Basic electronics Module 1

MODULE -1

PN JUNCTION DIODE:
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to

.................

n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called a p-n

Semiconductor

junction. The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor

diode

&

Applications

p-n

junction,

Characteristics & parameters. Diode approximations, DC load line

diode

analysis, Half wave rectifier. Two diode full wave rectifier, Bridge
rectifier, Capacitor filter circuits. Zener diode voltage regulators
(with & without load).Series &shunt diode clipping circuits,
Clamping circuits, Numerical examples as applicable.
Bipolar Junction Transistors : BJT operation, BJT voltages &
currents, BJT amplification, common base, common emitter,
common

collector

characteristics,

Numerical

examples

as

applicable.

The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having ve

acceptor ions and +vely charged holes. The right side

Text book :
David A Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits: Oxford University Press,
5th Edition , 2008.

material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and

free electrons
Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn
junction, then there is a tendency for the free electrons from

Chapter 2: 2.1,2.2,2.3&2.4.
Chapter 3: 3.1,3.2,3.3,3.7,3.8,3.9 & 3.10

n-type to diffuse over to the p-side and holes from p-type to

the n-side . This process is called diffusion.

Chapter 4 : 4.1,4.2,4.3,4.5,4.6 &4.7

..

Note : p type region: Holes are majority charge carrier

n type region: Electrons are majority charge carriers

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

Diode circuit symbol:

Current flows in the arrowhead direction when the diode is forwardbiased: positive (+) on the anode and negative (-) on the cathode.

Biasing: Connecting a p-n junction to an external d.c. voltage

source is called biasing.
Types of biasing:
1.Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing

2. Reverse biasing
When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such
a direction the potential barrier is increased it is called
reverse biasing To apply reverse bias, connect ve terminal
of the battery to p-type and +ve terminal to n-type as shown
in figure below

1. Forward biasing
When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a
direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting
current flow is called forward biasing.
To apply forward bias, connect +ve terminal of the battery
to p-type and ve terminal to n-type as shown in fig. below.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS

3. Forward Bias The voltage potential is connected

positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (-ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
Decreasing the PN junction diodess width.

Ge & Si VI Characteristics :

Diode Parameters :

The diode parameters of greatest interest are

VF forward voltage drop
IR reverse saturation current
VBR reverse breakdown voltage
rd dynamic resistance
IF(max) maximum forward current

Note :
Determination of the dynamic resistance (rd)of a diode from
the forward characteristic.
The dynamic resistance, also known as the incremental
resistance or acresistance, is the reciprocal of the slope of
the forward characteristics beyond the knee.

.
There are two operating regions and three possible biasing
conditions for the standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias No external voltage potential is applied to the
PN junction diode.
2. Reverse Bias The voltage potential is connected
negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
Increasing the PN junction diodes width.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

Determination of diode forward and reverse resistance.

Determine the dynamic resistance at a forward current of 70 rnA for

the Silicondiode characteristics estimate the diode dynamic
resistance (IF & VF Refer characteristics graph ).

Solution
Example :
Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a silicon
diode with the characteristics, at IF= 100 mA and at VR= 50 V.

Diode approximation:
Ideal diode characteristics
We know that a diode is one way device, offering low resistance
when forward biased and a high resistance when reverse biased. On
the other hand an ideal diode (a perfect diode) would, zero forward
drop and infinite reverse resistance and thus behave electrically
open circuit. Figure below shows the characteristics of ideal diode.
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

Example:

Construct the piecewise linear characteristic for a silicon diode

which has a 0.25 Ohm dynamic resistance and a 200 mA maximum
Although an ideal diode does not exist, some situations demand

forward current.

such assumptions where diodes can be assumed to be near ideal

devices. In situations, for example, when supply voltages much
larger than the diode forward drop VF is used then the diode
forward can be ignored without introducing any serious error.
Also, the diode reverse current is normally so much smaller than the
forward current that the reverse current can be ignored. These
assumptions lead to the near-ideal, or approximate characteristics
for Si and Ge diodes as shown in figure (b) and (c) .
Piecewise Linear Characteristic
When the forward characteristic of a diode is not available. A
straight-line

approximation,

called

the

piecewise

linear

characteristic, may be employed. To construct the piecewise linear

characteristic, VF is first. marked on the horizontal axis, as shown in
Fig. Then, starting at VF, a straight line is drawn with a slope equal
to the diode dynamic resistance. Ex. demonstrates the process.
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

Example:
Calculate IF for the diode circuit in Fig. a assuming that the diode
has VF= 0.7V and rd= 0.Then recalculate the current taking rd=
0.25

Diode equation :
General characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by the following equation, referred to as shockleys
equation, for the forward and reverse bias regions:

VF nVT
I F I S e
1

(A)

Where
IS reverse saturation current
VF applied forward bias voltage across the diode
IF diode forward current
Ideality factor (1 for Ge& 2 for Si diode)
VT thermal voltage or voltage equivalent

VT = kT

(V)

K =Boltzmans constant = 8.62*10-5eV/oK

T Absolute temperature in Kelvins = 273 + the temperature in oC
.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

DC Load line :
It is a graphical analysis of a diode circuit, giving precise levels of
diode current and voltage. It is a straight line that illustrates all dc
conditions that could exists within the diode circuit.

The Q point: It is the point of intersection of the diode forward

characteristics with the load line
The dc load line is explained in the figure above. There is only one
point on the dc load line where the diode voltage and current are
compatible with the circuit conditions.
DC load line analysis
The DC load line figure shows graphical representations of dc load
line drawn on the diode forward characteristics. This is a straight line
that illustrates all dc conditions that could exist within the circuit.
The analysis can best be made by taking a practical example.

Example : Draw the dc load line for the circuit in Fig. (a). The
diode forward characteristic is given in Fig. (b).

Figure : a. Diode circuit and fig.b. Plotting the dc load line on the
diode characteristics
Explanation of a DC load line:
Consider the diode circuit shown in figure below.
Applying the KVL we get,
E= IF R1+ VF (1)
When IF=0, in eqn 1 becomes E= VF
When VF =0 in eqn.1 becomes V= IFR1 or IF =V/R
Plotting these two conditions as shown in fig, that is identifying
point F equal to V/R and point E equal to VF and drawing line EF
which represents the dc load line and represents all dc conditions
that could exist within the circuit.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

Example 2.
Using the device characteristics in Fig. b, determine the required
load resistance for the circuit in Fig. a to give IF= 30 mA.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

3) Determine a new supply voltage for the circuit in Fig.a to give a

50 mAdiode forward current when Rl = 100 .

Point A may now be plotted (on Fig.) at IF= 0 and E = 6.1 V,and the
new dc load line may be drawn through points A and Q.

Fig .Determination of the required supply voltage for a dioderesistor circuit witha given resistor and a specified load current.
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Basic electronics Module 1

RECTIFIER
A rectifier is a device which converts a.c. voltage to pulsating d.c.

The transformer decides the peak value of the secondary voltage. If

Nlare the primary number of turns and N2 are the secondary number
of turns and Epm is the peak value of the primary voltage then,

voltage, using one or more p-n junction diodes.

Types of rectifiers
Half wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier (Center tap & Bridge wave)

Half Wave Rectifier :

The half wave rectifier conducts only positive or negative half
cycles of input a.c.supply.
This rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying element,
i.e. p-n junction diode, and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected
in series. The circuit diagram is shown in the fig

To obtain the desired d.c. voltage across the load, the a.c. voltage is
applied to rectifier circuit using suitable step-up or step-down
transformer, mostly a step-down one, with necessary turns ratio.
The input voltage to the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in the Fig.
is a sinusoidal a.c. voltage, having a frequency which is the supply
frequency, 50 Hz given by,

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Where Esm=Peak value of the secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation of the Circuit: During the positive half cycle of input
a.c voltage, terminal (A) becomes positive with respect to terminal
(B). The diode is forward biased and the current flows in the circuit
in the clockwise direction, as shown in the Fig. (a). This current is
also flowing through the load resistance RL hence denoted as iL
(load current). During negative half cycle when terminal (A) is
negative with respect to terminal (B), diode becomes reverse biased.
Hence no current flows in the circuit as shown in the Fig. (b).

Thus the circuit current, which is also the load current, is in the
form of half sinusoidal pulses.
The load voltage, being the product of load current and load
resistance, will also be in the form of half sinusoidal pulses. The
different waveforms are illustrated in Fig.

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Basic electronics Module 1

The peak value of the load current is given by,

The average or d.c. value of the load current (Idc):

It is obtained by integration.

If Rs is not given it should be neglected while calculating Im'

The average d.c. load voltage (Edc) :

It is the product of average D.C. load current & the load resistance
RL

The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf are

practically very small compared to RL hence neglecting them,

Fig. Load current and load voltage waveforms for half wave
rectifier

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Note: When Rfand Rs are finite, calculate Im, then IDC and from that
calculate Edc as Idc RL

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Basic electronics Module 1

The R.M.S. value of the load current:

Rectifier efficiency:
The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output d.c. power
to input a.c. power.

The d.c. power output is:

Ripple Factor
It is seen that the output of half wave rectifier is not pure d.c. but a
pulsating d.c. The output contains pulsating components called
ripples. Ideally there should not be any ripples in the rectifier
output.
The measure of ripples present in the output is with the help
of a factor called ripple factor denoted by . It tells how
smooth is the output.
Smaller the ripple factor closer is the output to a pure d.c.
Mathematically ripple factor is defined as the ratio of
RM.S. value of the a.c. component in the output to the
average or d.c. component present in the output.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Advantages and Disadvantages

This is the general expression for ripple factor and can be used for
any rectifier circuit.

This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 1.21 times
the d.c. component i.e. 121.1 % of d.c. component.
. The ripple factor for half wave is very high which indicates that
the half wave circuit is a poor converter of a.c. to d.c.

The advantages of half wave rectifier are

1. Only one diode is sufficient.
2. The circuit is easy to design.
3. No centre tap on the transformer is necessary.
The disadvantages of half wave rectifier are
1. The ripple factor of half wave rectifier circuit is 1.21, which is
quite high.
2. The maximum theoretical rectification efficiency is found to be
40% which is very low.
3. The d.c. current is flowing through the secondary winding of the
transformer which may cause dc saturation of the core of the
transformer. To minimize the saturation, transformer size have to be
increased accordingly. This increases the cost.
4. The TUF(Transformer Utilization factor) is very low showing
that the transformer is not fully utilized.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The Peak Inverse Voltage is the peak voltage across the
diode in the reverse direction i.e. when the diode is reverse
biased. This is called PIV rating of a diode.
In half wave rectifier, the load current is ideally zero when
the diode is reverse biased and hence the maximum value of
the voltage that can exist across the diode is nothing but Esm'

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Full wave rectifier:

The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and
negative half cycles of input a.c.supply.
In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c. input, two
diodes are used in this circuit.
The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of centre
tap transformer
The a.c. voltage is applied through a suitable power
transformer with proper turns ratio.
The full wave rectifier circuit is shown in the Fig

Operation of the Circuit:

Consider the positive half cycle of ac input voltage in which
terminal (A) is positive and terminal (B) negative due to center tap
transformer.
The diode D1 will be forward biased and hence will conduct; while
diode D2will be reverse biased and will act as an open circuit
and will not conduct. The diode Dl supplies the load current, i.e. iL
= id1. In the next half cycle of ac voltage, polarity reversesand
terminal (A) becomesnegative and (B) positive. The diode D2
conducts, being forward biased, while D1 does not, being reverse
biased. The diode D2supplies the load current, i.e. iL = id2 .

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

The load current flows in both the half cycles of ac voltage and in
the same direction through the load resistance. Hence we get
rectified output across the load.
The load current is sum of individual diode currents flowing in
corresponding half cycles. It is also noted that the two diodes do not
conduct simultaneously but in alternate half cycles.
The individual diode currents and the load current are shown in the
Fig.

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Basic electronics Module 1

The output load current is still pulsating d.c. and not pure d.c.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Average D C Current (Idc) :

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Basic electronics Module 1

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) :

Note that Esm = maximum value of a.c. voltage across half the
secondary of transformer.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
The advantages of full wave rectifier are
1. The d.c. load voltage and current are more than half wave.
2. No d.c. current through transformer windings hence no
possibility of saturation.
3. T.U.F. is better as transformer losses are less. 4. The efficiency is
higher.
5. The large d.c. power output. 6. The ripple factor is less.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

The disadvantages of full wave rectifier are
1. The PIV rating of diode is higher.
2. Higher PIV diodes are larger in size and costlier.
3. The cost of centre tap transformer is higher

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Bridge Rectifier:
The basic bridge rectifier circuit is shown in Fig.

The bridge rectifier circuit is essentially a full-wave rectifier circuit,

using four diodes, forming the four arms of an electrical bridge.
To one diagonal of the bridge, the ac voltage is applied through a
transformer ifnecessary, and the rectified dc voltage is taken from
the other diagonal of the bridge.
The main advantage of this circuit is that it does not require a center
tap on the secondary winding of the transformer.
Operation of the Circuit: Consider the positive half of ac input
voltage. The point A of secondary becomes positive. The diodes Dl
and D2 will be forward biased, while D3 and D4 reverse biased.
The two diodes Dl and D2 conduct in series with the load and the
current flows as shown in Fig.

In the next half cycle, when the polarity of ac voltage reverses

hence point B becomes positive diodes D3 and D4 are forward
biased, while Dl and D2 reverse biased. Now the diodes D3 and D4
conduct is series with the load and the current flows as shown in
Fig.
It is seen that in both cycles of ac, the load current is flowing in the
same direction hence, we get a full-wave rectified output.

Advantages
1) The current in both the primary and secondary of the power
transformer flows for the entire cycle and hence for a given power
output, power transformer of a small size and less cost may be used.
2) No center tap is required in the transformer secondary. ~
3) The currents in the secondary of the transformer are in opposite
directions in two half cycles. Hence net d.c. component flowing is
zero which reduces the losses and danger of saturation
4) As two diodes conduct in series in each half cycle, inverse
voltage appearing across diodes get shared. Hence the circuit can be
used for high voltage applications.
5) The transformer gets utilized effectively.
Peak inverse voltage(PIV) :
PIV=Esm

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

The waveforms of load current and voltage are shown in the Fig.

NOTE :Bridge full wave rectifier & Center tap full wave rectifiers
Efficiency, Ripple factor, Idc,Edc,Pac,Pdc,Im, equations & Derivations
are same Except PIV.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Comparison of HW, FW & BW Rectifiers:

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Basic electronics Module 1

Filters:
We know that the output of the rectifier is pulsating d.c.ie the
output obtained by the rectifier is not pure d.c. but it contains some
ac components along with the dc o/p. These ac components are
called as Ripples, which are undesirable or unwanted. To minimize
the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used. These
circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load as
shown below

Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier

to a steady dc output In other words, filters are used to reduce the
amplitudes of the unwanted ac components in the rectifier
Note: A capacitor passes ac signal readily but blocks dc.

Capacitor filter Circuits :

To convert to direct voltage (dc voltage), a smoothing circuit or
filter must be employed. Figure a shows a half-wave rectifier circuit
with a single capacitor filter (C1) and a load resistor (R L), and Fig.b
shows the output waveform. The capacitor, termed a reservoir
capacitor, is charged almost to the peak level of the circuit input
voltage when the diode is forward-biased. This occurs at Vpi, as
illustrated in Fig. c, giving a peak capacitor voltage:

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Figure A reservoir capacitor smooths the output from a rectifier

circuit by charging to the peak output voltage and retaining most of
its charge between peaks.
Ripple Amplitude and Capacitance
The ripple amplitude can be calculated from the capacitor value, the
load current, and the capacitor discharge time. Consider the circuit
output voltage waveform illustrated in Fig.a. The waveform
quantities are as follows:
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Basic electronics Module 1

Where
f is the frequency of the ac input waveform.
The input waveform goes through a 3600 phase angle during time T,
which gives the time per degree as

Figure a. The capacitance value for a reservoir capacitor can be

calculated from the load current, ripple voltage, and input
frequency. Figure b shows that, because the input wave is
sinusoidal.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

Approximation calculations

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Basic electronics Module 1

Zener Diode:
Zener Diode is a Two terminal semiconductor device
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if
it is reverse-biased above its reverse breakdown voltage
Circuit symbol

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Regulator Circuit with No Load:
The circuit in Fig.is usually employed as a voltage reference source
that supplies only a very low current (much lower than Iz) to the
output. Resistor Rl in Fig. limits the Zener diode current to the
desired level. Izis calculated as follows:

Solution:

The Zener current may be just greater than the diode knee current
(IZK).However, for the most stable reference voltage, Iz should be
selected as IZT(the specified test current). Example demonstrates the
circuit design procedure.
Example
A 9.1 V reference source is to use a series-connected Zener diode
and resistor connected to a 30 V supply (see Fig.). Select suitable
components, and calculate the circuit current when the supply
voltage drops to 27 V.(if IZT = 20 mA.)
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Loaded Regulator :
When a Zener diode regulator has to supply a load current (IL), as
shown in Fig.the total supply current (flowing through resistor R1)
is the sum of ILandIz.

Solution
IZM =PD/VZ=400mW/6.2 v
=64.5mW
IL(max) +IZ(max) =IZ=64.5mA

Fig: Zener diode voltage regulator circuit supplying a load current

(IL).The diode must be able to pass a maximum current of (IL+IZ).
In some cases, the load current in the type of circuit shown in Fig.
may be reduced to zero. Because the voltage drop across Rl remains
constant, the supply current remains constant: IR1=IZ+IL
Example
Design a 6 V dc reference source to operate from a 16V supply (see
Fig.)The circuit is to use a low-power Zener diode and is to produce
the maximum possible load current. Calculate the maximum load
current that can be taken from the circuit.(Vz= 6.2 V and PD = 400
mW.)

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

CLIPPING CIRCUITS
The function of a clipper (or limiter) is to clip off an unwanted
portion of a waveform.
Types of clippers
1 Series clipper
2 Shunt (parallel) clipper
SERIES CLIPPING CIRCUITS (positive &negative )
A half-wave rectifier can be described as a clipper because it passes
only the positive (or negative) half-cycle of an alternating
waveform and clips off the other half-cycle. In fact, a diode series
clipper is simply a half-wave rectifier circuit.
Figure a shows a negative series clipper circuit with a square wave
input symmetrical above and below ground level. While the input is
positive, D1is forward-biased and the positive half-cycle is passed
to the output.

During the negative half-cycle of the input, the diode is reversebiased.

Consequently, the output remains at zero and the negative halfcycle is effectively clipped off. The' zero level output from a series
clipper circuit is not exactly zero. The reverse saturation current (IR)
of the diode produces a voltage
drop across resistor Rl:

This voltage drop is almost always so small that it can be ignored.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

SHUNT(parallel) CLIPPING CIRCUITS

Here the diode is connected in shunt (or parallel) with the output
terminals. When the input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased
and there is only a small voltage drop across R1' due to load current
IL. This means that the circuit output voltage (V0) is approximately
equal to the negative input peak ( -E). When the input is + E, D1 is
forward-biased and the output voltage equals the diode voltage drop
(+ Vp). Thus, the positive half of the waveform is clipped off. As
illustrated, the upper and lower levels of the output of a positive
shunt clipper are approximately + VF and - E.
A negative shunt clipper circuit is exactly the same as a positive
shunt clipper with the diode polarity reversed (see Fig.b). The
negative half-cycle of the waveform is clipped off.

The load current on a shunt clipper produces a voltage drop (ILR1)

across the resistor; this might be insignificant where the load
current is very low:

As in the case of series clipping circuits, shunt clippers may be used

with square, sinusoidal, or other input waveforms.
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Note:
Zener Diode Shunt Clipper
A Zener diode shunt clipper produces the same kind of result as a
biased shunt clipper without the need for bias voltages. The clipper

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

circuit in Fig. has two back-to-back series-connected Zener
diodes. When the input voltage is positive and has sufficient

amplitude, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is biased into reverse

breakdown. At this time, the output voltage is limited to (VF + Vz2).
A negative input voltage produces a maximum negative output of
-(VF+ VZ1) With equal-voltage Zener diodes, the maximum output
voltage is
VO= (VF+VZ)

The resistor voltage is (E V0), and the resistor current is (IL + Iz).
A minimum level of Iz (greater than the device knee current) is
selected, and the resistor value is calculated as

Example
A Zener diode shunt clipper, as in Fig, is to be connected between a
20V square wave signal and a circuit that cannot accept inputs
greater than 5V. Select suitable Zener diodes, and determine
R1.The clipper output current is to be 1mA.(VZ=4.3V IZ(min)=5mA)
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

CLAMPING CIRCUITS
A clamping circuit, also known as a dc restorer, changes the dc
voltage level of a waveform but does not affect its shape.
.
Negative and Positive Voltage Clamping Circuits
Consider the clamping circuit shown in Fig. When the square wave
input is positive, diode Dl is forward biased and the output voltage
equals the diode forward voltage drop VF.

A positive voltage clamping circuit passes the complete input

waveform to the output but clamps the negative peak of the output
close to ground level Shown in below fig

Output Slope
The output voltage age from a clamping circuit has a slope
(Vc)produced by capacitor discharge. The capacitance value is
determined from the acceptable slope.
During the positive half-cycle of the input, the voltage on the right
side of the capacitor is +VF, while that on the left side is + E. Thus,
C1is charged with the polarity shown to a voltage:

The peak-to-peak output voltage (V0(pp))is the difference between

the positive output peak (VF) and negative output peak -(2E - VF):

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Example
The diode clamping circuit in Fig. has a 10V,1 kHz square wave
input. Calculate the tilt on the output waveform.

TRANSISTORS
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS:
The transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device.
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
participate in the conduction process.
It is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor regions, either
two n and one p-type layers of material or two p and one ntype layers of material.
Transistors are classified into two types
1. npn transistor
npn transistor is obtained when a p-type layer of
silicon is sandwiched between two n-type silicon
materials.
2.pnp transistor
pnp transistor is obtained when a n-type layer of
silicon is sandwiched between two p-type silicon
material.
Below fig shows the schematic representations of a transistor which
is equivalent of two diodes connected back to back

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

The terminals have been indicated by the capital letters E for
emitter, C for collector, and B for base.
Two pn junctions exist in each transistor: The pn junction
joining the base region and the emitter region is called the
base-emitter junction. The pn junction joining the base
region and the collector region is called the base-collector

npn transistor Operations :

For normal BJT operation, the base-emitter junction is forward
biased and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased. Charge
carriers (electrons in an npn device) are emitted into the base region
from the emitter region, and most of them are collected by the
collector region. Very few charge carriers flow through the base
terminal.

junction, as indicated in above Figure .

BJT graphic(Circuit) symbols
The symbols used for bipolar junction transistors in circuit
diagrams are given in Fig below.
The symbol shown at fig (b), in which the emitter arrow
head is directed towards the base (p to n), is used for a pnp
transistor and in the symbol shown at fig (a), in which the
emitter arrow head is directed away from the base (p to n), is
used for an npn transistor.
The arrow head in the emitter terminal always indicate the
conventional current direction, not the electron flow
direction.

pnp transistors Operations :

In a pnp BJT, the forward bias on the base-emitter junction causes
charge carriers (holes) to be emitted into the base region. Most of
the charge carriers are collected by being drawn across the reversebiased collector-base junction.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Terminal voltages for pnp transistor:

The terminal voltage polarities are shown in fig (a) and the
connection of voltage sources is shown in fig (b).
The arrow head indicates the conventional current direction
and arrow head points from emitter to base.

BJT voltages and currents:

Terminal voltages for npn transistor:
The terminal voltage polarities are shown in fig (a) and the
connection of voltage sources is shown in fig (b).
The arrow head indicates the conventional current direction
and arrow head points from base to emitter.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Note: Normally in the transistor, the base-emitter (BE)

junction should be forward biased and the collector-base junction

Both IC and IB flow out of the transistor while IE flows into

the transistor. Therefore by KCL

I E IC I B

(CB) should be reverse biased. But in the case of switching

(1)

transistors collector-base junction will become forward biased by

0.5V and base-emitter junction will become reverse biased.

This is shown in fig

Transistor currents:
The current flowing into the emitter terminal is called as
emitter current. In the case of pnp transistor this current is
due to holes.
The emitter current is denoted as IE, base current is denoted
as IB, and the collector current is denoted as IC as shown in
fig .
Almost all of IE diffuses to the collector (around 96% to
99.5%) and only a small portion flows out of the base terminal.
Hence we can write IC as a percentage of IE,

I C dc I E

(2)

Where dc is the emitter to collector current gain, or the ratio

of collector current to emitter current i.e.,

dc

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

IC
IE

(3)

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Basic electronics Module 1

Relationship between &

Example 1:
Calculate IC and IE for a transistor that has dc = 0.98 and IB =
100A. Determine the value of dc for the transistor.
Solution:

IC

IE

dc I B
0.98 100A

4.9mA
(1 dc )
1 0.98

I C 4.9mA

5mA
dc 0.98

dc

dc
0.98

49
(1 dc ) 1 0.98

Example 2:
Calculate dc and dc for the transistor Q1 in fig, if IC is measured as
1mA and IB is 25A. Determine the new base current to give IC =
5mA.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

BJT AMPLIFICATION:
Current amplification:
Let us assume the common emitter configuration (discussed
later).
IB is the input current and IC is the output current.
From the transistor operation we found that IB is very small
and IC is very large i.e., I C dc I B (output current is dc
times the input current).
Solution: dc

IC
1mA

40
I B 25A

I E I C I B 1mA 25A 1.025mA

dc

IC
1mA

0.976
I E 1.025mA

IB

IC

dc

So that a small change in base current (IB) produces a large

change in collector current (IC). From this we say that a
small input current is amplified to a large output current
(shown in fig ).

5mA
125A
40

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

In terms of current level changes base to collector current

Voltage amplification:

gain can be written as

ac

I C
I B

Change in IC is denoted as I C =Ic (changing quantities are

called as ac quantities)
Change in IB is denoted as I B I b
Now

ac

Ic
Ib

Alternate symbol for ac is hfe.

The transistor in fig

has dc =50, forward bias voltage

VB=0.7V, ac signal source in series with VB is vi = 20mV,

VCC =20V.
Q1 has the IBVs VBE characteristic shown in fig 3-10.
The corresponding IB for the 0.7V level is 20A.

I C dc I B 50 20A 1mA
DC collector voltage is calculated by using KVL,

VC VCC ( I C R1 ) 20V (1mA 12K) 8V

If the ac input voltage vi is zero, then VC will remains at 8V
itself. But vi causes a base voltage variation of 20mV, so

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

that the base current changes by 5A (from fig 3-10). Now

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:

the change in collector current is

I C dc I B 50 (5A) 250A

Depending upon which terminal is made as common between the

input and output, there are 3 configurations:

Because of this change in collector current, the change in

collector voltage is given by

VC R1 I C 12K 250A 3V

1.

Common Base configuration (CB)

2.

Common Emitter configuration (CE)

3.

Common collector configuration (CC)

From this we can conclude that a 20mV change in input

base voltage produces 3V change in the output collector
voltage; hence called voltage amplification. The parameter

COMMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS:

Common base circuit:

to define voltage amplification is called as voltage gain (Av).

V
3V
Av C
150
VB 20mV
The equation for ac voltage gain

Av

Fig

shows a npn&pnp transistor with its base terminal

common to both input and output terminals.

Input is applied between emitter and base terminals.
Output is taken from the collector and base terminals.

v0
vi

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Input characteristics
It is the curve between input current IE and input voltage
VEB at constant collector base voltage VCB as shown in fig .
After the cut-in voltage IE increases rapidly with small
increase in VEB i.e., the characteristics is similar to that of
the forward biased PN junction diode.
It is observed from the graph that there is a slight increase in
emitter current IE with increase in VCB.
This is due to, the larger collector base voltage cause the
depletion region at the collector base junction to penetrate

Common base output characteristics

It is the curve between collector current IC and VCB at
constant emitter current IE.
VCB is adjusted in convenient steps and corresponding
values of IC are noted and the characteristic is plotted in Fig

When the emitter base junction is forward biased and the

collector base junction is reversed biased the transistor is in
the active region. Under normal condition the transistor will
be operated in the active region. This is shown in the output
characteristics.

deeper in to the base region, thus shortening the distance and

reducing the resistance between the emitter-base and
collector-base depletion regions.
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Common emitter circuit:

Fig shows a npn & pnp transistor with its emitter terminal
common to both input and output terminals.
Input is applied between base and emitter terminals.
Output is taken from the collector and emitter terminals.

breakdown

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Input characteristics
It is the curve between input current IB and input voltage
VBE at constant collector emitter voltage VCE as shown in fig
The characteristics are similar to the forward biased pn
junction, but the current IB is only a small portion of the
total current IE.

Common emitter output characteristics:

It is the curve between collector current IC and VCE at
constant base current IB.
VCE is adjusted in convenient steps and corresponding
values of IC are noted and the characteristic is plotted in Fig
When we increase the level of VCE the width of the CB

It is observed from the graph that there is a slight reduction

depletion region will increase, so that it will penetrate more

in base current IB for a particular VBE with increase in VCE

into the base and reducing the distance between the CB and

levels.

EB depletion region, increasing collector current.

This is because higher VCE will increase the width of the CB

This increase in IC will give some slope in the output

depletion region, so that it will penetrate more into the base

characteristics. The slope in the output characteristics is

and reducing the distance between the CB and EB depletion

termed as early effect and the transistor is in the active

region, increasing collector current and reducing base

region.

current.

breakdown
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

When we extend the characteristics to the left of the current

axis they will meet at a point on the horizontal axis and the
voltage at that point is known as early voltage.
For a given level of IC the ac resistance at the collector
terminal is given by
rc= VA/IC
Further reduction in VCE will forward bias the CB junction
and IC will reduce to zero when VCE is zero. At this point
both the BE and CB junctions are forward biased and the
device is said to be in saturation region.
When both the junctions are reverse biased input and output
currents are zero and the transistor is said to be in cut-off
region.
Current gain characteristics:
This characteristics is drawn between output current IC and

input current IB with constant VCE.

In the output characteristics, VCE = VCB+VBE (shown in fig ),
and at the knee of the characteristics VCE = VBE, VCB = 0V
and we will get more current at this point.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

43

Basic electronics Module 1

Common collector circuit:

Fig shows a npn & pnp transistor with its collector terminal
common to both input and output terminals.

Input characteristics
It is the curve between input current IB and input voltage

VBC at constant emitter collector voltage VEC as shown in fig

Apply KVL around the transistor

-VBC + VEC - VEB = 0
VEB = VEC-VBC

---------------

(1)

From eqn (1) we can say that, when VBC increases for a
constant VEC, VEB will reduce and hence IB reduces shown
in fig .
Input is applied between base and collector terminals.

When VEC increases there is a slight increase in IB.

Output is taken from the emitter and collector terminals.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

Output and current gain characteristics:

Biasing conditions:

It is the curve between emitter current IE and VEC at constant

base current IB.
VCE is adjusted in convenient steps and corresponding
values of IC are noted and the characteristic is plotted in Fig
Since IE IC, the characteristic is now between IC and
VEC.This is nothing but CE output characteristics. (Only

Region of

Emitter base

Collector base

operation

junction

junction

Cut-off

Reverse biased

Reverse biased

Active

Forward biased

Reverse biased

Saturation

Forward biased

Forward biased

difference is sign of VEC).

Applications:
Active region: amplifier
Cut-off region-Saturation region: switch.

Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

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Basic electronics Module 1

.END..................
Vinay H S,Dept.of ECE, CEC.

46