than once a year, the effective interest
rate will be higher than the nominal rate
Future (or Compound) Value

Up to now, we have assumed that interest is paid annually. It is easiest to get a basic
understanding of the time value of money with this assumption. Now, however, it is
time to consider the relationship between future value and interest rates for different
compounding periods. To begin, suppose that interest is paid semiannually. If you then
deposit $100 in a savings account at a nominal, or stated, 8 percent annual interest rate,
the future value at the end of six months would be
FV0.5=$100(1 +[0.08/2]) =$104
In other words, at the end of one half-year you would receive 4 percent in interest, not
8 per-cents. At the end of a year the future value of the deposit would be
FV1=$100(1 +[0.08/2])2
=$108.16
This amount compares with $108 if interest is paid only once a year. The $0.16
difference is caused by interest being earned in the second six months on the $4 in
interest paid at the end of the first six months. The more times during the year that
interest is paid, the greater the future value at the end of a given year. The general
formula for solving for the future value at the end of n years where interest is paid m
times a year is
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FVn=PV0(1 +[i/m])mn
To illustrate, suppose that now interest is paid quarterly and that you wish to
know the future value of $100 at the end of one year where the stated annual
rate is 8 percent. The future value would be
FV1=$100(1 +[0.08/4])(4)(1)
=$100(1 +0.02)4
=$108.24
Which, of course, is higher than it would be with either semiannual or annual
compounding. The future value at the end of three years for the example with
quarterly compounding is
FV3=$100(1 +[0.08/4])(4)(3)
=$100(1 +0.02)12
=$126.82
Compared with a future value with semiannual compounding of
FV3=$100(1 +[0.08/2])(2)(3)
=$100(1 +0.04)6
=$126.53
And with annual compounding of
FV3=$100(1 +[0.08/1])(1)(3)
=$100(1 +0.08)3
=$125.97
Present (or Discounted) Value

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When interest is compounded more than once a year, the formula for calculating
present value must be revised along the same lines as for the calculation of future
value Instead of dividing the future cash flow by (1 +i)n as we do when annual
compounding is involved, we determine the present value by
PV0=FVn/(1 +[i/m])mn
Where, as before, FVn is the future cash flow to be received at the end of year n,
m is the number of times a year interest is compounded, and iis the discount rate.
for example, to calculate the present value of $100 to be received at the end of
year 3 for a nominal discount rate of 8 percent compounded quarterly:
PV0=$100/(1 +[0.08/4])(4)(3)
=$100/(1 +0.02)12
=$78.85
If the discount rate is compounded only annually, we have
PV0=$100/(1 +0.08)3
=$79.38
Thus, the fewer times a year that the nominal discount rate is compounded, the
greater the present value this relationship is just the opposite of that for future
values.
Continuous Compounding
In practice, interest is sometimes compounded continuously. Therefore it is useful
to consider how this works. Recall that the general formula for solving for the
future value at the end of
year n,
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FVn=PV0(1 +[i/m])mn
As m, the number of times a year that interest is compounded, approaches
infinity (), we get continuous compounding, and the term (1 +[i/m])mn
approaches e in, where e is approximately 2.71828. Therefore the future value at
the end of n years of an initial deposit of PV0 where interest is compounded
continuously at a rate of I percent is
FVn=PV0 (e) in
For our earlier example problem, the future value of a $100 deposit at the end of
three years with continuous compounding at 8 percent would be
FV3=$100(e)(0.08)(3)
=$100(2.71828)(0.24)
=$127.12
This compares with a future value with annual compounding of
FV3=$100(1 +0.08)3
=$125.97
Continuous compounding results in the maximum possible future value at the end
of n periods for a given nominal rate of interest. By the same token, when interest
is compounded continuously, the formula for the present value of a cash flow
received at the end of year n is
PV0=FVn/ (e)in
Thus the present value of $1,000 to be received at the end of 10 years with a
discount rate of 20 percent, compounded continuously, is
PV0=$1,000/(e)(0.20)(10)
=$1,000/(2.71828)2
=$135.34
Mr. Tahir Abbas
We see then that present value calculations involving continuous compounding

are merely the reciprocals of future value calculations. Also, although continuous
compounding results in the maximum possible future value, it results in the
minimum possible present value.
Summary Table of Key Compound Interest Formulas

Single Amounts:
FVn=P0(1 +i)n
=P0(FVIFi,n)
PV0=FVn[1/(1 +i)n]
=FVn(PVIFi,n)
Annuities:
01. FVAn=R([(1 +i)n1]/i)
=R(FVIFAi,n)
02. PVAn=R[(1 [1/(1 +i)n])/i] (3.10)

=R(PVIFAi,n)
03. FVADn=R(FVIFAi,n)(1 +i)

04. PVADn=R(PVIFAi,n1+1)
=(1 +i)(R)(PVIFAi,n)
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Problems
01. The following are exercises in future (terminal) values:
a. At the end of three years, how much is an initial deposit of $100 worth, assuming a
compound annual interest rate of (i) 100 percent? (ii) 10 percent? (iii) 0 percent?
b. At the end of five years, how much is an initial $500 deposit followed by five year-end,
annual $100 payments worth, assuming a compound annual interest rate of (i) 10 per-cent? (ii)
5 percent? (iii) 0 percent?
c. At the end of six years, how much is an initial $500 deposit followed by five year-end, annual
$100 payments worth, assuming a compound annual interest rate of (i) 10 per-cent? (ii) 5
percent? (iii) 0 percent?
d. At the end of three years, how much is an initial $100 deposit worth, assuming a quar-terly
compounded annual interest rate of (i) 100 percent? (ii) 10 percent?
e. Why do your answers to Part (d) differ from those to Part (a)?
f. At the end of 10 years, how much is a $100 initial deposit worth, assuming an annual interest
rate of 10 percent compounded (i) annually? (ii) Semiannually? (iii) Quarterly? (iv)
Continuously?
02.The following are exercises in present values:

a. $100 at the end of three years is worth how much today, assuming a discount rate of
(i) 100 percent? (ii) 10 percent? (iii) 0 percent?
b. What is the aggregate present value of $500 received at the end of each of the next three
years, assuming a discount rate of (i) 4 percent? (ii) 25 percent?
c. $100 is received at the end of one year, $500 at the end of two years, and $1,000 at the end
of three years. What is the aggregate present value of these receipts, assuming a discount rate
of (i) 4 percent? (ii) 25 percent?
d. $1,000 is to be received at the end of one year, $500 at the end of two years, and $100
Mr. Tahir Abbas
at the end of three years. What is the aggregate present value of these receipts assum-ing a
discount rate of (i) 4 percent? (ii) 25 percent?
e. Compare your solutions in Part (c) with those in Part (d) and explain the reason for the
differences.
03. Joe Hernandez has inherited $25,000 and wishes to purchase an annuity that will provide
him with a steady income over the next 12 years. He has heard that the local savings and loan
association is currently paying 6 percent compound interest on an annual basis. If he were to
deposit his funds, what year-end equal-dollar amount (to the nearest dollar) would he be able
to withdraw annually such that he would have a zero balance after his last withdrawal 12 years
from now?
04. You need to have $50,000 at the end of 10 years. To accumulate this sum, you have
decided to save a certain amount at the endof each of the next 10 years and deposit it in the
bank. The bank pays 8 percent interest compounded annually for long-term deposits. How
much will you have to save each year (to the nearest dollar)?
05. Same as Problem 4 above, except that you deposit a certain amount at the beginningof
each of the next 10 years. Now, how much will you have to save each year (to the nearest
dollar)?
06. Vernal Equinox wishes to borrow $10,000 for three years. A group of individuals agrees to
lend him this amount if he contracts to pay them $16,000 at the end of the three years. What is
the implicit compound annual interest rate implied by this contract (to the nearest whole
percent)?
07. You have been offered a note with four years to maturity, which will pay $3,000 at the end
of each of the four years. The price of the note to you is $10,200. What is the implicit
compound annual interest rate you will receive (to the nearest whole percent)?
08. Sales of the P.J. Cramer Company were $500,000 this year, and they are expected to grow
at a compound rate of 20 percent for the next six years. What will be the sales figure at the end
of each of the next six years?
09. Suppose you were to receive $1,000 at the end of 10 years. If your opportunity rate is 10
percent, what is the present value of this amount if interest is compounded (a) annu-ally? (b)
Quarterly? (c) Continuously?
Mr. Tahir Abbas
10. The Happy Hang Glide Company is purchasing a building and has obtained a $190,000
mortgage loan for 20 years. The loan bears a compound annual interest rate of 17 percent and
calls for equal annual installment payments at the end of each of the 20 years. What is the
amount of the annual payment?
11. You have borrowed $14,300 at a compound annual interest rate of 15 percent. You feel
that you will be able to make annual payments of $3,000 per year on your loan. (Payments
include both principal and interest.) How long will it be before the loan is entirely paid off (to
the nearest year)?
12. Lost Dutchman Mines, Inc., is considering investing in Peru. It makes a bid to the
government to participate in the development of a mine, the profits of which will be realized at
the end of five years. The mine is expected to produce $5 million in cash to Lost Dutchman
Mines at that time. Other than the bid at the outset, no other cash flows will occur, as the
government will reimburse the company for all costs. If Lost Dutchman requires a nominal
annual return of 20 percent (ignoring any tax consequences), what is the maximum bid it
should make for the participation right if interest is compounded (a) annually? (b)
Semiannually? (c) Quarterly? (d) Continuously?
13. Suppose that an investment promises to pay a nominal 9.6 percent annual rate of inter-est.
What is the effective annual interest rate on this investment assuming that interest is
compounded (a) annually? (b) Semiannually? (c) Quarterly? (d) Monthly? (e) Daily (365 days)?
(f) Continuously? (Note: Report your answers accurate to four decimal places e.g., 0.0987 or
(9.87 %.)
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Solution
01.
a) FVn= P0(1 + i) n
(i) FV3= $100(2.0)3 = $100(8) = $800
(ii) FV3= $100(1.10)3 = $100(1.331) = $133.10
(iii) FV3= $100(1.0)3 = $100(1) = $100
b) FVn= P0(1 + i)n; FVAn= R[([1 + i]n- 1)/i]
(i) FV5= $500(1.10)5= $500(1.611)
= $ 805.50
FVA5= $100[([1.10]5- 1)/(.10)] = $100(6.105) = 610.50

= $1,416.00
(ii) FV5= $500(1.05)5 = $500(1.276)
= $ 638.00
FVA5= $100[([1.05]5- 1)/(.05)] = $100(5.526)
= 552.60
=$1,190.60
(iii) FV5= $500(1.0)5= $500(1)
= $ 500.00
FVA5= $100(5)*
= 500.00
= $1,000.00
*[Note: We had to invoke l'Hospital's rule in the special case where i = 0; in short, FVIFAn= n
when i = 0.]
c) FVn= P0(1 + i)n ; FVADn= R[([1 + i]n - 1)/i][1 + i]
(i) FV6= $500(1.10)6= $500(1.772)
= $ 886.00
FVAD5= $100[([1.10]5- 1)/(.10)] x [1.10] =

$100(6.105)(1.10)
Mr. Tahir Abbas
= 671.55
=$1,557.55
(ii) FV6= $500(1.05)6 = $500(1.340)
= $ 670.00
FVAD5= $100[([1.05]5- 1)/(.05)] x [1.05] =

$100(5.526)(1.05)
= 580.23
=$1,250.23
(iii) FV6= $500(1.0)6= $500(1) =

FVAD5= $100(5) =
$ 500.00
500.00
$1,000.00
d) FVn= PV0(1 + [i/m])mn

(i) FV3= $100(1 + [1/4])12= $100(14.552) =
(ii) FV3= $100(1 + [.10/4])12 = $100(1.345) =
$1,455.20
$ 134.50
e) The more times a year interest is paid, the greater the future value. It is particularly
important when the interest rate is high, as evidenced by the difference in solutions between
Parts 1.a) (i) and 1.d) (i).
f) FVn= PV0(1 + [i/m])mn; FVn= PV0(e)in
(i) $100(1 + [.10/1])10= $100(2.594) = $259.40
(ii) $100(1 + [.10/2])20 = $100(2.653) = $265.30
(iii) $100(1 + [.10/4])40 = $100(2.685) = $268.50
(iv) $100(2.71828)1 = $271.83
2. a)
P0= FVn[1/(1 + i)n]
(i) $100[1/(2)3] = $100(.125) = $12.50

(ii) $100[1/(1.10)3] = $100(.751) = $75.10
(iii) $100[1/(1.0)3] = $100(1) = $100
Mr. Tahir Abbas
b) PVAn= R[(1 -[1/(1 + i)n])/i]

(i) $500[(1 -[1/(1 + .04)3])/.04] = $500(2.775) = $1,387.50
(ii) $500[(1 -[1/(1 + .25)3])/.25] = $500(1.952) = $ 976.00
c) P0= FVn[1/(1 + i)n]

(i) $ 100[1/(1.04)1] = $ 100(.962)
= $ 96.20
500[1/(1.04)2] = 500(.925)
= 462.50
1,000[1/(1.04)3 ] = 1,000(.889) = 889.00

$1,447.70
(ii) $ 100[1/(1.25)1] = $ 100(.800) = $ 80.00
500[1/(1.25)2 ] = 500(.640)
1,000[1/(1.25)3] = 1,000(.512)
= 320.00
= 512.00
$ 912.00
d)
(i) $1,000[1/(1.04)1] = $1,000(.962) = $ 962.00

500[1/(1.04)2] = 500(.925)
100[1/(1.04)3] = 100(.889)
= 462.50
= 88.90
$1,513.40
(ii) $1,000[1/(1.25)1] = $1,000(.800) = $ 800.00

500[1/(1.25)2] = 500(.640)
= 320.00
100[1/(1.25)3] = 100(.512)
= 51.20
$1,171.20
Mr. Tahir Abbas
e) The fact that the cash flows are larger in the first period for the sequence in
Part (d) results in their having a higher present value. The comparison illustrates
the desirability of early cash flows.
3.
$25,000 = R(PVIFA6%,12) = R(8.384)

R = $25,000/8.384 = $2,982
4.
$50,000 = R(FVIFA8%,10) = R(14.486)

R = $50,000/14.486 = $3,452
5.
$50,000 = R(FVIFA8%,10)(1 + .08) = R(15.645)

R = $50,000/15.645 = $3,196
6.
$10,000 = $16,000(PVIFx%,3)
(PVIFx%,3) = $10,000/$16,000 = 0.625
Going to the PVIF table at the back of the book and looking across the row for n =
3, we find that the discount factor for 17 percent is 0.624 and that is closest to
the number above.
7.
$10,000 = $3,000(PVIFAx%, 4) (PVIFAx%,4) = $10,200/$3,000 = 3.4
Going to the PVIFA table at the back of the book and looking across the row for
n = 4, we find that the discount factor for 6 percent is 3.465, while for 7 percent it
is 3.387. Therefore, the note has an implied interest rate of almost 7 percent.
Mr. Tahir Abbas
8.
Year
1
$ 600,000
$ 500,000(1.2)
720,000
600,000(1.2)
864,000
720,000(1.2)
1,036,800
864,000(1.2)
1,244,160
1,036,800(1.2)
1,492,992
1,244,160(1.2)
09. Amount
10.
Sales
Present Value
Interest Factor
Present Value
$1,000
1,000
1/(1 + .10)10
1/(1 + .025)40
=
=
.386
.372
$386
372
1,000
1/e(.10)(10)
.368
368
$190,000 = R (PVIFA17%,20) = R(5.628)

R = $190,000/5.628 = $33,760
11.
$14,300 = $3,000(PVIFA15%,n) (PVIFA15%,n) = $14,300/$3,000 = 4.767

Going to the PVIFA table at the back of the book and looking down the column
for i = 15%, we find that the discount factor for 8 years is 4.487, while the
discount factor for 9 years is 4.772. Thus, it will take approximately 9 years of
payments before the loan is retired.
Mr. Tahir Abbas
12.
A) $5,000,000 = R[1 + (.20/1)]5= R(2.488)

R = $5,000,000/2.488 = $2,009,646
b) $5,000,000 = R[1 + (.20/2)]10= R(2.594)

R = $5,000,000/2.594 = $1,927,525
c) $5,000,000 = R[1 + (.20/4)]20= R(2.653)
R = $5,000,000/2.653 = $1,884,659
d) $5,000,000 = R(e)(.20)(5) = R(2.71828)(1)
R = $5,000,000/2.71828 = $1,839,398
13. Effective annual interest rate = (1 + [i/m])m- 1

a. (annually) = (1 + [.096/1])1- 1
= .0960
b. (semiannually) = (1 + [.096/2])2- 1
= .0983
c. (quarterly) = (1 + [.096/4])4- 1
= .0995
d. (monthly) = (1 + [.096/12])12- 1
= .1003
e. (daily) = (1 + [.096/365])365- 1
= .1007
Effective annual interest rate with continuous compounding = (e)i- 1

f. (continuous) = (2.71828).096- 1 = .1008
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Chapter#03
The Valuation of Long-Term Securities
Distinctions among Valuation Concepts
Liquidation value:
The amount of money that could be realized if an asset or a group of assets (e.g.,
a firm) is sold separately from its operating organization
Going-concern value
The amount a firm could be sold for as a continuing operating business
Book value
(1) An asset: the accounting value of an asset the assets cost minus its
accumulated depreciation; (2) a firm: total assets minus liabilities and preferred
stock as listed on the balance sheet
Market value
The market price at which an asset trades
Intrinsic value
The price a security ought to have based on all factors bearing on valuation
Bond Valuation
Bond
A long-term debt instrument issued by a corporation or government
Face value
The stated value of an asset In the case of a bond, the face value is usually $1,000.
Coupon rate
Mr. Tahir Abbas
The stated rate of interest on a bond; the annual interest payment divided by the
bonds face value
Perpetual Bonds
The first (and easiest) place to start determining the value of bonds is with a
unique class of bonds that never matures. These are indeed rare, but they help
illustrate the valuation technique in its simplest form. Originally issued by Great
Britain after the Napoleonic Wars to consolidate debt issues, the British consol
(short for consolidated annuities) is one such example. This bond carries the
obligation of the British government to pay a fixed interest payment in perpetuity.
The present value of a perpetual bond would simply be equal to the capitalized
value of an infinite stream of interest payments. If a bond promises a fixed annual
payment of I forever, its present (intrinsic) value, V, at the investors required rate
of return for this debt issue, kd , is
V= i/(1+kd)1 + i/(1+kd)2++ i/(1+kd)
V= (i/1+kd) t
V=I(PVIFAkd,)
we know should reduce to
V=I/kd
Consol
A bond that never matures; perpetuity in the form of a bond
Thus the present value of a perpetual bond is simply the periodic interest
payment divided by the appropriate discount rate per period. Suppose you could
buy a bond that paid $50 a year forever. Assuming that your required rate of
Mr. Tahir Abbas
return for this type of bond is 12 percent, the present value of this security would
be
V=$50/0.12 =$416.67
This is the maximum amount that you would be willing to pay for this bond. If the
market price is greater than this amount, however, you would not want to buy it
Bonds with a Finite Maturity

Non zero Coupon Bonds
If a bond has a finite maturity, then we must consider not only the interest stream
but also the terminal or maturity value (face value) in valuing the bond. The
valuation equation for such a bond that pays interest at the end of each year is
V= i/(1+kd)1 + i/(1+kd)2++ i/(1+kd) n + MV/(1+kd)n

V= (i/1+kd)t + MV/(1+kd)n
=I(PVIFAkd,n) +MV(PVIFkd,n)
Where n is the number of years until final maturity and MVis the maturity value
of the bond. We might wish to determine the value of a $1,000-par-value bond
with a 10 percent coupon and nine years to maturity. The coupon rate
corresponds to interest payments of $100 a year. If our required rate of return on
the bond is 12 percent, then
V= $100/(1+.12)1 +$100/(1+.12)1 +..+$100/(1+.12)9 + $1000/(1+.12)9
V=$100(5.328) +$1,000(0.361)
=$532.80 +$361.00 =$893.80
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Zero-coupon bond
A bond that pays no interest but sells at a deep discount from its face
value; it provides compensation to investors in the form of price
appreciation.
A zero-coupon bond makes no periodic interest payments but instead is sold
at a deep discount from its face value. Why buy a bond that pays no
interest? The answer lies in the fact that the buyer of such a bond does
receive a return. This return consists of the gradual increase (or
appreciation) in the value of the security from its original, below-face-value
purchase price until it is redeemed at face value on its maturity date.
The valuation equation for a zero-coupon bond is a truncated version of that
used for a normal interest-paying bond. The present value of interest
payments component is lopped off, and we are left with value being
determined solely by the present value of principal payment at maturity,
or
V= MV/(1+kd)n
=MV(PVIFkd,n)
Suppose that Espinosa Enterprises issues a zero-coupon bond having a 10-year
maturity and a $1,000 face value. If youre required return is 12 percent, then
V=$1,000/(1.12)10
V= $322
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Semiannual Compounding of Interest

Although some bonds (typically those issued in European markets) make interest
payments once a year, most bonds issued in the United States pay interest twice a
year. As a result, it is necessary to modify our bond valuation equations to
account for compounding twice a year.
V= (i/2/1+kd/2)t + MV/(1+kd/2)2n
=I/2(PVIFAkd/2, 2n) +MV(PVIFkd/2, 2n)
Where kd is the nominal annual required rate of interest, I/2 is the semiannual
coupon payment, and 2n is the number of semiannual periods until maturity.
Preferred Stock Valuation

Preferred stock:
A type of stock that promises a (usually) fixed dividend, but at the discretion of
the board of directors It has preference over common stock in the payment of
dividends and claims on assets
Most preferred stock pays a fixed dividend at regular intervals. The features of
this financial instrument are discussed in Chapter 20. Preferred stock has no
stated maturity date and, given the fixed nature of its payments, is similar to a
perpetual bond. It is not surprising, then, that we use the same general approach
as applied to valuing a perpetual bond to the valuation of preferred stock.
Thus the present value of preferred stock is
V=Dp/kp
Where Dp is the stated annual dividend per share of preferred stock and kpis the
appropriate discount rate. If Margana Cipher Corporation had a 9 percent, $100par-value preferred stock issue outstanding and your required return was 14
percent on this investment, its value per share to you would be
Mr. Tahir Abbas
V=$9/0.14 =$64.29
Common Stock Valuation

Common stock:
Securities that represent the ultimate ownership (and risk) position in a
corporation
Are Dividends the Foundation?
When valuing bonds and preferred stock, we determined the discounted value of
all the cash distributions made by the firm to the investor. In a similar fashion, the
value of a share of common stock can be viewed as the discounted value of all
expected cash dividends provided by the issuing firm until the end of time
V= D1/(1+ke)1 + D2/(1+ke)2 +..+ D/(1+ke)

V= Dt/(1+ke)t
Where Dt is the cash dividend at the end of time period t and ke is the investors
required return, or capitalization rate, for this equity investment. This seems
consistent with what we have been doing so far. But what if we plan to own the
stock for only two years? In this case, our model becomes
V= D1/(1+ke)1 + D2/(1+ke)2 + P2/(1+ke)2

Where P2 is the expected sales price of our stock at the end of two years this
assumes that investors will be willing to buy our stock two years from now. In
turn, these future investors will base their judgments of what the stock is worth
on expectations of future dividends and a future selling price (or terminal value).
And so the process goes through successive investors
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Dividend Discount Models

Dividend discount models are designed to compute the intrinsic value of a share
of common stock under specific assumptions as to the expected growth pattern
of future dividends and the appropriate discount rate to employ. Merrill Lynch, CS
First Boston, and a number of other investment banks routinely make such
calculations based on their own particular models and estimates. What follows is
an examination of such models, beginning with the simplest one.
Constant Growth
Future dividends of a company could jump all over the place; but, if dividends are
expected to grow at a constant rate, what implication does this hold for our basic
stock valuation approach? If this constant rate is g, then
V= D0(1+g)/(1+ke)1 + D0(1+g)/(1+ke)2 +..+ D0(1+g)/(1+ke)

Where D0 is the present dividend per share Thus the dividend expected at the end
of period n is equal to the most recent dividend times the compound growth
factor, (1 +g)n This may not look like much of an improvement over. However,
assuming that ke is greater than g (a reasonable assumption because a dividend
growth rate that is always greater than the capitalization rate would imply an
infinite stock value), can be reduced to
V=D1/(keg)
Rearranging, the investors required return can be expressed as
ke=(D1/V) +g
Suppose that LKN, Inc.s dividend per share at t=1 is expected to be $4, that it is
expected to grow at a 6 percent rate forever, and that the appropriate discount
rate is 14 percent. The value of one share of LKN stock would be
Mr. Tahir Abbas
V=$4 / (0.14 0.06) =$50

If we multiply both sides of Eq. (4.13) by (1 +ke)/(1 +g) and subtract Eq.
D0(1+g)/(1+ke)1 + D0(1+g)/(1+ke)2 +..+ D0(1+g)/(1+ke) from

the product, we get
[V (1+ke)/ (1+g)] V = Do [(1+g)/(1+ke)]

Because we assume that ke is greater than g, the second term on the right-hand
side approaches zero. Consequently,
V [(1+ke)/ (1+g)]-1 =Do
V [(1+ke)-(1+g)/ (1+g)] =Do

V (ke g) =D0(1 +g) =D1
V=D1/(ke g)
This model is sometimes called the Gordon Dividend Valuation Model
after Myron J. Gordon, who developed it from the pioneering work done by
John Williams. See Myron J. Gordon, the Investment, Financing, and
Valuation of the Corporation (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1962).
No Growth
A special case of the constant growth dividend model calls for an expected
Dividend growth rate, g, of zero Here the assumption is that dividends will be
maintained at their current level forever. In this case, Eq. (4.14) reduces to
V=D1/ke
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Not many stocks can be expected simply to maintain a constant dividend forever.
However, when a stable dividend is expected to be maintained for a long period
of time, Eq. V=D1/ke can provide a good approximation of value.
Growth Phases
When the pattern of expected dividend growth is such that a constant growth
model is not appropriate, modifications A number of valuation models are based
on the premise that firms may exhibit above-normal growth for a number of years
(g may even be larger than ke during this phase), but eventually the growth rate
will taper off. Thus the transition might well be from a currently above-normal
growth rate to one that is considered normal. If dividends per share are expected
to grow at a 10 percent compound rate for five years and thereafter at a 6
percent rate, Eq.
D0(1+g)/(1+ke)1 + D0(1+g)/(1+ke)2 +..+ D0(1+g)/(1+ke)

becomes
] [
V= Do(1.10)t/(1+ke)t + D5(1.06)t-5/(1+ke)t
Note that the growth in dividends in the second phase uses the expected dividend
in period 5 as its foundation. Therefore the growth-term exponent is t5, which
means that the exponent in period 6 equals 1, in period 7 it equals 2, and so forth.
This second phase is nothing more than a constant-growth model following a
period of above-normal growth. We can make use of that fact to rewrite Eq.
[D (1.10) /(1+k ) ] + [D (1.06)

o
][
] as follows:
t-5/(1+k )t
e
][(D /k -0.06)]
V= Do(1.10)t/(1+ke)t + 1/(1+ke)5
Mr. Tahir Abbas
If the current dividend, D0 , is $2 per share and the required rate of return, ke , is
14 percent, we could solve for V.
][
][($3.41/0.14-0.06)]
V= $2(1.10)t/(1.14)t + 1/(1.14)5
=$8.99 +$22.13 =$31.12
PHASE 1: PRESENT VALUE OF DIVIDENDS

TO BE RECEIVED OVER FIRST 5 YEARS
END OF YEAR
PRESENT VALUE CALCULATION

(DIVIDEND
PRESENT VALUE
PVIF14%,t )
OF DIVIDEND
$2(1.10)1 = $2.20
0.877
$1.93
2(1.10)2= 2.42
0.769
1.86
2(1.10)3= 2.66
0.675
1.80
2(1.10)4= 2.93
0.592
1.73
2(1.10)5= 3.22
0.519
1.6
Or
[ $2(1.10) /(1.14) ]
t
Mr. Tahir Abbas
$8.99
PHASE 2: PRESENT VALUE OF CONSTANT GROWTH COMPONENT

Dividend at the end of year 6
=$3.22(1.06) =$3.41
Value of stock at the end of year 5
=D6/(ke g) =$3.41/(0.14 0.06) =$42.63
Present value of $42.63 at end of year 5 =($42.63)(PVIF14%,5)

=($42.63)(0.519) =$22.13
PRESENT VALUE OF STOCK
V=$8.99 +$22.13 =$31.12
The transition from an above-normal rate of dividend growth could be specified
as more gradual than the two-phase approach just illustrated. We might expect
dividends to grow at a
10 percent rate for five years, followed by an 8 percent rate for the next five years
and a 6 per-cent growth rate thereafter. The more growth segments that are
added, the more closely the growth in dividends will approach a curvilinear
function. But no firm can grow at an above-normal rate forever. Typically,
companies tend to grow at a very high rate initially, after which their growth
opportunities slow down to a rate that is normal for companies in general. If
maturity is reached, the growth rate may stop altogether.
Rates of Return (or Yields)

Yield to maturity:
Mr. Tahir Abbas
(YTM)The expected rate of return on a bond if bought at its current market price
and held to maturity
Yield to Maturity (YTM) on Bonds

The market required rate of return on a bond (kd) is more commonly referred to
as the bonds yield to maturity. Yield to maturity (YTM) is the expected rate of
return on a bond if bought at its current market price and held to maturity; it is
also known as the bonds internal rate of return (IRR).Mathematically, it is the
discount rate that equates the present value of all expected interest payments
and the payment of principal (face value) at maturity with the bonds current
market price. For an example, lets return to Eq. (V= (i/1+kd)t + MV/(1+kd)n ),
the valuation equation for an interest-bearing bond with a finite maturity.
Replacing intrinsic value (V) with current market price (P0 ) gives us
Po= i/(1+kd)t + MV/(1+kd)n
If we now substitute actual values for I, MV, and P0 , we can solve for kd,
which in this case would be the bonds yield to maturity. However, the
precise calculation for yield to maturity is rather complex and requires bond
value tables, or a sophisticated handheld calculator, or a computer
Interpolation
Interpolate Estimate an unknown number that lies somewhere between two
known numbers
If all we have to work with are present value tables, we can still determine
an approximation of the yield to maturity by making use of a trial-and-error
procedure. To illustrate, consider a $1,000-par-value bond with the
following characteristics: a current market price of $761, 12 years until
maturity, and an 8 percent coupon rate (with interest paid annually). We
want to determine the discount rate that sets the present value of the
bonds expected future cash-flow stream equal to the bonds current market
Mr. Tahir Abbas
price. Suppose that we start with a 10 percent discount rate and calculate
the present value of the bonds expected future cash flows. For the
appropriate present value interest factors, we make use of Tables II and IV in
the Appendix at the end of the book.
V=$80(PVIFA10%,12) +$1,000(PVIF10%,12)
=$80(6.814) +$1,000(0.319) =$864.12
A 10 percent discount rate produces a resulting present value for the bond
that is greater than the current market price of $761. Therefore we need to
try a higher discount rate to handicap the future cash flows further and
drive their present value down to $761. Lets try a 15 percent discount rate:
V=$80(PVIFA15%,12) +$1,000(PVIF15%,12)
=$80(5.421) +$1,000(0.187) =$620.68
This time the chosen discount rate was too large. The resulting present
value is less than the current market price of $761. The rate necessary to
discount the bonds expected cash flows to $761 must fall somewhere
between 10 and 15 percent
This time the chosen discount rate was too large. The resulting present
value is less than the current market price of $761. The rate necessary to
discount the bonds expected cash flows to $761 must fall somewhere
between 10 and 15 percent. To approximate this discount rate, we
interpolate between 10 and 15 percent as follows
Mr. Tahir Abbas
0.10
0.05
X YTM
0.15
X/0.05=$103.12/$243.44
$864.12
$761.00
$103.12
$243.44
$620.68
Therefore,
(0.05)X($103.12)/$243.44 =0.0212
In this example X=YTM0.10. Therefore, YTM =0.10 +X=0.10 +0.0212 =0.1212, or 12.12 percent.
The use of a computer provides a precise yield to maturity of 11.82 percent. It is important to
keep in mind that interpolation gives only an approximation of the exact percentage; the
relationship between the two discount rates is not linear with respect to present value.
However, the tighter the range of discount rates that we use in interpolation, the closer the
resulting answer will be to the mathematically correct one. For example, had we used 11 and
12 percent, we would have come even closer to the true yield to maturity.
Behavior of Bond Prices

1. When the market required rate of return is more than the stated coupon rate, the price of
the bond will be less than its face value. Such a bond is said to be selling at a discount from face
value. The amount by which the face value exceeds the current price is the
Bond discount
Bond discount the amount by which the face value of a bond exceeds its current price
2. When the market required rate of return is less than the stated coupon rate, the price of the
bond will be more than its face value. Such a bond is said to be selling at a premium over face
value. The amount by which the current price exceeds the face value is the
Bond premium
Bond premium the amount by which the current price of a bond exceeds its face value
3. When the market required rate of return equals the stated coupon rate, the price of the
bond will equal its face value. Such a bond is said to be selling at par
Key Point:
a. If a bond sells at a discount, then P0<par and YTM >coupon rate
b. If a bond sells at par, then P0=par and YTM =coupon rate.
c. If a bond sells at a premium, then P0>par and YTM <coupon rate
Mr. Tahir Abbas
3. If interest rates rise so that the market required rate of return increases, the bonds
price will fall. If interest rates fall, the bonds price will increase. In short, interest rates
and bond prices move in opposite directions just like two ends of a childs seesaw.
From the last observation, it is clear that variability in interest rates should lead to
variability in bond prices. This variation in the market price of a security caused by
changes in interest rates is referred to as interest-rate (or yield) risk. It is important to
note that an investor incurs a loss due to interest-rate (or yield) risk only if a security is
sold prior to maturity and the level of interest rates has increased since time of
purchase. A further relationship, not as apparent as the previous four observations,
needs to be illustrated separately.
Interest-rate (or yield) risks the variation in the market price of a security caused by
changes in interest rates.
5. For a given change in market required return, the price of a bond will change by a greater
amount, the longer its maturity.
In general, the longer the maturity, the greater the price fluctuation associated with a given
change in market required return. The closer in time that you are to this relatively large
maturity value being realized, the less important are interest payments in determining the
market price, and the less important is a change in market required return on the market price
of the security. In general, then, the longer the maturity of a bond, the greater the risk of price
changes to the investor when changes occur in the overall level of interest rates.
6. For a given change in market required rate of return, the price of a bond will change by
proportionally more, the lower the coupon rate. In other words, bond price volatility is
inversely related to coupon rate.
YTM and Semiannual Compounding

As previously mentioned, most domestic bonds pay interest twice a year, not once. This realworld complication is often ignored in an attempt to simplify discussion. We can take
semiannual interest payments into account, however, when determining yield to maturity by
replacing intrinsic value (V) with current market price (P0) in bond valuation
V= (i/2/1+kd/2)t + MV/(1+kd/2)2n
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Solving for kd /2 in this equation would give us the semiannual yield to maturity.
The practice of doubling the semiannual YTM has been adopted by convention in bond circles
to provide the annualized (nominal annual) YTM or what bond traders would call the bondequivalent yield.The appropriate procedure, however, would be to square 1 plus the
semiannual YTM and then subtract 1: that is,
(1 +semiannual YTM)2 1 =(effective annual) YTM
Yield on Preferred Stock

Substituting current market price (P0 ) for intrinsic value (V) in preferred stock valuation
P0= Dp/kp
To illustrate, assume that the current market price per share of Acme Zarf Companys 10
percent, $100-par-value preferred stock is $91.25. Acmes preferred stock is therefore priced to
provide a yield of
kp=$10/$91.25 =10.96%
Yield on Common Stock

The rate of return that sets the discounted value of the expected cash dividends from a share of
common stock equal to the shares current market price is the yield on that common stock. If,
for example, the constant dividend growth model was appropriate to apply to the common
stock of a particular company, the current market price (P0) could be said to be
P0=D1 /(keg)
Solving for ke, which in this case is the market-determined yield on a companys common stock,
we get
ke=D1 /P0+g
From this last expression, it becomes clear that the yield on common stock comes from two
sources. The first source is the expected dividend yield, D1/P0 ; whereas the second source, g,
is the expected capital gains yield. Yes, g wears a number of hats. It is the expected com-pound
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annual growth rate in dividends. But, given this model, it is also the expected annual percent
change in stock price (that is, P1/P01 =g) and, as such, is referred to as the capital gains yield.
Question:
What market yield is implied by a share of common stock currently selling for $40 whose
dividends are expected to grow at a rate of 9 percent per year and whose dividend next year is
expected to be $2.40?
Answer:
The market yield, ke , is equal to the dividend yield, D1 /P0 , plus the capital gains yield, g, as
follows:
ke=$2.40/$40 +0.09 =0.06 +0.09 =15%
Problems
1.
Gonzalez Electric Company has outstanding a 10 percent bond issue with a face value of
$1,000 per bond and three years to maturity. Interest is payable annually. The bonds are
privately held by sure safe Fire Insurance Company. Sure safe wishes to sell the bonds,
and is negotiating with another party. It estimates that, in current market conditions,
the bonds should provide a (nominal annual) return of 14 percent. What price per bond
should sure safe be able to realize on the sale?
2.
3. Superior Cement Company has an 8 percent preferred stock issue outstanding, with
each share having a $100 face value. Currently, the yield is 10 percent. What is the
market price per share? If interest rates in general should rise so that the required
return becomes 12 percent, what will happen to the market price per share?
3.
The stock of the Health Corporation is currently selling for $20 a share and is expected
to pay a $1 dividend at the end of the year. If you bought the stock now and sold it for
$23 after receiving the dividend, what rate of return would you earns?
Mr. Tahir Abbas
4.
Delphi Products Corporation currently pays a dividend of $2 per share, and this dividend
is expected to grow at a 15 percent annual rate for three years, and then at a 10 percent
rate for the next three years, after which it is expected to grow at a 5 percent rate
forever. What value would you place on the stock if an 18 percent rate of return was
required?
5.
North Great Timber Company will pay a dividend of $1.50 a share next year. After this,
earnings and dividends are expected to grow at a 9 percent annual rate indefinitely.
Investors currently require a rate of return of 13 percent. The company is considering
several business strategies and wishes to determine the effect of these strategies on the
market price per share of its stock.
a. Continuing the present strategy will result in the expected growth rate and required rate
of return stated above.
b. Expanding timber holdings and sales will increase the expected dividend growth rate to
11 percent but will increase the risk of the company. As a result, the rate of return required
by investors will increase to 16 percent.
c. Integrating into retail stores will increase the dividend growth rate to 10 percent and
increase the required rate of return to 14 percent.
6. Waynes Steaks, Inc., has a 9 percent, non callable, $100-par-value preferred stock issue
outstanding. On January 1 the market price per share is $73. Dividends are paid annually on
December 31. If you require a 12 percent annual return on this investment, what is this stocks
intrinsic value to you (on a per share basis) on January 1?
7. The 9-percent-coupon-rate bonds of the Melbourne Mining Company have exactly 15 years
remaining to maturity. The current market value of one of these $1,000-par-value bonds is
$700. Interest is paid semiannually. Melanie Gibson places a nominal annual required rate of
return of 14 percent on these bonds. What dollar intrinsic value should Melanie place on one of
these bonds (assuming semiannual discounting)?
8. Assume that everything stated in Problem 11 remains the same except that the bonds are
not perpetual. Instead, they have a $1,000 par value and mature in 10 years.
a. Determine the implied semiannual yield to maturity (YTM) on these bonds. (Tip: If all you
have to work with are present value tables, you can still determine an approx-imation of the
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semiannual YTM by making use of a trial-and-error procedure coupled with interpolation. In

fact, the answer to Problem 11, Part (a) rounded to the near-est percent gives you a good
starting point for a trial-and-error approach.)
b. Using your answer to Part (a), what is the (nominal annual) YTM on these bonds? The
(effective annual) YTM on these bonds?
9. Burp-Cola Company just finished making an annual dividend payment of $2 per share on its
common stock. Its common stock dividend has been growing at an annual rate of 10 percent.
Kelly Scott requires a 16 percent annual return on this stock. What intrinsic value should Kelly
place on one share of Burp-Cola common stock under the following three situations?
a. Dividends are expected to continue growing at a constant 10 percent annual
rate.
b. The annual dividend growth rate is expected to decrease to 9 percent and to
remain constant at that level.
c. The annual dividend growth rate is expected to increase to 11 percent and to
remain constant at the level.
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
1.
End of
Discount
Year
Payment
Factor (14%)
Present Value
$ 100
.877
$ 87.70
100
.769
76.90
1,100
.675
742.50
Price per bond
2.
Current price: P0= Dp/kp

Later price: P0= Dp/kp
Mr. Tahir Abbas
$ 907.10
= (.08)($100)/(.10) = $80.00
= ($8)/(.12)
= $66.67
$13.33
3. Rate of return =
=
5.
$1 dividend + ($23 - $20) capital gain /$20 original price

$4/$20 = 20%
a) P0= D1/(ke- g): ($1.50)/(.13 - .09) = $37.50

b) P0= D1/(ke- g): ($1.50)/(.16 - .11) = $30.00
c) P0= D1/(ke- g): ($1.50)/(.14 - .10) = $37.50
Either the present strategy (a) or strategy (c) Both result in the same market price per share
6. V = Dp/kp
= [(.09)($100)]/(.12) = $9/ (.12) = $75
7.
= (I/2)(PVIFA7%,30) + $1,000(PVIF7%,30)
= $45(12.409) + $1,000(.131)
= $558.41 + $131 = $689.41
8. Trying a 4 percent semiannual YTM as a starting point for a trial-and-error approach, we get
P0= $45(PVIFA4%,20) + $1,000(PVIF4%,20)

= $45(13.590) + $1,000(.456)
= $611.55 + $456 = $1,067.55
Since $1,067.55 is less than $1,120, we need to try a lower discount rate, say 3 percent
Mr. Tahir Abbas
P0= $45(PVIFA3%,20) + $1,000(PVIF3%,20)

= $45(14.877) + $1,000(.554)
= $669.47 + $554 = $1,223.47
To approximate the actual discount rate, we interpolate between 3 and 4 percent as

follows:
0.03
0.01
X/0.01 =
$1,223.47
X YTM
$1,120.00
0.15
$1,067.55
$103.47/ $155.92
Therefore,
$103.47
$155.92
(.01) x ($103.47)/ $155.92 = .0066 percent.
(The use of a computer provides a precise semiannual YTM bfigure of 3.64 percent.)
b) (Semiannual YTM) x (2) = (nominal annual) YTM
(.0366) x (2) = .0732
c) (1 + semiannual YTM)2- 1 = (effective annual) YTM (1 + .0366)2- 1 = .0754
9. D0(1 + g)/(ke- g) = V
a. $2(1 + .10)/(.16 - .10) = $2.20/.06 = $36.67
b. $2(1 + .09)/(.16 - .09) = $2.18/.07 = $31.14
c. $2(1 + .11)/(.16 - .11) = $2.22/.05 = $44.40
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Chapter#04
Financial Statement Analysis

Financial Statements
Financial (statement) analysis:
The art of transforming data from financial statements into information that is
useful for informed decision making.
Balance sheet:
A summary of a firms financial position on a given date that shows total assets
=total liabilities +owners equity.
Income statement
A summary of a firms revenues and expenses over a specified period, ending with
net income or loss for the period
Balance Sheet Information

Cash equivalents:
Highly liquid, short-term marketable securities that are readily convertible to
known amounts of cash and generally have remaining maturities of three months
or less at the time of acquisition.
Shareholders equity
Total assets minus total liabilities Alternatively, the book value of a companys
common stock (at par) plus additional paid-in capital and retained earnings
Mr. Tahir Abbas
MARCH 31
Aldine Manufacturing
Company balance sheets (in thousands) 1
ASSETS2
20X2
Cash
20X1
$ 178
$ 175
Accounts receivable3
678
740
Inventories, at lower of cost or market4
1,329
1,235
Prepaid expenses5
21
17
Accumulated tax prepayments
35
29
Current assets6
$2,241
$2,196
Fixed assets at cost7
1,596
1,538
Less: Accumulated depreciation8
(857)
(791)
$ 739
$ 747
Investment, long term
65
Other assets, long term
205
205
$3,250
$3,148
Net fixed assets
Total assets9
LIABILITIES AND
MARCH 31
SHAREHOLDERS EQUITY10,11
Bank loans and notes payable
Accounts payable12
Accrued taxes13
Other accrued liabilities14
Current liabilities15
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20X2
20X1
$ 448
$ 356
148
136
36
127
191
164
$ 823
$ 783
Long-term debt16
631
627
Common stock, $1 par value17
421
421
Additional paid-in capital
361
361
Retained earnings18
1,014
956
Total shareholders equity
$1,796
$1,738
Shareholders equity
Total liabilities and shareholders equity19 $3,250
$3,148
EXPLANATIONS
2. What Aldine owned.
3. Amounts owed to company by customers
4. Raw materials, work-in-process, and finished goods
5. Future expense items (e.g., insurance premiums) that have already been paid.
6. Cash and items likely convertible to cash within 1 year.
7. Original amount paid for land, buildings, and equipment.
8. Accumulated deductions for wear and tear on fixed assets.
9. Assets =liabilities +shareholders equity.
10. What Aldine owed.
11. Ownership interest of shareholders.
12. Due to suppliers for goods and services
13. Accrued refers to an obligation incurred but payment not yet made.
14. Unpaid wages, salaries, etc.
15. Debts payable within 1 year.
16. Debt that need not be paid until after 1 year (e.g., bonds)
17. Amount originally invested in the business by the shareholders
Mr. Tahir Abbas
18. Earnings retained (i.e., re-invested) in the business

19. Liabilities +shareholders equity =assets
Shareholders equity
Total assets minus total liabilities Alternatively, the book value of a companys common stock
(at par) plus additional paid-in capital and retained earnings
Income Statement Information

Cost of goods sold
Product costs (inventoriable costs) that become period expenses only when the products are
sold; equals beginning inventory plus cost of goods purchased or manufactured minus ending
inventory.
Statement of retained earnings

A financial statement summarizing the changes in retained earnings for a stated period
resulting from earnings (or losses) and dividends paid. This statement is often combined with
the income statement
Mr. Tahir Abbas
Aldine Manufacturing
Company statements of earnings (in thousands)1
YEARS ENDED MARCH 31
Net sales2
20X2
20X1
$3,992
$3,721
Cost of goods sold3
2,680
2,500
Gross profit
$1,312
$1,221
912
841
$ 400
$ 380
Selling, general, and administrative expenses4

Earnings before interest and taxes5
Interest expense6
85
70
$ 315
$ 310
114
112
$ 201
$ 198
Cash dividends
143
130
Increase in retained earning
$58
$6
Earnings before taxes7

Income taxes (federal and state)
Earnings after taxes8
Note: Depreciation expenses for 20X1 and 20X2 were $114 and $112, respectively
Mr. Tahir Abbas
EXPLANATIONS
1. Measures profitability over a period of time.
2. Amount received, or receivable, from customers.
3. Directly related to operating levels: wages, raw materials, supplies, and manufacturing
overhead.
4. Salesmens commissions, advertising, officers salaries, etc.
5. Operating income.
6. Cost of borrowed funds.
7. Taxable income.
8. Amount earned for stockholders.
Financial ratio
An index that relates two accounting numbers and is obtained by dividing one number by the
other
Types of Ratios
01.Balance Sheet Ratios
01. Liquidity ratios

Ratios that measure a firms ability to meet short-term obligations
Liquidity ratios are used to measure a firms ability to meet short-term obligations. They compare shortterm obligations with short-term (or current) resources available to meet these obligations. From these
ratios, much insight can be obtained into the present cash solvency of the firm and the firms ability to
remain solvent in the event of adversity
Mr. Tahir Abbas
02. Current ratio

Current assets divided by current liabilities. It shows a firms ability to cover its current liabilities with its
current assets.
Current ratio
=Current assets/Current liabilities
For Aldine Manufacturing Company, this ratio for year-end 20X2 is

$2,241,000/$823,000= 2.72
Aldine is engaged in making household electrical appliances. Its current ratio is somewhat
above the median ratio for the industry of 2.1. (The median or middle value for the industry
is taken from the Risk Management Association, Statement Studies.4) Although comparisons
with industry averages do not always reveal financial strength or weakness, they are
meaningful in identifying companies that are out of line. Where a significant deviation occurs,
the analyst will want to determine the reasons. Perhaps the industry itself is overly liquid, and
the company being examined is basically sound despite a lower current ratio. In another situa
tion, the company being analyzed may be too liquid, relative to the industry, with the result
that it forgoes additional profitability. Whenever a financial red flag is raised, the analyst
must search out the reasons behind it.
Liquidity:
The ability of an asset to be converted into cash without a significant price concession.
Acid-test (quick) ratio:

Current assets less inventories divided by current liabilities. It shows a firms ability to meet
current liabilities with its most liquid (quick) assets.
03. Acid-Test (or Quick) Ratio. A more conservative measure of liquidity is the acid-test, or
quick, ratio:
= Current assets Inventories /Current liabilities
For Aldine, this ratio for 20X2 year end is
$2,241,000 - $1,329,000/$823,000 =1.11
Mr. Tahir Abbas
This ratio serves as a supplement to the current ratio in analyzing liquidity. This ratio is the
same as the current ratio except that it excludes inventories presumably the least liquid
portion of current assets from the numerator. The ratio concentrates primarily on the more
liquid current assets cash, marketable securities, and receivables in relation to current
obligations. Thus this ratio provides a more penetrating measure of liquidity than does the
current ratio. Aldines acid-test ratio is slightly above the industry median average of 1.1,
indicating that it is in line with the industry.
Financial Leverage (Debt) Ratios

Debt ratios
Ratios that show the extent to which the firm is financed by debt
01. Debt-to-Equity Ratio

To assess the extent to which the firm is using borrowed money, we may use several different
debt ratios. The debt-to-equity ratio is computed by simply dividing the total debt of the firm
(including current liabilities) by its shareholders equity:
=Total debt Shareholders equity

For Aldine, at year-end 20X2 this ratio is
=$1,454,000 $1,796,000 =0.81

The ratio tells us that creditors are providing 81 cents of financing for each $1 being pro-vided
by shareholders. Creditors would generally like this ratio to be low. The lower the ratio, the
higher the level of the firms financing that is being provided by shareholders, and the larger
the creditor cushion (margin of protection) in the event of shrinking asset values or outright
losses. The median debt-to-equity ratio for the electrical appliance industry is 0.80, so Aldine is
right in line with the industry. Presumably, it would not experience difficulty with creditors
because of an excessive debt ratio
02. Debt-to-Total-Assets Ratio:

The debt-to-total-assets ratio is derived by dividing a firms total debt by its total assets:
=Total debt/Total assets
Mr. Tahir Abbas
For Aldine, at the end of 20X2 this ratio is
=$1,454,000 $3,250,000
=0.45
This ratio serves a similar purpose to the debt-to-equity ratio. It highlights the relative
importance of debt financing to the firm by showing the percentage of the firms assets that is
supported by debt financing. Thus 45 percent of the firms assets are financed with debt (of
various types), and the remaining 55 percent of the financing comes from shareholders equity.
Theoretically, if the firm were liquidated right now, assets could be sold to net as little as 45
cents on the dollar before creditors would face a loss. Once again, this points out that the
greater the percentage of financing provided by shareholders equity, the larger the cushion of
protection afforded the firms creditors. In short, the higher the debt-to-total-assets ratio, the
greater the financial risk; the lower this ratio, the lower the financial risk
In addition to the two previous debt ratios, we may wish to compute the following ratio,
which deals with only the long-term capitalization of the firm:
=Long-term debt Total capitalization

where total capitalization represents all long-term debt and shareholders equity. For Aldine,
the most recent year-end long-term-debt-to-total-capitalization ratio is
=$631,000 $2,427,000
= 0.26
Income Statement and Income Statement/Balance Sheet Ratios

Coverage Ratios:
Coverage ratios: that relate the financial charges of firm to its ability to service, or cover, them
Interest coverage ratio:
An earnings before interest and taxes divided by interest charges It indicates a firms ability to
cover interest charges. It is also called times interest earned
Coverage ratios are designed to relate the financial charges of a firm to its ability to service, or
cover, them. Bond rating services, such as Moodys Investors Service and Standard & Poors,
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make extensive use of these ratios. One of the most traditional of the coverage ratios is the
interest coverage ratio, or times interest earned. This ratio is simply the ratio of earnings before
interest and taxes for a particular reporting period to the amount of interest charges for the
period; that is
=Earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) Interest expense

For Aldine, in fiscal-year 20X2 this ratio is
=$400,000/$85,000
= 4.71
This ratio serves as one measure of the firms ability to meet its interest payments and
thus avoid bankruptcy. In general, the higher the ratio, the greater the likelihood that the
company could cover its interest payments without difficulty It also sheds some light on the
firms capacity to take on new debt. With an industry median average of 4.0, Aldines ability to
cover annual interest 4.71 times with operating income (EBIT) appears to provide a good
margin of safety.
Activity Ratios:
Activity ratios that measure how effectively the firm is using its assets
Activity ratios, also known as efficiency or turnover ratios, measure how effectively the firm is
using its assets. As we will see, some aspects of activity analysis are closely related to liquidity
analysis. In this section, we will focus our attention primarily on how effectively the firm is
managing two specific asset groups receivables and inventories and its total assets in
general
Receivables Activity. The receivable turnover (RT) ratio provides insight into the quality of the
firms receivables and how successful the firm is in its collections. This ratio is calculated by
dividing receivables into annual net credit sales:
=Annual net credit sales /Receivables
If we assume that all 20X2 sales for Aldine are credit sales, this ratio is
=$3,992,000 /$678,000
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=5.89
This ratio tells us the number of times accounts receivable have been turned over (turned into
cash) during the year. The higher the turnover, the shorter the time between the typical sale
and cash collection. For Aldine, receivables turned over 5.89 times during 20X2
To regard all receivables as liquid, when in fact a sizable portion may be past due, overstates
the liquidity of the firm being analyzed. Receivables are liquid only insofar as they can be
collected in a reasonable amount of time. In an attempt to determine whether there is cause
for concern, the analyst may reformulate the receivable turnover ratio to produce receivable
turnover in days (RTD), or average collection period. Receivable turnover in days (RTD), or
average collection period, is calculated as
=Days in the year Receivable turnover

or equivalently
=Receivables x Days in the year/ Annual credit sales
For Aldine, whose receivable turnover we calculated to be 5.89, the average collection period is
=365/ 5.89
=62 days
This figure tells us the average number of days for which receivables are outstanding before
being collected. Since the median industry receivable turnover ratio is 8.1, the average
collection period for the industry is 365/8.1 =45 days. The disparity between the industrys
receivable collection performance and Aldines is once again highlighted.
Aging accounts receivable

The process of classifying accounts receivable by their age outstanding as of a given date
Aging Accounts Receivable Another means by which we can obtain insight into the liquidity of
receivables and managements ability to enforce its credit policy is through aging accounts
receivable. With this method we categorize the receivables on a given date according to the
percentages billed in previous months. We might have the following hypothetical aging
schedule of accounts receivable at December 31
Aging schedule for accounts receivable as of December 31
MONTH OF
CREDIT SALE
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AUG AND
DEC
NOV
OCT
SEPT
BEFORE
MONTHS PAST DUE
CURRENT
01
12
23
3 OR MORE
TOTAL
Percent of total
Accounts receivable
Balance outstanding
67
19
100
If the credit terms are 2/10, net 30, this aging schedule tells us that 67 percent of the
receivables outstanding at December 31 are current, 19 percent are up to one month past due,
7 percent are one to two months past due, and so on. Depending on the conclusions drawn
from our analysis of the aging schedule, we may want to examine more closely the companys
credit and collection policies. In this example, we might be prompted to investigate the
individual receivables that were billed in August and before to determine whether any should
be charged off as bad debts. The receivables shown on the books are only as good as the
likelihood that they will be collected. An aging of accounts receivable gives us considerably
more information than does the calculation of the average collection period, because it
pinpoints the trouble spots more specifically.
Payables Activity
There may be occasions when a firm wants to study its own promptness of payment to
suppliers or that of a potential credit customer. In such cases, it may be desirable to obtain an
aging of accounts payable, much like that just illustrated for accounts receivable. This method
of analysis, combined with the less exact payable turnover (PT) ratio(annual credit purchases
divided by accounts payable), allows us to analyze payables in much the same manner as we
analyze receivables. Also, we can compute the payable turnover in days (PTD)or average
payable period as
=Days in the year Payable turnover

Or, equivalently
=Accounts payable x Days in the year/ Annual credit purchases
Where accounts payable is the ending (or perhaps, average) balance outstanding for the year
and annual credit purchases are the external purchases during the year. This figure yields the
average age of a firms accounts payable the average payable period is valuable information in
evaluating the probability that a credit applicant will pay on time. If the average age of payables
is 48 days and the terms in the industry are net 30, we know that a portion of the applicants
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payables is not being paid on time. A credit check of the applicants other suppliers will give
insight into the severity of the problem.
Typically, for a retail firm we have
(Beginning inventory) +(Purchases) (Cost of goods sold) =Ending inventory

Therefore
(Cost of goods sold) +[(Ending inventory) (Beginning inventory)] =Purchases
Inventory Activity
To help determine how effectively the firm is managing inventory (and also to
gain an indication of the liquidity of inventory), we compute the inventory
turnover (IT) ratio:
=Cost of goods sold / Inventory

For Aldine, this ratio for 20X2 is
=$2,680,000 / $1,329,000 =2.02
Stock out
Not having enough items in inventory to fill an order.
An alternative measure of inventory activity is inventory turnover in days (ITD):

= Days in the year
/ Inventory turnover
Or, equivalently,
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= Inventory x Days in the year / Cost of goods sold

For Aldine, whose inventory turnover we calculated to be 2.02, the inventory turnover
in days (ITD) is
=365 /
2.02=181 days
This figure tells us how many days, on average, before inventory is turned into accounts
receivable through sales. Transforming the industrys median inventory turnover of 3.3
into an inventory turnover in days figure, we get 365/3.3 =111 days. Thus Aldine is, on
average, 70 days slower in turning its inventory than is typical for the industry.
Operating cycle
The length of time from the commitment of cash for purchases until the collection
of receivables resulting from the sale of goods or services
A direct result of our interest in both liquidity and activity ratios is the concept of
a firms operating cycle. A firms operating cycle is the length of time from the
commitment of cash for purchases until the collection of receivables result-ing
from the sale of goods or services. It is as if we start a stopwatch when we
purchase raw materials and stop the watch only when we receive cash after the
finished goods have been sold. The time appearing on our watch (usually in days)
is the firms operating cycle. Mathematically, a firms operating cycle is equal to
=Inventory turnover in days (ITD) + Receivable turnover in days (RTD)
We stress the fact that our stopwatch starts at the commitment of cash for purchases
rather than from the actual cash outlay itself. The reason for this subtle distinction is
that most firms do not pay for raw materials immediately but rather buy on credit and
incur an account payable. However, if we want to measure the length of time from the
actual outlay of cash for purchases until the collection of cash resulting from sales, it is a
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simple matter. We would subtract the firms payable turnover in days (PTD) from its
operating cycle and thus produce the firms cash cycle
Cash cycle
The length of time from the actual outlay of cash for purchases until the collection
of receivables resulting from the sale of goods or services; also called cash
conversion cycle
=Operating cycle (ITD RTD) - Payable turnover in days (PTD)
Total Asset (or Capital) Turnover

The relationship of net sales to total assets is known as the total asset turnover, or
capital turnover, ratio:
=Net sales / Total assets

Aldines total asset turnover for fiscal-year 20X2 is
=$3,992,000 / $3,250,000
=1.23
The median total asset turnover for the industry is 1.66, so it is clear that Aldine
generates less sales revenue per dollar of asset investment than does the
industry, on average. The total asset turnover ratio tells us the relative efficiency
with which a firm utilizes its total assets to generate sales. Aldine is less efficient
than the industry in this regard. From our previous analysis of Aldines
receivables and inventory activity, we suspect that excessive investments in
receivables and inventories may be responsible for a large part of the problem. If
Aldine could generate the same sales revenue with fewer dollars invested in
receivables and inventories, total asset turnover would improve
Profitability Ratios
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Profitability ratios that relate profits to sales and investment

Profitability ratios are of two types those showing profitability in relation to
sales and those showing profitability in relation to investment. Together, these
ratios indicate the firms overall effectiveness of operation
Profitability in Relation to Sales The first ratio we consider is the gross profit
margin:
=Net sales - Cost of goods sold / Net sales

Or simply gross profit divided by net sales. For Aldine, the gross profit margin for
fiscal-year 20X2 is
=$1,312,000 / $3,992,000 =32.9%

This ratio tells us the profit of the firm relative to sales, after we deduct the cost
of producing the goods. It is a measure of the efficiency of the firms operations,
as well as an indication of how products are priced. Aldines gross profit margin is
significantly above the median of 23.8 percent for the industry, indicating that it is
relatively more effective at producing and selling products above cost
A more specific measure of sales profitability is the net profit margin:

=Net profit after taxes / Net sales
For Aldine, this ratio for fiscal-year 20X2 is
=$201,000 / $3,992,000 =5.04%

The net profit margin is a measure of the firms profitability of sales after taking
account of all expenses and income taxes. It tells us a firms net income per dollar
of sales. For Aldine, roughly 5 cents out of every sales dollar constitutes after-tax
profits. Aldines net profit margin is above the median net profit margin (4.7
percent) for the industry, which indicates that it has a higher relative level of
sales profitability than most other firms in the industry.
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Profitability in Relation to Investment. The second group of profitability ratios

relates profits to investment. One of these measures is the rate of return on
investment (ROI), or return on assets:
=Net profit after taxes / Total assets

For Aldine, ROI for fiscal-year 20X2 is
=$201,000 / $3,250,000
=6.18%
This ratio compares unfavorably with a median value of 7.8 percent for the
industry. Higher profitability per dollar of sales but a slightly lower return on
investment confirms that Aldine0 employs more assets to generate a dollar of
sales than does the typical firm in the industry.
Return on Equity (ROE)

Another summary measure of overall firm performance is return on equity.
Return on equity (ROE) compares net profit after taxes (minus preferred stock
dividends, if any) with the equity that shareholders have invested in the firm:
=Net profit after taxes / Shareholders equity

For Aldine, ROE is
=$201,000 / $1,796,000
=11.19%
This ratio tells us the earning power on shareholders book value investment, and
is frequently used in comparing two or more firms in an industry. A high return on
equity often reflects the firms acceptance of strong investment opportunities and
effective expense management. However, if the firm has chosen to employ a level
of debt that is high by industry standards, a high ROE might simply be the result of
assuming excessive financial risk. Aldines ROE is below the median return (14.04
percent) for the industry.
Earning power = Sales profitability Asset efficiency
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ROI = Net profit margin Total asset turnover

Net profit after taxes/ Shareholders equity =
Net profit after taxes Net sales X Net sales / Total assets X Total assets / Shareholders equity
ROE = Net Profit Margin X Total Asset turnover X Equity Multiplier
For, Aldine, we have
11.2% = 5.04% 1.23 1.81

This Du Pont approach to ROE helps to explain why Aldines ROE is less than the
industrys median ROE. Although Aldines net profit margin is higher than average
and its equity multiplier is about at the industry norm,9 its lower-than-average
total asset turnover pulls its ROE down below that of the typical firm in the
industry. This suggests that Aldines use of a relatively greater proportion of
assets to produce sales than most other firms in the industry is the root cause of
its below-average ROE
SUMMARY
Liquidity
CURRENT Ratio= Current assets / Current liabilities
*Measures ability to meet current debts with current assets
ACID-TEST (QUICK) =Current assets less inventories / Current liabilities

*Measures ability to meet current debts with most-liquid (quick)
Leverage
DEBT-TO-EQUITY= = Total debt / Shareholders equity
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*Indicates the extent to which debt financing is used relative to equity financing.
DEBT-TO-TOTAL-ASSETS = Total debt / Total assets

*Shows the relative extent to which the firm is using borrowed money
COVERAGE
INTEREST COVERAGE=
EBIT* / Interest expense
*Indicates ability to cover interest charges; tells number of times interest is

earned
ACTIVITY
RECEIVABLE TURNOVER (RT) =Annual net credit sales / Receivables
*Measures how many times the receivables have been turned over (into cash)
during the year; provides insight into quality of the receivables.
RECEIVABLE TURNOVER IN DAYS (RTD) (Average collection period) = 365 / RT
*Average number of days receivables is outstanding before being collected.
INVENTORY TURNOVER (IT) = Cost of goods sold / Average inventory

*Measures how many times the inventory has been turned over (sold) during the
year; provides insight into liquidity of inventory and tendency to over stock
INVENTORY TURNOVER IN DAYS (ITD)
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=365 / IT
*Average number of days the inventory is held before it is turned into accounts
receivable through sales.
TOTAL ASSET TURNOVER (Capital turnover) =Net sales / Total assets
*Measures relative efficiency of total assets to generate sales.
PROFITABILITY
NET PROFIT MARGIN = Net profit after taxes / Net sales
*Measures profitability with respect to sales generated; net income per dollar of
sales
RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI) (Return on assets) =
Net profit after taxes / Total assets

Measures overall effectiveness in generating profits with available bassets;
earning power of invested capital
=NET PROFIT MARGIN TOTAL ASSET TURNOVER
= Net profit after taxes/ Net sales X Net sales / Total assets
RETURN ON EQUITY (ROE) =Net profit after taxes / Shareholders equity

*Measures earning power on shareholders book-value investment
ROE = Net Profit Margin X Total Asset turnover X Equity Multiplier

=Net profit after taxes /Net sales X Net sales / Total assets X Total assets / Shareholders
equity
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CHAPTER#04
Term Loans and Leases

Term Loans
Term loan debt originally scheduled for repayment in more than 1 year, but
generally in less than 10 years
Costs and Benefits
Generally, the interest rate on a term loan is higher than the rate on a short-term
loan to the same borrower. If a firm could borrow at the prime rate on a shortterm basis, it might pay 0.25 to 0.50 percent more on a term loan. The higher
interest rate helps to compensate for the more prolonged risk exposure of the
lender. The interest rate on a term loan is generally set in two ways: (1) a fixed
rate established at the outset that remains effective over the life of the loan, or
(2) a variable rate adjusted in keeping with changes in market rates. Sometimes a
floor or a ceiling rate is established, limiting the range within which a variable rate
may fluctuate. In addition to interest costs, the borrower is required to pay the
legal expenses that the bank incurs in drawing up the loan agreement. Also, a
commitment fee may be charged for the time during the commitment period
when the loan is not taken down. For an ordinary term loan, these additional
costs are usually rather small in relation to the total interest cost of the loan.
Typically fees on the unused portion of a commitment range between 0.25 per
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cent and 0.75 percent. Suppose, for example, that the commitment fee was 0.50
percent on a commitment of $1 million and a company took down the entire loan
3 months after the commitment. The firm would owe the bank a ($1 million)
(0.005) (3 months/12 months) = $1,250commitment fee
Commitment fee
A fee charged by the lender for agreeing to hold credit available

Revolving Credit Agreements
Revolving credit agreement a formal, legal commitment to extend credit up

to some maximum amount over a stated period of time
Medium-term note (MTN)
A corporate or government debt instrument that is offered to investors on a
continuous basis Maturities range from nine months to 30 years (or more).
Euro medium-term note (Euro MTN)
An MTN issue sold internationally outside the country in whose currency the MTN
is denominated
Provisions of Loan Agreements

Covenant
A restriction on a borrower imposed by a lender: for example, the borrower must
maintain a minimum amount of working capital
Loan agreement
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A legal agreement specifying the terms of a loan and the obligations of the
borrower
Equipment Financing
Sources and Types of Equipment Financing
Chattel Mortgage
A chattel mortgage is a lien on property other than real estate. The borrower
signs a security agreement that gives the lender a lien on the equipment specified
in the agreement. To perfect (make legally valid) the lien, the lender files a copy
of the security agreement or a financing statement with a public office of the
state in which the equipment is located. Given a valid lien, the lender can sell the
equipment if the borrower defaults in the payment of principal or interest on the
loan.
Lien
A legal claim on certain assets A lien can be used to secure a loan.
Conditional sales contract
A means of financing provided by the seller of equipment, who holds title to it
until the financing is paid off
Promissory note
A legal promise to pay a sum of money to a lender
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Lease Financing
Lease
A contract under which one party, the less or (owner) of an asset, agrees to grant
the use of that asset to another, the lessee, in exchange for periodic rental
payments.
Net lease
A lease where the lessee maintains and insures the leased asset
Operating lease
A short-term lease that is often cancellable
Financial lease
A long-term lease that is not cancellable
Fair market value
The price at which property can be sold in an arms length transaction
Residual value
The value of a leased asset at the end of the lease period
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Financial Management

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Chapter#01

Accounting and Finance

What is Business Finance?

The Financial Manager

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The Corporate Firm

Forms of Business Organization

Limited to life of owner

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Two or more owners

Separation of ownership and management

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Goal of the Corporate Firm

The Set-of-Contracts Perspective

The firm can be viewed as a set of contracts.

Managerial goals may be different from shareholder goals

Do Shareholders Control Managerial Behavior?

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University of South Asia (HIC) layyah Campus

Involve the sale of used securities from one investor to another.

Dealer Vs. Auction Markets

Auction markets are different from dealer markets in two ways:

The Balance Sheet

The Balance-Sheet Model of

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Total Firm Value to Investors

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Net Working Capital

Current Assets > Current Liabilities

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How much shortterm cash flow does a

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The Financial Environment

What is financial market?

The Purpose of Financial Markets

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What are the different types of financial market?

Money and Capital Markets:

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The Time Value of Money

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The Interest Rate

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PV0=P0=FVn /[1 +(i)(n)]

FV1=P0 (1 +i) =$100(1.08) =$108

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Rearranging terms, we solve for present value:

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FVAn = R([(1+i)n -1] -1]/i)

PVAn = R[(1-[1/(1+i)n ])/i]

and can be expressed even more simply as