RESUMO GRAMTICA DE INGLS

GERUND (Gerndio)
- O gerndio a forma verbal caracterizada pela terminao -ing.
- USOS DO GERNDIO:
1) Como substantivo:
- Singing is her favorite hobby.
- Swimming is good for you.
- Painting is his favorite pastime.
OBS:
As formas To sing is her favorite hobby; To swim is good for you
e To paint is his favorite activity tambm esto corretas, porm so
bem menos comuns e mais formais.
Aps uma preposio (about, against, at, in, of, for, on, after,
before, etc.), o verbo vem sempre na forma -ing; muitas vezes, a
preposio forma unidade com um adjetivo, um substantivo ou verbo:
- After resting I'll make the bed.
- Without knowing what to do, I went home earlier.
- Before opening the letter, she took a deep breath.
- You can save 10% by booking on the internet.
OBSERVAO: before, after, by, instead of e without vm sempre
seguidos com verbo no gerndio.

2) Adjetivo + preposio + ...ing:

- He is disappointed about seeing such a bad report.
- She is glad about getting married again.
- I'm against voting for Richard.
- I'm worried about making mistakes.
- He is famous for singing songs.
2.1) Substantivo + preposio + ...ing:
- What are the chances of finding a taxi?
- He has difficulty in talking to the public.
- He is in doubt about buying another car.
- I like the idea of moving here.
- There's no interest in writing letters.
- This is a simple method of finding solutions.
- There are good reasons for eating a lot of fruit.

2.2) Verbo + preposio + ...ing:

- I thought about asking my father for help.
- He apologized for being late.
- In the lecture he talked about emigrating.
- She thanked us for helping her.
- We succceeded in persuading her.

3) Com a funo de objeto direto e objeto indireto (com

preposio):
- I miss playing baseball every day.
- I enjoy reading.
- We have to practice dancing for our presentation next week.

- I don't understand you. Can you imagine staying at home on

Saturday night? That is too boring.
- They were prevented from swimming.

4) O gerndio tambm usado aps os verbos go e come

quando falamos sobre atividade fsica ou esporte, e aps a
expresso go shopping:
- We are going riding on bicycle this afternoon.
- They went skiing last winter.

6) Aps determinadas expresses:

CAN'T STAND (NO SUPORTAR):

- I can't stand being far from you

CAN'T HELP (NO PODER EVITAR):

- He couldn't help falling in love with her.

BE WORTH (VALER A PENA):

- It was worth listening to him. (Valeu a pena escut-lo.)

- It is worth speaking more than one language.

FEEL LIKE (ESTAR A FIM DE, ESTAR COM VONTADE DE):

- I feel like having a cup of tea.

- Do you feel like going home?

IT IS NO GOOD (NO BOM):

- It is no good talking to this boy.

IT IS GOOD ( BOM):

- It is good talking English as much as you can to improve the

language.
- It is good thinking before talking what comes to our mind.

IT IS NO USE (NO ADIANTA):

- It is no use talking to the headmaster. He won't help us.

THERE IS NO POINT (NO H POR QUE, NO H RAZO):

- There is no point researching another source for our project.

- Some people believe there is no point in teaching students how to
spell or pronounce words without providing their associated meanings.

WHAT ABOUT / HOW ABOUT (QUE TAL):

- What about going to the zoo?

- How about walking home instead of taking the car?

LOOK FORWARD TO (AGUARDAR ANSIOSAMENTE):

- We are looking forward to meeting you again.

BE USED TO (ESTAR ACOSTUMADO A):

- In Norway we are used to having a lot of snow.

OBJECT TO (OPOR-SE, RECUSAR):

- They objected to sitting in the smoking section

Infinitive (Infinitivo)

- O infinitivo a forma original do verbo e pode aparecer com ou sem a

partcula to.
USOS DO INFINITIVO SEM TO:
Usa-se o infinitivo sem to:
1. Aps os verbos modais (can, could, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, would, ought to, needn't e, s vezes need) e os
verbos auxiliares do e will. Veja alguns exemplos:
- I can't dive.
- They might be interested.
- You should see a doctor more often.
- They must study.
- You need not wait for her.
- We shall sing a song.
- She doesn't study in the morning.
- You may be right.
2. Aps as expresses had better (seria
aconselhvel) e would rather (preferiria):

melhor,

seria

You had better find a job urgently.

I'd rather go home on foot.
You'd better tell me the truth.
Would you rather watch tv?
3. Aps os verbos let e make na seguinte estrutura: let/make
someone do something:
She makes me feel good.

Let me stay here with you.

My parents let me go out with my friends last night.
The dentist made me wait for over an hour.
4. Aps as conjunes but e except:
I'll do anything for you but wash your car.
She does nothing but cry.
5. Dare (atrever-se) tambm pode ser seguido de infinitivo com
ou sem to:
She wouldn't dare (to) repeat what she just said.
(Ela no se atreveria a repetir o que ela acabou de falar.)
6. Aps why (not):
Why not ask your neighbour for help? (Por que no pedir ajuda ao seu
vizinho?)
Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices!
(Por que pagar mais em outros shoppings? Ns temos os preos mais
baixos!)
7. Aps verbos de percepo (feel, hear, notice, watch, observe,
see) que seguem a estrutura verb + object + infinitve without
to:
I didn't see you come in. (No vi voc entrar.)
I've heard he say that you were leaving.
Amanda noticed them come in. (Amanda os viu entrar.)
The police observed a strange man enter the bank.
(A polcia viu um homem estranho entrar no banco.)
8. Aps and, or, than, as e like:
- Quando duas estruturas no infinitivo so ligadas por and, or, than, as
e like, a segunda geralmente seguida de infinitivo sem to:
I'd like to lie down and go to sleep.

Do you want to have lunch now or wait till later?

It's easier to do it by yourself than explain to somebody else how to do
it.

* A expresso rather than tambm seguida de infinitivo sem

to:
I'll have a beer rather than drink a wine, it's too hot today.
(Vou tomar cerveja em vez de vinho, est muito quente hoje.)

USOS DO INFINITIVO COM TO:

- Usa-se o infinitivo com to:
1. Aps adjetivos, quando no forem seguidos por preposio e
quando um adjetivo ou advrbio estiver acompanhado de too e
enough:
My car is hard to park because it is too big.
It is easy to learn any language when you practice every day.
2. Would like (gostaria), would love (adoraria), would prefer
(preferiria) e would hate (detestaria) pedem sempre to +
infinitivo:
She would hate to stay here all day. (Ela detestaria ficar aqui o dia
todo.)
I'd love to merry him.
I'd prefer to stay at home tonight.

3. Aps o verbo to be:

The most important thing now is to find a solution to the problem.

The main thing is to relax.

4. Para indicar a finalidade, com que propsito se faz ou se quer

algo:
I'd like something to stop my toothache.
Have you got the key to open this door?
I need some more books to read.
5. Something, anything, nothing e outras palavras similares so
frequentemente seguidas por for + object + infinitive:
There's nothing for the cats to eat. (No h nada para os gatos
comerem.)
Have you got something for me to eat?
I must find somewhere for him to play the piano.

To como preposio:
- To na verdade so duas palavras diferentes.
pode ser um marcador de infinitivo usado para mostrar que o verbo
infinitivo (ex: to swim, to laugh) e
pode ser uma preposio seguida, por exemplo, por um substantivo
(ex: She has gone to the park; I look forward to seeing you
again.)

Quando to preposio, aplica-se a regra de que aps preposio o

verbo deve ser seguido por gerndio. Expresses comuns em que
isso ocorrre so look forward to, object to, be used to, prefer
(doing one thing than to doing another), get around to, in addition
to. Observe alguns exemplos e veja como a preposio to pode ser
seguida tanto por um substantivo como por gerndio:
I look forward to your next letter.

She looks forward to having children.

Do you object to Sunday work?
Do you object to working on Sundays?

- VERBOS SEGUIDOS DE INFINITIVO OU GERNDIO COM

MUDANA DE SIGNIFICADO
Alguns verbos aceitam as duas estruturas com usos e sentidos
diferentes. Veja alguns exemplos:
remember - forget - go on - mean - try regret - stop

1. Remember
- Remember + gerndio se refere a uma ao passada, significa
lembrar-se de ter feito algo:
I remember going to my uncle's farm every summer when I was a
child.
I remember playing soccer every day when I was a kid.
- Remember + infinitivo refere-se a uma ao futura, significa
lembrar-se de fazer algo:
Remember to pull down the blinds.
When you go out, remember to buy today's paper.
2. Forget
- Forget + gerndio refere-se a uma ao habitual, a uma ao
passada, significa esquecer ou no do que fez ou do que aconteceu:
He always forgets locking the door.
I'll never forget meeting the Queen
- Forget + infinitivo pode referir-se a uma ao futura, como
tambm pode significar esquecer-se de fazer algo:
Take care, and don't forget to write.
Don't forget to call me on Saturday.

ATENO: Com forget no se menciona o local onde o objeto foi

esquecido. Para mencionar o lugar usa-se leave:
I forgot my umbrella. / I left my umbrella at home.
3. Go on
- Go on + gerndio significa 'continuar'.
She went on talking about her illness until we all went to sleep.
The employees went on working until the next morning.
- Go on + infinitive refere-se a uma mudana de ao, isto ,
quando algum passa a realizar uma ao diferente:
After writing the compositions, the students went on to count the
words.
She stopped talking about that and went on to describe her other
problems.
4. Mean
- Mean + gerndio significa 'implicar em':
Accepting that job offer will mean moving to a different city.
- Mean + infinitivo significa ter a inteno de fazer algo:
I don't think she means to get marry for the moment.
5. Try
- Try + gerndio significa experimentar, provar, fazer alguma coisa
para ver o que vai acontecer:
Try eating French snails. (Experimente comer scargot.)
I tried sending her flowrs, writting her letters, giving her presents,
but she still wouldn't speak to me.

- Try + infinitivo significa fazer esforo por algo, tentar fazer alguma
coisa:
The thin boy tried to lift the chair but it was too heavy for him.
Try to eat more vegetables.

6. Regret
- Regret + gerndio significa lamentar-se por ter feito algo:
I regret leaving the party before midnight, but I had to wake up early
the next day.
I regret leaving school at 14 - it was a big mistake.
- Regret + infinitivo geralmente significa lamentar o que se vai
informar, na maioria das vezes usado ao falar de ms notcias:
I regret to tell you, you haven't pass the exam. (Lamento informar,
voc no passou na prova.)
We regret to inform passengers that the 152 train is one hour late.
(Lamentamos informar aos passageiros que o trem 152 est uma hora
atrasado.)
7. Stop
- Stop + gerndio significa deixar de realizar uma ao:
I stopped drinking. (Parei de beber.)
Please stop crying and tell me what's wrong.
(Por favor, pare de chorar e me conte o que h de errado.)
- Stop + infinitivo significa parar para fazer alguma coisa:
She stopped to smoke.

We stopped to admire the scenery. (Paramos para admirar a

paisagem.)
begin / continue / start verbs that can be followed by and infinitive
or gerund form, with little or no change in meaning.

Reporting Verbs
Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use asked to report questions:For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Lynne told me she felt tired.
!Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Lynne said to me that she'd never been to China.
!Note - We usually use told.
For example: Lynne told me that she'd never been to China.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.
These include:accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied,
explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.
Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the party:He invited me to the party.
He begged me to come to the party.
He ordered me to come to the party.
He advised me to come to the party.
He suggested I should come to the party.

Use of 'That' in reported speech

In reported speech, the word that is often used.

For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich.
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich.
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

future (going to)

He said, I am going to school
every day.

present progressive
He said (that) he is going to school
every day.
past progressive
He said (that) he was going to
school every day

Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

auxiliary + verb name

He said, Do you go to school
every day?
He said, Where do you go to
school?

simple past
He asked me if I went to school
every day.*
He asked me where I went to
school.

Some e any so adjetivos indefinidos utilizados quando no se pode usar a/an, isto , com osincontveis e com
substantivos no plural.

The mother gave her baby some milk.

(A me deu um pouco de leite ao filho.)
Some empregado basicamente em oraes afirmativas, enquanto any usado em perguntas (mas no em
todas) ou em oraes negativas:

I bought some cheese, but I didn't buy any bread. (Comprei um pouco de queijo, mas no comprei
po nenhum.)
You don't have any chance. (Voc no tem chance alguma.)
I'm going to the post office. I need some stamps.
(Vou aos correios. Preciso de alguns selos.)
Are there any books here? (H alguns livros aqui?)

Some usado em perguntas apenas quando se trata de um oferecimento ou pedido

ou quando esperamos que a resposta seja afirmativa:
I'm thirsty. Can I have some water, please?
(Estou com sede. Voc pode me dar um pouco de gua, por favor?)
A. Can you lend me some money? (Voc pode me emprestar algum dinheiro?)
B. Sure. How much do you need? (Claro. De quanto voc precisa?

Any usado em frases afirmativas quando:

- aparecer aps as conjunes if e whether:
If you have any doubt, ask me. (Se voc tiver alguma dvida, pergunte-me.)
- significar qualquer:
Take any book you need. (Pegue qualquer livro que precisar.)
Any book about cells will explain mitosis. (Qualquer livro sobre clulas explicar mitose.)

- houver palavra de sentido negativo na frase, como seldom, never, rarely, without, hardly,barely, scarcely, little, etc.:
He left without any money. (Ele saiu sem dinheiro algum.)
He rarely has any free time. (Raramente ele tem algum tempo livre.)
We seldom see any flower in their garden. (Quase nunca vemos alguma flor no jardim deles.)
My mother never buys any soft drink at the supermarket.
(Minha me nunca compra refrigerante algum no supermercado.)

Some e Any tambm podem ser utilizados no lugar de susbstantivos

You can have some coffee, but I don't want any. (= any coffee)
(Voc pode tomar um pouco de caf, mas eu no quero.)
I've bought some chocolate. Would you like some? (= some chocolate)
(Comprei chocolate. Voc gostaria de um pouco?)

Some e any podem ser adjetivos ou pronomes:

I want some apples. (Funo de some: adjetivo)
I want some. (Funo de some: pronome indefinido)
I don't want any apples. (Funo de any: adjetivo)
I don't want any. (Funo de any: pronome indefinido)

ATENO: Os compostos
de some e any so: something, anything (objetos);someone, anyonesomebody, anybody (pessoas); somewhere, anywhere(l
ugares). So usados nos mesmos tipos de oraes que some e any.

Usa-se no (= adjetivo; nenhum, nenhuma) e none (= pronome; nenhum, nenhuma) com verbos na forma afirmativa para dar
um sentido negativo frase:

1. No sempre seguido de um substantivo e equivale a uma orao negativa com any. Assim, o verbo ser
sempre usado na forma afirmativa:
I have no idea where my glasses are. (No tenho idia de onde estejam meus culos.)
He had no energy and couldn't concentrate. (Ele no tinha energia e no conseguiu se concentrar.)
We have no money to buy a new car. (No temos dinheiro para comprar um carro novo.)

NOTE: negative verb + any = positive verb + no:

They haven't got any children. or They've got no children.
(not They haven't got no children.)
There isn't any sugar in your coffee. or There's no sugar in your coffee.

None equivale a not one e usado sozinho ou tambm com a preposio of + substantivo. A concordncia
pode ser com o verbo no singular ou plural:
None of my students speak Japanese. (Nenhum dos meus alunos fala Japons.)
Time? I have none! (Tempo? No tenho nenhum!)
A. Is there no bread left? (No tem po?)
B. No, there is none. (No, no tem.)
Sandra bought two books, but I bought none.
(Sandra comprou dois livros, mas eu no comprei nenhum.)
None of the boys went to the mountains with me. I went by myself.
(Nenhum dos meninos foi s montanhas comigo. Eu fui sozinho.)

No funciona apenas como adjetivo e, por isso, deve ser sempre seguido de
substantivo:
I have no money in the bank. (No tenho dinheiro nenhum no banco.)
A. Do you have any eggs? (Voc tem alguns ovos?)
B. No, I have no eggs. (No, no tenho ovo nenhum.)

None funciona apenas como pronome e no seguido de substantivo, pois sua funo substitu-lo:
A. Do you speak any language besides yours? (Voc fala alguma lngua alm da sua?)
B. Unfortunately, none. (= no language) (Infelizmente, nenhuma.)
A. Do you have any book on Zoology? (Voc tem algum livro sobre Zoologia?)
B. No, I have none. (No, no tenho nenhum.)

A expresso none of (nenhum de) pode ser seguida por:

- pronome objeto:
None of us said that. (Nenhum de ns disse isso.)
- THE + substantivo no plural:
She wrote none of the letters. (Ela no escreveu nenhuma das cartas.)
- Possessivo + substantivo no plural:
I saw none of his friends. (No vi nenhum dos amigos dele.)
None of her children entered the college. (Nenhum dos filhos dela entrou na faculdade.)

Lembre-se de que no Ingls padro admite-se apenas uma partcula negativa por orao:
I did not do anything yesterday. / I did nothing yesterday. (No fiz nada ontem.)
We will not say that to anybody. / We will say that to nobody. (No diremos isso a ningum.)
There isn't anything in the fridge. / There is nothing in the fridge. (No h nada na geladeira.)
I have no money in my wallet. / I don't have any money in my wallet.
(No tenho dinheiro nenhum em minha carteira.)

A lot (of), Many, Much, (A) Little, (A) few, Plenty (of)
A lot of / lots of / plenty of so expresses que significam muito / muita / muitos / muitas. Podem ser usadas
com substantivos contveis e incontveis.
So normalmente usadas em oraes afirmativas.
Observe os exemplos:
She drinks a lot of water. (Ela bebe muita gua.)
Sandra has a lot of talent for music.
(Sandra tem muito talento para msica.)

There are a lot of fruits in the basket. (H muitas frutas na cesta.)

I have a lot of things to do. (Tenho um monte de coisas para fazer.)

Much (muito, muita) e little (pouco, pouca) so usados com substantivos

incontveis. Much geralmente no usado em frases afirmativas e pouco nas
interrogativas, sendo substitudo por a lot of, lots of(coloquial), plenty of ou a great deal
of (seguido de um substantivo no singular). Observe:
We don't have much time. Hurry up or we'll miss the show. (negative)
(Ns no temos muito tempo. Apresse-se ou perderemos o "show".)
Sara didn't spend much time cleaning the house. (negative)
(Sara no gastou muito tempo limpando a casa.)
Sara spent a lot of time cleaning the house. (affirmative)
(Sara gastou muito tempo limpando a casa.)

Did Sara spend much / a lot of time cleaning the house? (interrogative)
(A Sara gastou muito tempo limpando a casa?)
Sara says Richard has a great deal of talent for drawing.
(Sara diz que Ricardo tem muito talento para desenho.)
Mary has little patience with her children. (Mary tem pouca pacincia com os filhos.)
There is little water in the jug. (H pouca gua na jarra.)

Many (muitos, muitas) e few (poucos, poucas) so usados com substantivos contveis no
plural:
Does he have many friends? (Ele tem muitos amigos?)
Many animals do not eat meat. (Muitos animais no comem carne.)
There are many students in my class. (H muitos alunos na minha sala de aula.)
I don't have many problems. I guess I'm a lucky man.
(No tenho muitos problemas. Acho que sou um homem de sorte.)

A little (um pouco) usado com substantivos incontveis / a few (alguns) usado
com substantivoscontveis. Ambos possuem significado positivo (= some):
My brother has a few CDs.
(Meu irmo tem alguns CDs.)
Judith didn't spend all her money. She has a little money left.
(Judite no gastou todo o dinheiro dela. Ela tem um pouco de dinheiro.)

have a few friends in So Paulo. (Eu tenho alguns amigos em So Paulo.)

A little patience doesn't hurt anybody. (Um pouco de pacincia no faz mal a ningum.)
) Atente para a diferena entre few e a few. Observe que a few equivale a some. Tanto um
quanto o outro acompanham substantivos no plural.
Few people visited him in hospital. (Poucas pessoas o visitaram no hospital.)
Could you give me a few more details? (Voc poderia me dar mais alguns detalhes?)
Very few students learn Latin nowadays. (Bem poucos alunos aprendem Latim hoje em dia.)
The letter came a few days ago. (A carta chegou h alguns dias.)

2) Atente, agora, para a diferena entre little e a little, que so usados no singular. Aqui, alittle,
alm de equivaler a some, tambm significa um pouco de.

We have little time to act. (Tempos pouco tempo para agir.)

I have a little money in my savings account.
(Tenho um pouco de / algum dinheiro em minha poupana.)
Scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before 2010.
(Os cientistas tm pouca esperana de encontrar uma cura completa para o cncer antes de 2010.)
I've only read a little of the book so far. (At agora s li um pouco do livro.)

All (of), Most (of), Each, Every, Both (of), Either (of), Neither (of)
1. All (todo, toda, todos, todas, tudo) usado com substantivos contveis, substantivos
incontveis epreposies:
All my books are kept on a shelf.
(Todos os meus livros so guardados em uma prateleira.)
We were all very satisfied.
(Todos ns estvamos muito satisfeitos.)

I've waited for you all day. (Esperei por voc o dia todo.)
Quando all vier seguido de um determinante como the, my, your, his etc, pode-se usar a
expresso all of:
All of my books are kept on a shelf. (Todos os meus livros so guardados em uma prateleira.)
All of the students passed the final exam. (Todos os alunos passaram na prova final.)

Diante de um pronome pessoal, somente a forma all of pode ser utilizada:

All of us are going to stay up until late. (Todos ns vamos ficar acordados at tarde.)
All of them went to the stadium last Sunday. (Todos eles foram ao estdio no Domingo passado.)

All no pode funcionar como pronome pessoal. Tem de estar acompanhado de pronomes quando
h sujeito (all of us, you all, all of you etc.) ou de objeto (us all, them all etc.):
We all know what they like. (Todos ns sabemos do que eles gostam.)
You all are invited. (Vocs todos esto convidados.)
I want it all. (Quero isto tudo.)
All of them shared the same ideas. (Todos eles possuam as mesmas ideias.)

- All pode ser seguido de oraes que o qualifiquem:

My parents can give me all (that) I need. (Meus pais podem me dar tudo de que preciso.)

All (that) you need is love. (Tudo o que voc precisa amor.)

Most (a maioria de/dos/das, a maior parte de) pode ser usado diante de substantivos
precedidos ou no de adjetivos:
Most people prefer the beach to the mountains.
(A maioria das pessoas prefere praia s montanhas.)
Most boys like to play soccer.
(A maioria dos meninos gosta de jogar futebol.)
I spent the most time on the first question.
(Passei a maior parte do tempo na primeira pergunta.)
Hospital admission is not necessary in most cases.
(A internao hospitalar no necessria na maioria dos casos.)

Most of somente pode ser usado se seguido de um determinante (the, this, that etc.) ou um
pronome pessoal ou possessivo (us, you, her, his, them, ours, my etc.)
I spent most of my childhood in a small town.
(Passei a maior parte da minha infncia em uma cidade pequena.)
Most of the stories about him are apocryphal.
(A maioria das histrias sobre ele so duvidosas.)
We have accounts with most of our suppliers.
(Ns temos contratos com a maiorias dos nossos fornecedores.)
Most of the cast acted well. (A maioria do elenco atuou bem.)

Each (cada, cada um, cada uma, cada um dos, cada uma das) e every (todos, todas, cada)
so usados com substantivos contveis no singular:
Each ring costs a lot of money. (Cada anel custa muito dinheiro.)
Each question is worth 20 points. (Cada pergunta vale 20 pontos.)
She gave a chocolate bar to each of the children.
(Ela deu uma barra de chocolate para cada uma das crianas.)

I visited every museum of the citiy.

(Visitei todos os museus da cidade.)
I wake up at seven o'clock every day. (Acordo s sete da manh todos os dias.)
Every student has to get on time. (Todos os alunos devem chegar no horrio.)

- Posio de each: logo depois do sujeito ou no final da sentena.

They each bought an ice cream. OU They bought an ice cream each.
(Cada um deles comprou um sorvete.)
We each have our own car. OU We have our car each.
(Cada um de ns tem o seu prprio carro.)
- Quando each vier seguido de um determinante como the, my, your, his etc, pode-se usar a
expresso each of. Com every isto no ocorre:
Each of the monuments we visited was built in the 12th century.
(Cada um dos monumentos que visitamos foi construdo no sculo 12.)
Each one of the houses was slightly different. (Cada uma das casas era pouco diferente.)

Both significa "ambos" / "ambas" ou "os dois" / "as duas", usado para falar sobre duas
coisas ou pessoas, acompanha substantivos ou pronomes pessoais no plural e no
usado em sentenas negativas.
Both houses are really in bad condition.
(Ambas as/ as duas casas esto realmente em pssimas condies.)
We both know what we want. (Ns dois sabemos o que queremos.)
Both women were French. (Ambas / as duas as mulheres eram Francesas.)
They were both French. (Ambas / as duas eram Francesas.)
Both cars are very expensive. (Ambos os/ os dois carros so bem caros.)
They both like pizza. (Ambos / os dois gostam de pizza.)
Quando both vier seguido de um possessivo ou pronome pessoal, pode-se usar a expresso both
of.
I like both of those pictures. OU I like both those pictures. (Gosto desses dois quadros.)
Paul has two sisters, both of them are married. OU Paul has two sisters, both are married.

Neither; neither ... nor (= nenhum(a) [dos dois, duas]; nem um nem outro, nem ... nem;
tambm no), usado para falar sobre duas coisas ou pessoas; acompanha substantivos
no singular e o verbo ser sempre afirmativo. Observe os exemplos:
A. Do you want to go to the cinema or the theatre? (Voc que ir ao cinema ou ao teatro?)
B. Neither. I want to stay at home. (Nenhum dos dois. Quero ficar em casa.)
(neither = not the cinema or the theatre.)
Neither Alfred nor Alexander passed the test. (Nem Alfredo nem Alexandre passaram no teste.)
She doesn't like tea and neither do I. (Ela no gosta de ch e eu tambm no.)
A. Would you like tea or coffe? (Voc gostaria de ch ou caf?)
B. Neither. (Nenhum dos dois.)

Quando neither for seguido de um possessivo ou de um pronome pessoal,

usa-se a expresso neither of:
Neither of them wants to go to college. (Nenhum deles quer ir para a faculdade.)
Neither of Paul's sisters is married. (Nenhuma das irms do Paulo casada.)
Arthur and I didn't eat anything. Neither of us was hungry.
(Artur e eu no comemos nada. Nenhum de ns [dois] estava com fome.)
Paula and I didn't know the time because neither of us had a watch.
(Paula e eu no sabamos a hora porque nenhuma de ns [duas] tinha relgio.)

Either; either ... or (= um dos dois; ou ... ou; um ou outro; tambm), usado para falar
sobre duas coisas ou pessoas; acompanha substantivos no singular e, quando houver
verbo na forma negativa, either deve ser usado ao invs de neither.
We have two types of dessert; you can have either.
(Temos dois tipos de sobremesa; voc pode comer uma ou outra.)
A. Would you like tea or coffee? (Voc gostaria de ch ou caf?)
B. Either. I don't mind. (Qualquer um dos dois. Tanto faz.)
Either you eat your dinner or you go to your room.
(Ou voc come o seu jantar ou vai para o seu quarto.)
Come on Tuesday or Thursday. Either day is OK.
(Venha na Tera ou na Quinta. Qualquer um dos dias est bom.)

Quando either for seguido de possessivo, pronome

pessoal ou determinante (the, my,these, her, them etc), usa-se a preposio of:
You can use either of the bathrooms. (Voc pode usar qualquer um dos banheiros.)
I don't like either of*my Maths teachers.
(No gosto de nenhum dos meus professores de Matemtica.)
A. Which jacket do you prefer, this one or that one? (Qual jaqueta voc prefere, esta ou aquela?)
B. I don't like either of* them. (No gostei de nenhuma das duas.)
Helen has two sisters and a brother. I've met her brother, but I haven't met either of* her sisters. (Helen
tem duas irms e um irmo. Conheci o irmo dela, mas no conheci nenhuma de suas irms.)

* Atente que nesses casos, either of significa "nenhum(a)".

Depois de um verbo na forma negativa, o significado de either "tambm":
If you don't go, I won't go either. (Se voc no for, eu tambm no vou.)
(NO If you don't go, I won't go neither.)
I don't like classic music and my sister doesn't like it either.
(Eu no gosto de msica clssica e minha irm tambm no.)
(NO I don't like classic music and my sister doesn't like it neither.)

PASSIVE VOICE
- Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not
known, however, who or what is performing the action Example: My bike was
stolen.

Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular
verbs)
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive
sentence (or is dropped)
EX:
ACTIVE: Peter builds a house
PASSIVE: A house is built by Peter
Tempo verbal
da sentena
original
Simple Present
Present
Continuous

Forma Passiva
Am/is/are + past
participle
Am being/is
being/are being +
past participle

Present Perfect

was/were + past
participle
was being/were
being + past
participle
have been/has
been + past
participle

Past Perfect

had been + past

participle

Simple Past
Past
Continuous

Exemplo Voz
Ativa

Exemplo Voz
Passiva

Gorillas inhabit is
jungle.
Sorry, but we are
remodelling the
airport
They didnt hear
me, so I escaped.

This jungle is
inhabited by gorillas

Someone was
playing the violin.

The violin was being

played.

The virus has

already attacked
this country.
I realized that they
had hit me on
purpose.

This country has

already been attacked
by the virus.

Sorry, but the airport

is being remodelled.
I wasnt heard, so I
escaped.

I realized that I had

been hit on purpose.

Will - Future

will be + past
participle

Someone will rob

you if you go there.

You will be robbed if

you go there.

Going to Future

Am/is/are going to
be + past participle

They are going to

build a bridge here.

A bridge is going to be
built here.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

- Personal Passive means that the object of the active sentence
becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs
an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.
Example: They build houses. Houses are built.
- Impersonal Passive Verbs without an object (intransitive verb)
normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object
that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use
an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal
construction therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
Example: he says it is said
In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception
(e. g. say, think, know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. It is said that
women live longer than men.
OBS
1) Use to+infinitive in the passive structure after the vers see, hear,
make and allow
Three very suspicious men were seen to leave the building carrying
black sacks.
A young boy at the back of the hall was heard to laugh during the
President speech.
The passenger were no allowed to get of the plane
When the verb let is used in an active sentence, allow must be used in
the equivalent passive sentence
ACTIVE: The police didn`t let him phone his lawyer.

PASSIVE: He wasn`t allowed to phone his lawyer.

2) Use the structure HAVE + NOUN/PRONOUN + PAST PARTICIPLE when
someone else does something for you.
Sorry, I can`t talk. I`m just having my hair cut.
This structures can be used to refer to things that are done by someone
else and are beyond your control:
The boy had his locker broken into and his camera stolen.

CONJUNCTIONS (Linking words)

- So palavras que ligam oraes, palavras ou grupos de palavras
estabelecendo uma relao de coordenao ou subordinao entre eles. Podem
ser:
Adversativas
- So aquelas que do idias opostas:

But mas
However entretanto
Nevertheless - no obstante, mesmo assim

Consecutivas ou conclusivas
- So usadas para terminar frases, fazer concluses.

so - ento, por isso

therefore portanto
thus por isso
consequently consequentemente
then ento
hence da

Concessivas
- Concesses, permisses

Although embora
Even though - muito embora
in spite of - apesar de

 De acrscimos
- Continuidade.

besides - alm disso

moreover - alm do mais
furthermore - alm disso, ademais

Explicativas
- Para dar explicao algo, dar razo

because porque
as como
since desde
for - pois, visto que

1.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
- As coordinating conjunctions ligam oraes, palavras ou grupos de palavras
coordenadas entre si. As principais so:

and e
but mas
nor nem
or ou
then ento
yet no entanto

Ex.:
Lucinda and Hugo are married and are very happy.
The test was easy, but I couldnt pass.
You can study or listen to music.

Algumas vezes a coordenao de duas estruturas se d tambm pela adio de

uma palavra no comeo da primeira estrutura, a fim de enfatizar que o que
dito se aplica a ambos os grupos coordenados. A essa estrutura d-se o nome
de
correlative
coordenation.

As principais corretative conjunctions so:

both...and... - tanto...quanto...
either...or... - ou...ou....
neither...nor... - nem...nem...
not only...but also... - no s...mas tambm..
whether...or... - se...ou

Exs.:
Both English and Spanish are important languages.
Early man could neither read nor write.
The woman was not only healthy but also wealthy
Either you go or stay here.
She doesn't speak either english or portuguese.

SUBORTINATING CONJUNCTIONS
As subortinating conjunctions introduzem as oraes subordinadas.
although/though- embora
as - medida que ; enquanto; conforme; como
because-porque
if se
in order to para; a fim de (que)
in spite of/despite - apesar de (que)
like como
so that para que
unless a no ser que
while enquanto
Ex.:
As I was hungry,
I went to the restaurant.

If I have money, Ill go to the cinema.

I didnt go to school because I was sick.

NOTES:
a) As conjunctions citadas so todas adverbiais, ou seja, introduzem oraes
que
funcionam como advrbio, estabelecendo uma circunstncia de tempo, causa,
finalidade, etc.
b) A principal conjunction utilizada para introduzir oraes subordinadas
substantivas that.
c) Algumas prepositions podem tambm ser usadas como conjunctions:

after depois que

before antes que
for pois
since desde que
until at que

d) O mesmo acontece com alguns interrogative adverbs,podem tambm ser

usados como conjunctions:

when quando
where onde

e) H ainda algumas palavras chamadas de sentence adverbials que so

usadas para conectar idias em estruturas mais longas (geralmente em
perodos diferentes), estabelecendo uma relao de coordenao ou
subordinao entre elas.
As principais so:
besides alm disso
however porm; no entanto

moreover alm do mais

nevertheless - no obstante
otherwise caso contrrio
so assim
still - todavia;ainda assim
therefore - por essa razo; portanto
though entretanto
yet contudo

Ex.:
I cant go to the theatre.. Im doing my homework. Besides, I have no money.
My room is small. Its very comfortable, however.
These hats are very ugly. Yet people buy them.

MODAL VERBS
Modal Verbs
CAN
MIGHT
MUST
SHOULD
MAY
SHALL
OUGHT
COULD
TO
WILL
WOULD
BE ABLE
USED TO
TO
HAD
NEED TO
BETTER
HAVE TO
-

ABILITY
CAN describe an ability in the present (Smith can speak five languages)
COULD ability in the past (max could write)
WILL BE ABLE ability in the future (after months of training you will be able)

PERMISSION
CAN ask and give a permission in the present ( can I ask you a question?)
COULD
- polite way to ask for a permission (could I use your dictionary)
- permitted activities in the past
WILL BE ABLE future

POSSIBILITY
MIGHT/MAY + PAST PARTICIPLE talk about a possibility in the past. It implies
some uncertainty about whether the action happened or not
I`m not sure, but I might/may have read this book when I was young

 OBLIGATION
MUST express a positive obligaton in the present or future when the speaker
feels an obligaton himself
I must lose a bit of weight before I go on holiday
HAVE TO speaker feels an obligation from outside (rule,law) or is just
expressing a fact
We have to put the paper to be recycled in the green box

ADVICE/RECOMMENDATION
SHOULD/OUGHT TO

ASSUMPTIONS/DEDUCTION
MUST logical deduction about the present;express certainty
MUST HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE OR CAN`T HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE make
logical deductions about the past
The burglars must have got in through the little kitchen window
MAY HAVE/MIGHT HAVE/COULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE to make
assumptions that you are not entirely sure about:
I was expecting a package today, but it hasnt arrived. I suppose it
may/might/could have got lost in the post.

AUXILIARY VERBS
VERBOS AUXILIARES (auxiliary verbs) aqueles que , em uma
orao, ajudam outro verbo, chamado principal, e s vezes, no tm
sentido isoladamente.
- verbos auxiliares dividem-se em duas categorias, de acordo com
a funo que assumem na orao:
1) aqueles que no mudam o sentido do verbo principal.
To be - auxilia na formao da passive voice (voz passiva) e
dos progressive
tenses (locues verbais).
- Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
- I am working

To do - auxilia na forma interrogativa e negativa do simple

present (presente) e simple past (pretrito perfeito/imperfeito).
- Do you work here?
- I Didnt go to the movies yesterday.

To have compostos).

auxilia

na formao

dos

perfect

tenses (tempos

- I have worked a lot lately

- He had already been here

Esses trs verbos funcionam tambm como verbo principal.

- I am late.
- He has a fast car.
- We did the homework.

2 ) MODAL AUXILIARES/MODAL VERBS (aqueles que mudam ou

completam o sentido do verbo principal, sendo usados para
indicar capacidade, habilidade, obrigao, permisso ou
possibilidade)

Modal verbs -

verbos
auxiliares
que
exprimem
determinados sentidos.
can

ought

could

shall

may

should

migh

will

must

would

Exs:
- You can use my car tomorrow.
- She must study

OBS:
1 - Os verbos modais no tm marcas de nmero (-s de 3 pessoa) nem
de tempo (-ing ou -ed)
2 - so sempre seguidos de infinitivo sem to, exceto ought, que por isso
apresentado como ought to
3 - Como outros verbos auxiliares (do, have), passam para antes do
sujeito nas perguntas e so seguidos de "not" nas negativas
4 - Na sua maioria no tm passado, mas podem, eles prprios, referirse ao presente e ao futuro
5 - H verbos com funo modal que no so propriamente verbos
modais em absoluto (need, have to, be able to)

UTILIZAO DOS VERBOS MODAIS

CAN / COULD

1. ability (ser capaz de, saber)

Ex: Look, daddy, I can draw a tree!

2. asking for permission (pedir autorizao)

Ex: Can I come in? (posso?)

3. giving / refusing permission (dar / recusar autorizao)

Ex: Yes, you can. / Yes, please.

4. requests (pedidos)
Ex: Can you tell me the time, please? / Could you tell me the time,
please (could + formal)

5. suggestions (sugestes)
Ex: What do you want to do?

6. offers (ofertas)
Ex: Can / could I help you with this exercise?

7. possibility (possibilidade)
Ex: Look, some rocks are falling! This can / could be dangerous!

OUGHT TO / SHOULD

1. advice (aconselhar)
Ex: You should / ought to drive more slowly. There's too much traffic.
(Devias = era melhor se)

NEEDN'T

1. lack of necessity in the present (ser desnecessrio)

Ex: You needn't worry about that class; they're very well-behaved
= don't / doesn't need to or don't /doesn't have to (present only)

2. lack of necessity in the past (ser desnecessrio - passado)

Ex: I didn't need to bring the books, because they weren't necessary
today (no precisei)

MUST / CAN'T

1. positive logical deductions (dedues lgicas positivas)

Ex: Look, the lights are on. They must be at home.
2. negative logical deductions (dedues lgicas negativas)
Ex: No, they can't be. They're on holiday.

MUST / HAVE TO

1. obligation / necessity (obrigao / necessidade)

Ex: I'm very tired , and tomorrow I have to be up early.

 HAVE TO ( obrigao imposta por outros a quem fala)

MUST (obrigao imposta por quem fala a si mesmo)
shall

1. offers (ofertas de ajuda)

Ex:
Shall I walk you home? (posso, queres que?)

(ver tambm can / could - offers)

2. suggestions (sugestes)

Ex:
Shall we go to the cinema tonight? (e se

fssemos?)
(ver tambm can / could - suggestions)

may / might

1. possibility (possibilidade)

Ex:

Look at those clouds. It may / might rain

today. (pode, possvel)

(ver tambm can/could)

2. asking for permission (pedir autorizao)

Ex:
May I go to the toilet? (posso? mais

formal que can)

Might I say something? (poderia? mais

formal que may)

(ver tambm can/could)

3. giving / refusing permission (dar

ou recusar autorizao)

Ex:
Can we play football here? ~ No, you know you can't. Look at the sigh! It
says

"Students may not play

games on the grass." (no podem)

may not =

dizer formalmente o que no permitido

can't/cannot = dizer informalmente o que no se tem autorizao para

fazer

4. requests (pedidos)

Ex:
May / Might I use the phone? (posso? - might mais formal)

(ver tambm can/could)

mustn't / can't

1. prohibition (proibies)

Ex:
You mustn't eat in class; you know

it's forbidden. (no podes)

Hey, you! Stop! You can't go

there. (no podes)

(ver tambm may/might)

will / would

1. requests (pedidos)

Ex:
Will / Would you hold this for me? (no se importa de)

(ver tambm can/could - ou - may/might)

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
Participle clauses are a bit like relative clauses they give us more information.

People wearing carnival costumes filled the streets of Rio de Janeiro.

The paintings stolen from the National Gallery last week have been found.
The participle clauses (wearing and stolen .) act like relative clauses. We could
say:

People who were wearing carnival costumes filled the streets of Rio de Janeiro.
The paintings which were stolen from the National Gallery last week have been
found.
With the Past Participle

A pair of shoes worn by Marilyn Monroe have been sold for fifty thousand dollars.
Trees blown down in last nights storms are being removed this morning.
We use the past participle blown in the last example but the ending -ed is used in
regular verbs when the meaning is passive.
With the Present Participle

A woman carrying a bright green parrot walked into the room.

A man holding a gun shouted at us to lie down.
We use the present participle - the -ing form to form the participle clause when the
meaning is active.
Notice that the participle clauses with the present participle have a continuous meaning. If
we replaced them with a relative clause it would be in a continuous tense.

A man holding a gun has the same meaning as A man who was holding a gun.
We cant make a participle clause with a present participle when the meaning is not
continuous.

The woman living next door is on holiday.

The woman who lives next door is on holiday.

Conditional Sentences / If-Clauses Type I, II und III

- Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses.
They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can
only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are
three types of Conditional Sentences.

Conditional Sentence Type 1

- Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the FUTURE.
- An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that
time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or
not, but the conditions seems rather realistic so we think it is likely to happen.

It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I find her address, Ill send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

- Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the PRESENT.
- An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really
expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine what would happen
if

It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

Were instead of Was

In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use were even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it .
Example: If I were you, I would not do this.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

- Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the PAST.
- An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been
fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would
have happened if the situation had been fulfilled

It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.
Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

Alternatives to IF
You can always use PROVIDED (OR PROVIDING) and AS LONG AS instead of if:
Jim will land safely on the ground provided/as long as his parachute opens
SUPPOSING (OR SUPPOSE) means what if. It can replace IF in questions and comes
first in the sentence:
Supposing you missed the plane, what would you do?
Unless can be used to mean ifnot

MIXED CONDITIONALS
Mixed conditional sentences are formed from two clauses with different time
references. The most common mixed conditionals involve a clause from a
second conditional and a clause from a third conditional
The if clause can state the causeor reasonand refers to the past (third
conditional), with the result in the main clause referring to the present
(second conditional)

If I had won the lottery (3rd), I would be rich.(2nd)

But I didn't win the lottery in the past and I am not rich now.

If I had taken French in high school (3rd), I would have more job opportunities.(2nd)
But I didn't take French in high school and I don't have many job opportunities.

If she had been born in the United States (3rd), she wouldn't need a visa to work
here. (2nd)
But she wasn't born in the United States and she does need a visa now to work here.

If she had signed up for the ski trip last week, she would be joining us tomorrow.
But she didn't sign up for the ski trip last week and she isn't going to join us tomorrow.

If Mark had gotten the job instead of Joe, he would be moving to Shanghai.
But Mark didn't get the job and Mark is not going to move to Shanghai.

If Darren hadn't wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas, he would go to
Mexico with us next month.
But Darren wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas and he won't go to
Mexico with us next month.

CONFUSING STRUCTURES
'as' versus 'like'
Both 'as' and 'like' can be used to make comparisons. 'As' is a conjunction and
therefore is followed by a clause, while 'like' is followed by a noun.

Example:
Stop looked like somebody I used to work with.
He moved to London, as his brother had done the year before.

'used to' versus 'be/get used to'

'used to + infinitive' describes a habit in the past. 'be used to + gerund' means to be
accustomed to whilst 'get used to + gerund' means the process of becoming
accustomed to.

Example:
I used to visit my grandmother every weekend
I've been learning French for 2 years but I'm still not used to pronouncing many of the
most basic words.
I'm slowly getting used to living in our new house.

'a little/few' versus 'little/few'

'a little' and 'a few' are both positive expressions that mean 'some'. 'little' and 'few' are
negative and mean 'not much' or 'not many'.

Example:
There are a few people in the shop but it's quite quiet.
There are few people who could do as good a job as her.

'to have something done' versus 'to have done something'

The causative structure 'have something done' means to get someone to do
something. This compares to 'to have done something' which is an active statement.

Example:
He had posted the report when he noticed the spelling mistakes.

I had the letter posted by my secretary.

'except (for)' versus 'besides'

'except for' means 'apart from', whereas 'besides' means 'as well as'.

Example:
Besides the people who live next door, we're also inviting the lady across the road to
the housewarming party
Nobody came to the party except my close relatives

'didn't need to' versus 'needn't have'

'didn't need to' refers to something that was unnecessary and may or may not have
been done. 'needn't have' refers to something which was not necessary
butwhich was done.

We didn't need to take an umbrella as we were getting a taxi.

We needn't have taken an umbrella as it didn't rain.