CHAPTER 4

Power Flow Studies1

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Satisfactory operation of complex, large and interconnected

(grid-operated) power systems requires power
flow (commonly called load flow) computer programs. The
power flow study program evaluates and analyzes the system
under balanced three-phase steady state conditions.
4.1.1 Basic Applications of Power Flow Studies and its Significance in Power
System Operation and Control:

1. To set the active power generation according to economicdispatch practice for a given set of active power loads at the busbars and transmission loss.
2. To set the reactive power generation and transmission in order to
maintain the bus voltage magnitudes close to the rated values.
3. To verify that generators operate within the specified active and
reactive power limits.
4. To verify that transmission lines and transformers are not over
loaded.
5. The study provides the power systems planning engineer with the
information necessary to bring about changes in generation and
transmission systems to meet projected load growth in the future.
6. As the study is conducted under steady-state conditions of the
system, it provides numerical steady-state values (initial values
at t = 0) of the system parameters for solving differential
equations, as in the case of dynamical studies.

7. The study is useful for finding the optimal size and location of
capacitors to maintain the system's voltage profile at acceptable
limits. Likewise, it helps other voltage control equipments like
the shunt reactor and static VAR compensators to be installed at
proper bus locations.
4.1.2 Data Preparation:

Power flow program is a real time application that runs under

on-line condition of the power system. Hence the computers
used for this application need high computational speed. A
power flow program runs in two stages. Stage-1 results are
required to carry out Stage-2. In other words, computation at
Stage-1 needs to be completed before the start of Stage2
calculations.
Stage-1: In this stage four bus quantities are computed at
each bus, namely:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Active power injected into the bus,

Reactive power injected into the bus,
Magnitude of the bus voltage, and
Phase angle (or load/torque angle) of the bus voltage measured
with respect to the reference bus voltage.

Power injected (active/reactive) into the bus is the difference

between the local power generated and the local power
demanded and is the net power available at the bus, which can
be transferred to other buses through the transmission lines

connected to this bus. If the power generation is more than

what is demanded, the injected power is positive and hence,
the bus can act as an exporting bus. On the other hand, if the
reverse is true, the bus is an importing bus. Also, for an
exporting bus the phase angle is leading whereas for
importing buses it is lagging. Considering four quantities at
each bus for an n bus power system, we compute a total of
4nquantities and then go to Stage-2.
Stage 2: This stage can be regarded as the destination stage
of the study. In this case, power flows from one bus to another
through the transmission line connecting the buses and power
loss during the transfer is computed. This computation is
performed for each line connecting any two buses.
The Network Model of interconnected power system in the
power flow study includes the representation of generators as
complex power sources, loads as complex power demands and
transmission lines as a -network consisting of series
admittance and line charging admittances.
The Mathematical Model for the study is a set of nonlinear
simultaneous algebraic equations. Network equations in the
study can be formulated by using either the ZBusor YBus matrices.

However YBus is preferred, as the matrix has more number of

zero elements or has more sparsity. This enables fast
solutions using only the non-zero entries.
Either the GaussSeidel or the NewtonRaphson iterative
method is used to solve non-linear algebraic equations. While
the former method is used for small-sized power systems, the
latter finds application in the study of large-sized systems. As
the study is conducted under steady-state conditions of the
system a only a single phase-based positive sequence network
is considered and all numerical values are given as per unit
values.
4.2 NETWORK MODELLING

A practical power system consists of a large number of buses.

These buses are interconnected by means of transmission
lines. Figure 4.1 represents the single line diagram of a fourbus power system consisting of generators, local demands and
transmission lines. In the network model, the power system
components are represented as shown in Figure 4.2
o The generator is represented as a complex power source with a
complex numerical number. For example, the generator at
the i bus is represented as
th

SGi = PGi + j QGi

where, SGi, PGi, QGi stand respectively for the complex

power, active power, and reactive power generated at
the ith bus.

Fig 4.1 Single Line Diagram of a Four-Bus Power System

Network

Fig 4.2 Network Model of the Power System Shown

in Figure 4.1
o Load is represented as a complex power demand at the bus. That
is, by a complex numerical number. For example, load at
the i bus is represented as,
th

SDi = PDi + j QDi

where, SDi, PDi, QDi stand for the complex power, active
power and reactive power demand respectively, at
the ith bus.

o A transmission line is modeled as a network, with the series

impedance of the line given as series admittance and line
charging admittance.

Let Rik, Xik and Cik be the resistance, reactance and capacitance
of the line connecting two buses i and k respectively. If the
series impedance of the line is Zik = Rik + j Xikthen the series
admittance of the line is Yik = Gik jBik, where Gik is the
conductance and Bik is the susceptance of the line. These
values can be obtained from the expressions

p. u.

and

p. u. The half-line charging admittance is given

by:

p. u.
4.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

The mathematical model for the power-flow study comprises

of a set of nonlinear simultaneous algebraic equations for

active and reactive powers. These equations have to be

developed for the following quantities:
Stage-1:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Injected active power

Injected reactive power
Magnitude of bus voltage
Phase angle of the bus voltage measured with respect to the
reference bus voltage.

Stage-2:
1. Equations for active and reactive power flows
2. Transmission line loss

Stage-1 is an iterative process to obtain the bus quantities,

whereas Stage-2 is arepeated process for finding line flows
and loss in each of the lines present in the power system. The
following sub-section deals with the mathematical model for
Stage-1 and Stage-2 quantities.
4.3.1 Mathematical Model for Stage-1 Quantities

It has been described in Section 4.1 that injected power is the

difference between generated power and demanded power at
the bus. Now in this section we develop mathematical
expressions for both active and reactive power induced i.e.,
the complex power injected.

Let Si = Pi + jQi be the complex power injected into any bus (i).

where, Pi = PGi PDi and Qi = QGi QDi are the net powers
injected into the iih bus Let Ii be defined as injected current
into the ith bus.

Fig 4.3 SubNetwork of Figure 4.2 for Determining the

Injected Current into the First Bus

where,

Considering Figure 4.2 in conjunction with Figure 4.3, the net

current injected into the first bus I1 can be written by applying
KCL at node 1 as:

Referring to Figure 4.3, the component currents are

Through substitution of the above component currents, the

equation for I1is:

y12 and y13 are series admittances while

and

are half-line

charging admittances of the lines connecting bus (1) to bus (2)

and bus (3).
Rearranging the terms in the Equation (4.3),

Equation (4.4) is written as

where, Y11 = total admittance connected to the first

bus
Y12 = y12
Y13 = y13,

Y14 = 0 (since there is no direct connection between buses 1

and 4).
In general, Yii = total admittance connected to the ith bus,
and Yik = negative value of series admittance connected
between buses (i) and (k); Yik = 0 if the ith bus is not connected
to the kth bus.
Following the same procedure as above, the injected currents
into the second and third buses can be written as

Putting Equations 4.54.8 in the standard matrix form as

below:

Since I1, I2, I3, I4 are the currents injected into the buses
and V1, V2, V3, V4 are the bus voltages, in the condensed
form Equation (4.8) can be written as

For an n-bus power system,

IBus is the n 1 column matrix representing n-bus currents.
VBus is the n 1 column matrix representing n-bus voltages.
YBus is the n n square matrix representing n2 bus admittances.
The elements in the YBus can be computed by direct inspection
of the network. This technique of direct inspection and the
other methods for YBus formation arepresented in Chapter2.
The general expression for the injected current into the ithbus
can be written as:

Power flow programs developed by using YBus are more

efficient. A comparison ofYBus over ZBus, though discussed
in Chapter-2, has been repeated here for convenience.
o YBus is a symmetric square matrix, i.e., Yik = Yki.
o YBus is a sparse matrix, i.e. a majority of Yiks are zeros as the each
bus may be connected to a maximum of another two to three
buses only. As a verification, it can be observed the following
terms are zeros in the Eq.(4.9) Y14 = Y41 = Y23 = Y32= 0.
o It can be observed that the shunt elements such as half-line
charging admittances and reactors connected to various buses
are present only in the diagonal elements.
o A power flow numerical problem converges quickly if the leading
diagonal elements in the YBus dominate over the offdiagonal
element. If the reverse happens, the problem diverges.
o The imaginary term representing susceptance is in general
negative in the diagonal and positive in the off-diagonal terms of
the YBus matrix.
o Chances for convergence of power flow problems increases with
the connection of shunt reactors, and decreases with the shunt
capacitors at the buses.
o Use of YBus is an example for sparsity techniques. This has
following advantages: (1) It reduces computer memory
requirements, as only non-zero elements need to be stored. (2) It
reduces computation work, thereby improving the speed of
power flow application software.
o Now, the equation for the injected complex power Si is arrived at
as follows:

The complex power injected into the ith bus is

Substituting Equation (4.10) in (4.12)

Where we use Equation 4.13 for computing Si, it is required to

conjugate n number of Yik's and Vk's. To reduce the
computation time, Si* is calculated instead of Si, where
only Vi terms are conjugated as described below:

After solving Equation 4.14 and separating the real and

imaginary terms, the equations for injected active and reactive
powers can be obtained.

(The minus sign is used because the solution of Equation

4.16 gives a negative value of Qi. To obtain a positive value of
Qi, the imaginary term of Si* is negated.)
Let us describe the quantities in equation (4.14) in the polar
form as:

where, |V| and represent the magnitude of bus voltages and

the phase angles respectively and

Substituting the above polar quantities in Equation (4.14), we

obtain

Separating the real and imaginary terms in Equation (4.17),

Equations 4.18 and 4.19 are known as static load flow

equations (SLF equations).
Note:

o SLF equations are nonlinear because of the presence of sine and

cosine terms.
o The SLF equations can be described as nonlinear simultaneous
algebraic equations. Now, we develop the equations for the
remaining two bus quantities i.e., |Vi| and i. From Equation
(4.14),

or

Separation of K = ith term in the above equation yields,

Now, the equation for Vi can be written from the above as:

When Equation 4.20 for Vi is written in the polar form, the

values of magnitude and load angle of the ith bus voltage can be
obtained. Solving equations (4.18) to (4.20)provides the
required four bus quantities.
4.3.2 Mathematical Modeling for Stage-2 Quantities

In this section we discuss the mathematical expressions for

computing line flow and loss.
Consider the line connecting buses i and k as shown in Figure
4.4. Let Sik = Pik + jQikbe the power transferred from the ith bus
to the kth bus, Iik be the current flowing from the ith bus
to kth bus, and Vi and Vk be the ith bus and kth bus voltages.
Applying KCL at junction (i), Iik can be written as:

Now, the equation for Sik is

Substituting (4.21) in (4.22), the equation for Sik is obtained

below

Using Equation 4.23(a), the active and reactive powers

transferred from ith bus to thekth bus can be calculated as:

Following the above procedure, the equation for power

transferred from the kth bus to the ith bus can be directly
written as:

where Pki = active power transferred from the kth bus to

the ith bus = real{Sik } andQik = imag(Sik), the reactive power
transferred from the kth bus to the ith bus.

Fig 4.4 Line Flow Calculations

If Pik > Pki the ith bus exports active power, and the kth bus
receives it. If on the other hand, Pki > Pik, the kth bus exports
active power, and the ith bus receives it.
Now, the summation of Sik and Ski gives the power loss in the
transmission line.
The above procedure is repeated for all the l-number of
transmission lines and the total loss, as the number of lines,
can be obtained.

This concludes the modeling stage of the power flow problem.

Power flow equations are nonlinear algebraic equations which
cannot be solved directly. These are solved only by application
of iterative numerical methods such as the GaussSeidel or
the NewtonRaphson methods. The power flow solution by

GaussSeidel method is described in this chapter whereas the

NewtonRaphson method of power flow solution is dealt with
in Chapter 5.
4.4 GAUSSSEIDEL ITERATIVE METHOD

Nonlinear simultaneous algebraic equations can be solved

with less computational effort by using the GaussSeidel
method. As in any iterative method, this method starts with
an initial approximate or guess value and progressively in the
consequent iterations; more accurate estimates are computed
until a final value is reached with the desired accuracy. If the
convergence solution is required with a desired accuracy up to
the 3rd decimal, then the first three decimal numbers in the
final and the previous iteration values should remain the
same. In this section we take a closer look at the procedure
involved in the GaussSeidel method. Let us consider a set of
n-nonlinear simultaneous algebraic equations with n number
of unknowns.

X1 = f1 (X1, X2,, Xn)

X2 = f2 (X1, X2,, Xn)

-------------------------Xn = fn (X1, X2,, Xn)

Algorithm:
1. Start with initial guess values for x's as: X1 , X2 ,, Xn
2. Estimate the first approximation for X1 as: X1 = f1 (X1 , X2 ,, Xn )
3. Estimate the first approximation for X2 as: X2 = f2 (X1 , X2 ,
, Xn )
4. It is to be noted that, in the calculation of X2 the already updated
value of X1, i.e., X1 is used instead of X1 . In
general, Xi = fi(X1 , X2 ,, Xi 1 , Xi , Xi+1 ,, Xn
5. The process is continued until r number of specified iterations.
In general, ther approximation for Xi is computed
as: Xi = Fi (X1 , X1 ,, Xi1 , Xi ,Xi+1 ,, Xn )
6. The change in each variable Xi of r iteration is then examined
as Xi = Xi Xi for i = 1, 2,, n;
7. If Xi for i = 1, 2,, n < (error specified) then the solution is
converged.
0

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(0)

(1)

(1)

(0)

(0)

(0)

th

(r)

(r)

(r)

(r)

(r 1)

(r1)

(r1)

th

(r)

r1

(r)

Use of acceleration factor

The total number of iterations to reach the convergence
solution can be reduced by using the acceleration factor. The
accelerated Xir value is: Xir = Xir1 + (Xir Xi r1) where is a
real number called the acceleration factor. The general
recommended value of is 1.6. Example 4.1 describes the
general procedure of the GaussSeidel Method.

Example 4.1

Solve the following equations by using the Gauss

Seidel method.

Solution:
The above equations can be rewritten as:

Assuming the starting values of x2 and x3 as x20 = x30 = 0

Iteration 1: By substituting the current values of x1, x2 and x3 in
Equations (1), (2)and (3), the variables are updated as:

Iteration 1:

Iteration 2:

Iteration 3:

+1.808 pt

Iteration 4:

Iteration 5:
Substituting the 4th iteration values of x2 and x3 in Equation (1)

We continue the process until the difference in xi's from

current to the previous iteration is very small. The values
obtained during the five iterations are given in the following
table:

4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUSES

Considering the four bus quantities, at each bus a total of

4n variables need to be found for an n-bus power system in
Stage-1. To obtain 4n variables, a total of 4nnonlinear
algebraic equations need to be solved in each iteration. As the
practical power system consists of a large number of buses,
the number of equations and hence iterations also increase
proportionately. This has significant impact on executing the
power flow problem under online conditions. Hence suitable
assumptions such as specification of two out of the four bus
quantities shall reduce computational work and computer
CPU time. By specifying two variables at each bus, the number
of equations reduces to 2n from 4n. This assumption speeds
up the process, thereby enabling the study to be carried out
under online conditions of the power system.

In an inter-connected power system, the buses are connected

with one device or a combination of devices like generators,
loads and voltage control equipment. Variables are specified
depending upon the equipment connected to the bus. Buses
can be classified into 4 types as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

PQ or load bus.
PV or generator bus.
Slack or swing or reference bus.
Voltage-controlled bus.
4.5.1 PQ Bus or Load Bus

A majority of the buses in a power system are of this type

(about 85% of the total buses). At this bus, injected active and
reactive powers are specified, and the magnitude and phase
angles are unspecified. At each PQ bus, the generated power
values PGi and QGi are fixed or specified and the local
demanded powers PDi and QDiare known from measurement or
by load forecasting. Knowing generation and demand, and the
net injected powers at the bus can be calculated as:

The ith bus in the following figure can be designated as the PQ

bus

Fig 4.5 Designating ith Bus As Pq Bus, (a) ith Bus Is Either
Importing/Exporting, (b)ith Bus Is An Exporting Bus, (c) ith Bus
Is An Importing Bus, (d) ith Bus Is An Inter-Connector

In Figure 4.5(a), if PGi > PDi, QGi > QDi, and Pi and Qi are non-zero
positive values, then the ith bus can act like an exporting bus.
If PGi < PDi and QGi < QDi then the bus acts like an importing bus.
Bus i in Figure 4.5(b) is an exporting bus. In Figure
4.5(c)the ith bus is an importing bus while in Figure. 4.5(d), it
acts as an inter-connector where, the Pi and Qi values are
zeroes.

4.5.2 PV Bus or Generator Bus

A bus can be designated as a PV bus, only when a generator is

connected to it. At this bus, the injected active power Pi and
the magnitude of the bus voltage |Vi| are specified. About 15%
of buses in a power system are of this type.
Justification for specifying Pi and |Vi |
PGi value can be set to a desired value based on the
requirements of active power at the importing buses within
the permissible control action of the generator. This bus is
generally an exporting bus. Within the permissible control
action of the exciter, the voltage magnitude can be controlled
at this bus. However, as excitation has its limits, the generator
at this bus cannot generate reactive power less than QGi,min or
more than QGi,max. Knowledge of these reactive power limits is
necessary. As long as the Qivalue is within the limits, this
generator bus can be continued to be treated as the voltage
controlled PV bus. However, if in any of the
iteration Qi violates the limits, the bus can no longer be
treated as a PV bus, and the power flow solution should again
be initiated by re-designating this bus as a PQ bus. When it is

re-designated, the value of QGi is set to either QGi,min or QGi,max as

the case may be.
4.5.3 Voltage Controlled Buses

Because of its capabilities in maintaining bus voltage to the

specified value, a PV bus/generator bus may be designated as
a voltage controlled bus. However, a pure voltage controlled
bus has a basic distinction in that it is connected with only
voltage control equipment like SVCs and TCUL transformers,
and not generators. Hence at this bus, the following values are
known a priori:
PGi = QGi = 0; Pi = PDi; Qi = QDi; |Vi| = Specified value and
only i is the unknown parameter.
4.5.4 Slack Bus/Swing Bus/Reference Bus

In a power system, if one bus connected is connected to a

generator with high generation capacities (both P and Q), it is
designated as the slack bus. At this bus |Vi|and are specified,
and P and Q are unknown parameters.
Justification for specifying |Vi|and :
To find the phase angle difference amongst n-bus voltage
vectors, one of the voltage vectors is taken as the reference

vector. Since slack bus voltage is chosen as the reference

vector, its phase difference value is always zero and hence is
known to us. As the bus is equipped with a generator,
specifying |Vi| is justified.
Justification for un-specifying P and Q
The power balance equations can be written as:

In a power flow study, the generator of active and reactive

power cannot be set to the correct values, since the loss in the
lines is unknown till the study is complete. Therefore it is
necessary to have one bus as the slack bus at which the
complex power generation is not initially set. The generation
at the slack bus is such that, it supplies the difference in the
total system load plus losses minus the sum of the complex
powers specified at the remaining buses. In an n-bus power
system, for coding convenience bus-1 is always the slack bus,

and bus numbers 2, 3, 4,, x + 1 are assigned to x number of

PV buses and x + 2,, n are assigned to PQ buses.
Summary of classification of buses

4.6 CASE STUDIES IN POWER FLOW PROBLEM

The power flow problem can be discussed in two case studies.

Case 1: The power system consists of the slack bus and PQ
buses, but without PV buses
Case-2: The power system consists of the slack bus and PQ
buses, with PV buses.
It should be noted that, as the majority of buses are PQ buses,
all power flow studies usually include these buses. In addition,
without the slack bus, a power flow problem never converges
and cannot be solved. However, without PV buses a power

flow solution is still possible since some of the PQ buses can

act like exporting buses.
4.7 ALGORITHM FOR POWER FLOW SOLUTION BY THE GAUSSSEIDEL METHOD

This Section presents the algorithm for the GaussSeidel

method for a system with nnumber of buses.
Step-1: Formation of YBus
Using the line data for resistance, reactance and half-line
charging admittance of various lines, form YBus using one of the
methods discussed in Chapter-2.
Step-2: Read the bus data for the 2n bus quantities
specified.
Before attempting Stage-2 calculations for obtaining the line
flows and losses, it is required to find the remaining 2n bus
quantities. The Case-1 study is presented inSection 4.7.1 and
the Case-2 study in Section 4.7.2.
4.7.1 Case-1: GS Method to obtain Bus Quantities when the PV Buses are Absent

The 2n bus quantities unspecified are: P1, Q1 for the slack bus
and |Vi| and i for i = 2, 3,, n.

Step-3: Calculation of BusQuantities for the PQ

buses
Initially assume |Vi| = 1 p.u. and i = 0 rad for i = 2, 3,,n (for
the PQ Buses). This start is known as Flat-Start. Update these
(2n 2) bus quantities at every step of iteration.
Using Equation (4.20), |Vi| and i can be determined by the
GS iterative process as described below:

Now, for the (r + 1)th iteration, the voltage becomes

Updated values of Vkn+1 (k = 1, 2,, i 1) are used for this

iteration, whereas for the rest of the voltages, the previous
values, i.e., Vkr (k = i + 1, i + 2,, n) are used.
Acceleration for convergence
Convergence in the GaussSeidel method can be speeded up
by the use of acceleration factor as:

where, is a real number called the acceleration factor. A

suitable value of for any system can be obtained by the trial
process. The recommended value of for the power flow
study is 1.6. A wrong choice of may slow down convergence
or even cause the method to diverge. The iteration process is
continued till the convergence solution is obtained when the
changes in bus voltages in successive iterations become less
than the pre-specified error value. After this iteration
process has been completed, slack bus powers P1, and Q1 are
computed as the last step in Stage-1 power flow calculations.

After obtaining the converged values for all bus voltages, we

calculate slack bus powers as shown in Step-4.
4.7.2 Case-2: GS Method to obtain Bus Quantities when the PV Buses are Present

The unspecified bus quantities in this case study

are: P1 and Q1 for the slack bus; Qiand i for i = 2, 3,, x + 1
of x number of PV buses; and |Vi| and i for i = x + 2,, nof
PQ buses.
The conditions to be met with PV buses are:
1. |Vi| = specified values
2. Qi,min < Qi < Qi,max for i = 2, 3,, x + 1

The second condition shall be violated if the specified voltages

are either too low or too high. It is possible to control the |Vi|
by Qi. During the iteration process, if Qiviolates the prescribed
limits, it is fixed to either Qi, min or Qi, max as the case may be
and the PV bus should be treated as a PQ bus.
Step-3: Calculation of bus quantities for the PV buses
Active power Pi, for i = 2, 3,, n is known at the PQ/PV buses,
and voltage magnitude |Vi| for i = 2, 3,, x + 1 is known at the
PV buses. Reactive power Qi for i = x + 2,, nis known at the

PQ buses and voltage angle i for i = 2, 3,, n is unknown at

the PV buses. So, Qi and i are updated for each iteration.

The (r + 1)th iteration value of Qi is:

The updated value of i can be obtained from Equation

(4.20) as:

The limits of reactive power can be checked and fixed as given

below

If any Qi value violates the limits, then the bus is treated as a

PQ bus.
Step-4: Slack bus power calculations (common for
Case-1 and Case-2 studies)
At the slack bus, voltage magnitude |V1| and voltage angle
1 are specified or known, and real power P1 and reactive
power Q1 are to be calculated. To calculate active and reactive
powers Equations (4.18 and 4.19) can be used.
After obtaining the converged values for all bus voltage
magnitudes |Vi|s (for all PQ buses), the phase angle difference
i (for all PV and PQ buses) and the final values of reactive
powers injected using converged values of voltages (for all PV
buses), then we calculate slack bus powers in Step-4, as the
last step in Stage-1.

Stage-2: Calculation of line flows and losses

(Common to Case-1 and Case-2)
This stage is a repeat process for each line present in the
system in which line flows and line losses are
computed. Equation (4.23) can be used for finding line flows
andEquation (4.24), for estimating line losses. For a given
load generation, the total system loss can be estimated by
using Equation (4.25).
This concludes the power flow calculation by the Gauss
Seidel method. The flow chart for the GS algorithm is
presented in Figure 4.6.
4.7.3 Flow Chart: Power Flow Solution by GS Method

MATLAB PROGRAM: POWER FLOW SOLUTION BY GS

METHOD

YBus Formation For Power Flow Studies

zdata=input(enter zdata=);
fbus=zdata(:,1); tobus=zdata(:,2); R=zdata(:,3);
X=zdata(:,4);Lcharge=j*zdata(:,5);
nbr=length(zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(fbus), max(tobus));

Z = R + j*X; % branch impedance

for i=1:nbr % branch admittance
y(i)=inv(Z(i));
end
Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus); % initialize Ybus to zero
for k = 1:nbr; % formation of the off-diagonal elements
Ybus(fbus(k),tobus(k)) = Ybus(fbus(k),tobus(k)) y(k);
Ybus(tobus(k),fbus(k)) = Ybus(fbus(k),tobus(k));
end
for n = 1:nbus % formation of the diagonal elements
for k = 1:nbr
if fbus(k) == n |tobus(k)== n

Fig 4.6 Power Flow Study by GS Method Flow Chart

Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n) + y(k)+Lcharge(k);

else,
end
end
end
busadmitancematrix=Ybus
% Power flow solution by GaussSeidel method
Fb = lineinfo(:,1); Tb = lineinfo(:,2); R = lineinfo(:,3);
X = lineinfo(:,4); hlc = j*lineinfo(:,5);j=sqrt(1);

Fig 4.6 Power Flow Study by GS Method Flow Chart

(Contd.)

nob=length(lineinfo(:,1)); n = max(max(Fb), max(Tb));

Z = R + j*X; y= ones(nob,1)./Z;
for i = 1:nob
Ybus=zeros(n,n);
for k=1:nob;
Ybus(Fb(k),Tb(k))=Ybus(Fb(k),Tb(k))y(k);
Ybus(Tb(k),Fb(k))=Ybus(Fb(k),Tb(k));
end
end
for i=1:n
for k=1:nob
if Fb(k)==i
Ybus(i,i) = Ybus(i,i)+y(k) + hlc(k);

elseif Tb(k)==i
Ybus(i,i) = Ybus(i,i)+y(k) +hlc(k);
else, end
end
end
n = length(businfo(:,1));
for a=1:n
bn=businfo(a,1);
bustype(bn)=businfo(a,2); Vmag(bn)=businfo(a,3);
Vang(bn)=pi/180*businfo(a, 4);
Pd(bn)=businfo(a,5); Qd(bn)=businfo(a,6);
Pg(bn)=businfo(a,7); Qg(bn) = businfo(a,8);
Qmin(bn)=businfo(a, 9); Qmax(bn)=businfo(a, 10);
V(bn) = Vmag(bn)*(cos(Vang(bn)) + j*sin(Vang(bn)));
P(bn)=(Pg(bn)Pd(bn))/MVAb;Q(bn)=(Qg(bn)
Qd(bn))/MVAb;

end
conv = 1;
Vcal = zeros(n,1)+j*zeros(n,1); Scal = zeros(n,1)+j*zeros(n,1);
iter=1;
maxerr=10;
while maxerr >= error & iter <= maxiter
for i = 1:n;
if bustype(i) ~= 1
YV = 0+j*0;
for k = 1:n;
if i~=k & Ybus(i,k)~=0;
YV = YV + Ybus(i,k)*V(k);
end
end
Scal = conj(V(i))*(Ybus(i,i)*V(i) + YV) ;

Scal = conj(Scal);
if bustype(i) == 2
Q(i) = imag(Scal);
Qgcal = Q(i)*MVAb + Qd(i) ;
x=0;
if Qgcal < Qmin(i),
Q(i) = Qmin(i); x=x+1;
elseif Qgcal > Qmax(i),
Q(i) = Qmax(i); x=x+1;
end
end
Vcal(i) = ((P(i)j*Q(i))/conj(V(i)) YV )/ Ybus(i,i);
if bustype(i) == 2
if x==1
Vmag(i)=abs(Vcal(i));

else,end
Vcal(i)= Vmag(i)*[cos(angle(Vcal(i)))+j*sin(angle(Vcal(i)))];
else,end
V2(i) = V(i) + accel*(Vcal(i) V(i));
DVmag(i) = abs(V(i)) abs(V2(i));
DVang(i) = angle(V(i)) angle(V2(i));
V(i)=V2(i);
end % end of if
end % end of for
maxerr=max( max(abs(DVmag)), max(abs(DVang)) );
if iter == maxiter & maxerr > error
conv = 0;
else, end
iter=iter+1;
end

for i = 1:n
Vmag(i) = abs(V(i)); Vangrd(i) = angle(V(i))*180/pi;
if bustype(i)==1
Scal=0;
for k=1:n
Scal = Scal+conj(V(i))*(Ybus(i,k)*V(k) );
end
P(i) = real(Scal); Q(i) = imag(Scal);
Pg(i) = P(i)*MVAb + Pd(i);
Qg(i) = Q(i)*MVAb + Qd(i);
elseif bustype(i) ==2
Qg(i) = Q(i)*MVAb + Qd(i);
end
end
disp ( Ybus )

disp (Ybus)
if conv == 0
fprintf (\n solution did not converged after %g
iterations.\n\n, (iter1))
else,
fprintf (Power Flow Solution by GaussSeidel Method);
fprintf (\n No. of Iterations = %g \n\n, (iter1))
end
disp (Bus Voltage Angle in Load
Generation )
disp (No. Magnitude Degrees P Q P Q \n\n')
for i=1:n
fprintf (\n%5g, i), fprintf( %10.3f, Vmag(i)),
fprintf (%11.3f, Vangrd(i)), fprintf( %9.3f, Pd(i)),
fprintf (%10.3f, Qd(i)), fprintf( %11.3f, Pg(i)),
fprintf (%11.3f , Qg(i))

end
fprintf (\n Total )
fprintf (%18.3f, sum(Pd)), fprintf( %10.3f, sum(Qd)),
fprintf (%11.3f, sum(Pg)), fprintf( %11.3f, sum(Qg))
fprintf (\n\n Line Flow and Losses \n\n)
fprintf (Line Power flow Line lossses in \n)
fprintf (from to MW Mvar MVA MW Mvar \n\n)
I=zeros(n,n);
for i=1:n
for l=1:n
if i~=l & Ybus(i,l)~=0
if i>l
I(i,l)= I(l,i);
else
I(i,l)=Ybus(i,l)*(V(i)V(l));

end
S(i,l)= V(i)*conj(l(i,l));
S(l,i)= V(l)*conj(l(i,l));
fprintf (%7g,i),fprintf (%5g,l),fprintf
(%12.3f,real(S(i,l))*MVAb)
fprintf
(%11.3f,imag(S(i,l)*MVAb)),fprintf(%12.3f,abs(S(i,l))),
fprintf (%10.3f,real(S(i,l)+S(l,i)))
fprintf (%9.3f\n ,imag(S(i,l)+S(l,i)))
end
end
end
Example 4.2

(Numerical example for Case1 study)

Figure 4.7 shows a 5-bus power system. Each line has
an impedance of (0.02 + j0.2) per unit Consider the

following bus data (all are per unit values). Neglect

line charging admittances.

Fig 4.7 5-Bus System for Example 4.2

Form Ybus. Find V2, V3, V4and V5after the first iteration
using GaussSeidel method. Assume flat start (initial
voltage values are unity)

Solution:
Series admittance of each line
Through direct inspection method Ybus is formed and the
elements are given below:
Diagonal elements of Ybus

Off-diagonal elements of Ybus:

The Ybus elements in polar form are given below:

b) The injected power at each bus is:

Assume V20 = V30 = V40 = V50 = 1 p.u. and

The first iteration voltages and phase difference are computed

below

The first iteration voltage values calculated above are verified

with the results obtained by executing
the pfstudy_gauss software program.

Convergence Solution is obtained at the end of 18

Iterations.
The results are presented below:

Line Flow and Losses

Example 4.3

(Numerical example for Case-2 study)

Consider the 5-bus power system of Example 4.2.
Line data remain the same. But, the second bus is

now designated as PV Bus.Consider the following bus

data.
Bus Data:

Take reactive power limits for PV Bus as 1 Q2 1 p.

u.
Find Q2, 2V2, V3, V4and V5after the first iteration using
the GaussSeidel method.
Assume flat start (initial voltage values are unity)
Solution:
Since line data is the same as in Example 4.2, the bus
admittance matrix is taken.

The injected power at each bus is:

S1 = P1 + jQ1 p.u; S2 = 0.5 + jQ2 p.u.
S3 = 0.6 j0.30 p.u.; S4 = 0.6 j0.3 p.u.; S5 = 0.5 j0.2 p.u.
Assume V30 = V40 = V50 = 1p.u. and
40 = 30 = 40 = 50 =

Given that V20= 1.1 + j0, |V2|=1.1;

Using Equation 4.27, Q21 is calculated as:

The value of Q21 is within the imposed limits of Q2 min and Q2 max.
Using the above value of Q21, we find V21 as

Therefore, 12 = 2.356
We set
of

, and retain the phase angle . Thus, the value

for subsequent iteration is set to

= 1.1

2.356

The first iteration voltage values calculated above are verified

with the results obtained by
executing pfstudy_gauss software program.

Convergence Solution is obtained at the end of 20

iterations.
The results are presented below:

Power Flow and Losses

Example 4.4

(Numerical example for the case when the PV bus Q

value violates limits)
In Example 4.3, the reactive power limits are changed
to new limits as: 0.3 Q 0.1 p.u. Execute

pfstudy_gauss software and observe how Bus-2 is redesignated as PQ bus.

Obtain final bus voltages.
Convergence Solution
The pfstudy_gauss software program results at the end of 39
iterations

Power Flow and Losses

Example 4.5

(Numerical example for slack bus power

calculations)
Consider a 2-Bus power system shown
in Figure 4.8. The loads at the buses are shown in the
figure. The Ybusof the network is

Using second iteration value of V2, calculate injected

powers at the first bus.

Fig 4.8 2-Bus Power System of Example 4.5

Solution:
The power into the buses is

Let us have a flat start for V2

Now the first iteration value of V2 is:

The next iteration yields,

Substituting the above values

With k = 1, the above expression yields the complex power for

Bus 1;

From the above,

P1 = 0.4397 p. u., Q1 = 0.1343 p. u.

Example 4.6

(Numerical Example for use of acceleration factor)

The following Figure 4.9 shows a 3-Bus power
system. The line and bus data are given in p. u.
Neglect line charging admittances.

Fig 4.9 3-Bus Power System of Example 4.6

Line Between buses

Series admittance

12

2 j8

13

1 j5

23

1 j4

Form Ybus, and compute voltages at buses 2 and 3 at

the end of the first iteration. Take acceleration factor
as 1.6.
Use flat start.
Solution:
The line admittances and power injected into various buses
are shown. The elements of the bus admittance matrix are:

Assume V20 = V30 =1 0;

Using Eq. (4.20) V21 and V31 are calculated as below

Accelerated V21 = V20 + V21 = 1.011294 j0.018823

Accelerated V3 = V30 + ( V31) = 0.98923 j0.01965

4.8 CONCLUSION

In this chapter, power flow solution by the GaussSeidel

method was described. The method is simple and is suitable
for small-sized power systems. The technique has been
elaborated upon using a flow chart, and adequate numerical
examples have been provided to help the reader understand
the concept. The MATLAB programpfstudy_gauss for the
method is presented along with the test results of the
standard IEEE bus systems.
Questions from Previous Question Papers

1. Explain the significance of power flow studies.

2. Describe data preparation power flow studies.
3. Describe the applications of power flow studies.
4. Derive the static load flow equations and comment on the same.
5. Why are buses classified?
6. How are buses classified?
7. Explain the GaussSeidel Method.
8. Why is acceleration factor used in the GS Method?
9. Give your comments on the GS Method
10.
Explain the significance of slack bus.
11. Explain the significance of voltage-controlled buses.
12.
What steps must be taken if the reactive power limits of a
PV bus is violated?
13.
A power flow solution is possible without PV Buses. Explain
how.

14.
Give the algorithm for power flow solution by the GS
Method.
15.Develop a flow chart for power flow solution by the GS Method.
16.
Classify the various types of buses and explain the necessity
of load flow studies.
17.Write short notes on data for power flow studies

(Or)
Explain the terms PQ, PV and slack buses for a power
system and indicate their significance.
18.
Derive static load flow equations.
19.
Write short notes on choice of acceleration factors (Or)
What are acceleration factors? Explain their importance in power
flow studies.
20.
Explain the load flow solution using GaussSeidel Method
with the help of a flow chart
21.
Describe load flow solution with PV busses using G-S
Method.
22.
Draw flow chart for load flow solution by GS Method using
YBus. What are PV buses? How are they handled in the GS
Method.
23.
Explain why often use YBus rather than ZBus in the load flow
studies.
24.
The load flow data for the power system shown in Figure
Q1 is given in the following tables

Fig Q1

The voltage magnitude at bus (2) is to be maintained at

1.03 p.u. The maximum and minimum reactive power
limits of the generator at bus (2) are 35 and 0 MVAR
respectively, with Bus 1 as slack bus. Obtain voltage at
bus (3) using GS Method after first iteration (Assume
base MVA = 50)
Line Data:
Bus Code p q

Impendance Zpq

12

0.08 1 j0.24

13

0.02 1 j0.06

23

0.06 1 j0.18

Bus Data:

25.
The load flow data for the system shown in Figure Q2 is
given below in the following tables.

Fig Q2

Line Data:
Bus Code pq

Inpedence Zpq

12

0 + j0.05 pu

13

0 + j0.1 pu

23

0 + j0.05 pu

Bus Data:

The voltage magnitude at bus (2) is to be held at 1.0 p.u.

The maximum and minimum reactive power limits at
bus (2) are 50 and 10 MVAR respectively. With bus (1)
as the slack, use GS Method and YBus to obtain a load
flow solution upto one iteration.

26.
Consider the 3-bus system shown in Figure Q3. The p.u.
line reactances are indicated on the figure. The line reactances
are negligible. The magnitude of all the 3-bus voltages are
specified to be 1.0 p.u. The bus powers are specified in the
following table.

Fig Q3

? indicates that the quantity is unspecified. All

numerical values are expressed as p.u. values.

27.
A 2-Bus system is shown in Figure Q4. Determine the
voltage at bus (2) by GS Method after 2 iterations.

The YBus elements are:

and bus(1) voltage V1 = 1.1

Fig Q4

p.u.

28.

The data for a 2-bus system is given below:

SG1 = unknown; SD1 = unknown

V1 = 1.0 p.u.; S1 = To be determined
SG2 = 0.25 + jQ G2 p.u; SD2 = 1 + j0.5 p.u.
The two buses are connected by a transmission line of
p.u. reactance of 0.5 p.u. Find Q2 and magnitude of V2.
Neglect shunt susceptance of the tie line. Assume V2 =
1.0 p.u. perform two iterations using GS Method.
Competitive Examination Questions

1. In load flow studies of a power system, the quantities specified at

a voltage controlled bus are ________ and ________.

[GATE 1992 Q.No. 4]

2. In load flow analysis, the load connected at a bus is represented
as

a. constant current drawn from the bus

b. constant impedance connected at the bus
c. voltage and frequency dependent source at the
bus
d. constant real and reactive drawn from the bus