MLJ Reviews

Edited by JUDITH E. LISKINGASPARRO

University of Iowa
MLJ Review Policy
The MLJ reviews books, monographs, computer software, and materials that (a) present results of research inand methods offoreign
and second language teaching and learning;
(b) are devoted to matters of general interest to
members of the profession; (c) are intended primarily for use as textbooks or instructional aids in
classrooms where foreign and second languages,
literatures, and cultures are taught; and (d) convey information from other disciplines that relates
directly to foreign and second language teaching
and learning. Reviews not solicited by the MLJ can
neither be accepted nor returned. Books and materials that are not reviewed in the MLJ cannot
be returned to the publisher. Responses should
be typed with double spacing and submitted electronically online at our ScholarOne Manuscripts
address: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/mlj.

THEORY AND PRACTICE

BURNS, ANNE, & JACK C. RICHARDS. (Eds.).
The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher
Education. New York: Cambridge University Press,
2009. Pp. viii, 325. $43.00, paper. ISBN 9780
521756846.
The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher
Education is a must-have for those involved in
the research on and pedagogical training of
second language teachers. Written by leaders
in the field of second language teacher education (SLTE) working and researching today, its
30 chapters are divided into seven thematic
sections: The Landscape of Second Language
Teacher Education; Professionalism and the
Language Teaching Profession; Pedagogical
Knowledge in Second Language Teacher Education; Identity, Cognition, and Experience in
Teacher Learning; Contexts in Second Language Teacher Education; Teacher Education
Through Collaboration; and Teacher Develop-

ment Through Research and Practice. The editors have written an overview of the chapters in
each section, making it easy for the reader to decide which sections or chapters to focus on according to personal interest or research area. Indeed
the chapters need not be read in a linear fashion,
as they reinforce each other.
Each chapter synthesizes current practices, discusses theoretical insights, and offers future directions for research and suggestions for further
reading. Key chapters for acquiring a general
overview of the epistemological bases and evolving perspectives of language teacher preparation
and its research are Johnsons Trends in Second Language Teacher Education, Gravess The
Curriculum of Second Language Teacher Education, and McKays Second Language Classroom
Research. Moreover, readers will find a discussion of past and ongoing research in the areas
of action research and reflective practice (whose
theoretical underpinnings were already well established in the 1980s), in addition to chapters
that focus on mid- to post-1990s fields of inquiry,
such as trainer development, acquiring discourse
conventions in teacher education, and teacher education by distance. Most practical for the reader
are the chapters on professionalism, with topics
such as standards, certification, and assessment,
which provide necessary information for National
Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) reviews. Thus, the volume is designed to present the broad scope and trends
in SLTE together with specific areas that constitute the dimensions of theory, research, and
practice that are significant to the field today.
Although the books primary context and references are in the field of English as a foreign
or second language, it will appeal to a wide audience in language education and applied linguistics while being most useful for faculty as
well as masters and doctoral students in these
fields.
Several chapters acknowledge the tremendous
growth in research in the field of English language learning and teaching over the last five
decades, coupled with the worldwide growth in
the number of English learners. With such growth

456
must come critical reflection on where the profession is headed and where the profession is
most in need, particularly with regard to future research but also for curricular decisions for teacher
preparation. These reflections may include rethinking and repositioning the notions of nativeversus nonnative-speaking teachers or, as in the
case of the chapter on critical second language
teacher education (Hawkins & Norton), a concern for social action and empowerment through
educational change or, as Golombeks chapter
Personal Practical Knowledge in L2 Teacher Education contends, a greater recognition of the
impact of teachers personal practical knowledge
on their decision making.
Unfortunately, both institutional and professional background information about the chapter
authors have been left out of the book. Although
more than half of the authors were familiar to
me, many others were not. I believe that readers
would benefit from knowing more about the authors professional engagement as a backdrop to
the positions they advocate in the volume. The
editors envisaged this book as a companion to
The Cambridge Guide to TESOL (2001). The publication of this book nearly a decade later offers
an important compendium of the key issues and
debates in the field of second language teacher
education.
JOANNE BURNETT
The University of Southern Mississippi

LEOW, RONALD P., HECTOR

CAMPOS, &
`
DONNA LARDIERE. (Eds.). Little Words: Their
History, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics,
and Acquisition. Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press, 2009. Pp. x, 246. $49.95, paper.
ISBN 9781589012547.
This well-conceived volume contains a diverse
selection of 19 articles from the 2007 meeting
of the Georgetown University Round Table authored by researchers in Europe, Asia, Canada,
and the United States. The articles are organized
into six sections: History, Phonology, Syntax,
Semantics, Pragmatics, and Acquisition.
There is not enough space in this review to discuss them all, and it would be unfair to highlight
only some of them. Therefore, this review serves
to help disseminate this work and to focus on the
concept of little words, rather than to discuss the
individual articles in depth.

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

The volume shows that all areas of linguistics
can be analyzed from the perspective of a unifying elementlittle wordsa term that includes
clitics, pronouns, articles, and the like. One may
think of this unifying element as a device or an
exploratory craft to go anywhere into human language. In the History section, Lazorczyk and
Pancheva open this exploration with the Slavic little word oba, giving a new account of its historical
development. Elsman and Holt provide a historical account of the grammaticalization of lexical
words into function words. In the Phonology
section, Lord, Berdan, and Fender analyze reading fluency to distinguish function words from
content words in English in terms of duration,
intensity, and pitch. Rochman presents a description of the reasons, in English, that floating quantifiers occur only in one position instead of other
possible positions.
Five articles comprise the Syntax section. Saez
discusses the behavior of accusative pronominal
clitics in Spanish through a group of verbs he labels ayudar -verbs. In the second article, Gergel
focuses on the Romanian de, claiming that this little word serves as a morpho-syntactic exponent
in degree constructions (p. 76). In the third article, Taylor describes the microsyntax of the complementary the in comparative correlatives that
appear in two types of clauses in English, suggesting that the be treated as a complementizer of the
two clauses in which it appears. Progovac theorizes that little words that are not present physically in certain syntactic objects may be found
in the roots of these syntactic units, a proposition that situates syntax in an evolutionary framework. In the last article of this section, VelazquezMendoza and Aranovich offer an account of
Spanish personal a in ditransitives that leads them
to conclude that Spanish may be in a process of
becomingor may have already becomea primary object/secondary object language.
Beaver opens the Semantics section with
a new analysis of the role of adpositions and
obliques in cases using Japanese data and their
translation into English. In Beavers interpretation, these cases determine argument realizations
across languages. Next, Thomas and Michaelis
model Krifkas (1998) approach with their analysis of aspectual adverbials, especially the temporal adverbial by, which operates in sequences of
causally connected states. In the following article, Park studies the puzzling distribution of the
plural marker tul in Korean, proposing a more
general description of tul that combines syntactic and semantic approaches. The Pragmatics
section starts with a study by Peller, who examines

457

Reviews
the French discourse markers donc and alors; she
claims that these little words are in complementary distribution with no functional overlap between them. Alba-Juez studies pragmatics markers
in Peninsular Spanish and in British English, commenting on various facets of cultural and stylistic uses of these markers. Biesenbach-Lucas closes
the section with an analysis of face-to-face and email interactions in U.S. academic contexts, which
shows a tendency in e-mails toward less formality
without necessarily greater informality or less deference.
The last section of the book centers on language acquisition. The first article, by Bowles and
Montrul, is a study of acquisition of the Spanish
personal a among native speakers of English in
a setting of form-focused instruction with corrective feedback. They conclude that these intermediate second language students learn to
differentiate grammatical from ungrammatical
sentences. Then, de la Fuente investigates the instructed discourse of advanced learners of Spanish and concludes that explicit teaching and
metalinguistic awareness may be necessary to
learn discourse markers in Spanish. Kupisch,
Anderssen, Bohnacker, and Snape analyze article omission in early child speech in English,
German, Norwegian, and Swedish. They argue
that prosodic models of article omission, despite
their limitations, are better predictor tools than
nominal mapping parameters. Finally, Dye offers
a description of first language acquisition of auxiliaries in child French, in which she suggests that
children may have greater knowledge of auxiliaries than previously assumed, given that her data
show a continuum in surface realization, counterevidence to analyses that focus on presence or
absence of these auxiliaries.
The editors and authors of this book use little
words as a lens through which to explore the universe of human language. I have not found a definition of the term little words in this book. Rather
than propose a definition, the editors seem to prefer a list of little words. In this list, they were careful to separate the concept of function words from
little words. Using a list of terms is a strategy that
allows for precision, but at the same time the lists
of little words and function words share the same
members. We know that function words are defined as grammatical particles with relatively little
semantic content, given that their main function
is to specify the relations among linguistic units in
general. The areas of linguistic study that give me
particular difficulty with this general definition of
function words are phonetics and phonology, in
the general account of word stress.

Traditionally, theoretical linguistics distinguishes between function words and content

words in terms of their semantic content: Function words do not have stress, whereas content
words do. In my view, this distinction is more easily applied to languages such as English, in which
the majority of words are monosyllabic, and is less
easily applied to a language like Spanish, in which
words are mainly bisyllabic. The publication of
this volume offers a motivation to revise this notion by saying that function words that do not
have phonemic stress are words with one syllable.
Function words with two unreduced syllables, or
more than two syllables, may require a different
account.
In linguistics, we are used to classifications that
give a false interpretation of what we study, although we know that classifications are artifacts.
For instance, the division of vowel and consonant
systems has no clear boundary; vowels and consonants exist on a continuum with their prototypes
on either extreme. In the center of the continuum, it is difficult to distinguish between the two
systems. Likewise, the attempt to separate function words from content words should also take
into account that going from one class of these
words to another is nothing more than a shift
along a continuum. The solution of calling little
words phonetically and phonologically smaller
function words is helpful. If I dared to suggest
a definition for little words, I would say that it is
a general term for one-syllable word specifiers of
grammatical relations.

ANTONIO
R. M. SIMOES
University of Kansas, Lawrence

LEUNG, YANKIT INGRID. (Ed.). Third

Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar.
Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 2009.
Pp. xviii, 219. $119.95, cloth. ISBN 978184769
1316.
Although research concerning third language acquisition (L3A) is a relatively new branch of language acquisition studies, looking at L3A from
a generative viewpoint is an even more recent
development. This book is a selection of papers representing some of the current trends in
third language (L3) research related to Universal Grammar (UG). While deeming previous L3
research as descriptive, the book attempts to seek

458
explanatory adequacy in (adult) non-native language acquisition research by adopting the UG
framework (p. xiii). As pointed out by several
L3 researchers, it can be misleading to treat L3
(or additional languages) as just another case of
second language (L2) acquisition. Studies on
transfer from first language (L1) and L2 to L3
indicate that a chronologically true L2 and additional languages are qualitatively different. Therefore, this book is a welcome addition to the generativist study of language acquisition.
Almost all of the chapters return to fundamental L3 research questions, such as which language (L1 or L2) L3 learners prefer as a transfer source, and the respective roles of typological
proximity (between L1 vs. L2 and L3) and proficiency level. The first contribution in the volume
is Bayonas The Acquisition of Spanish Middle
and Impersonal Passive Constructions from SLA
and TLA Perspectives. Results from two studies
are reported: one traditional L2 acquisition study,
where the L1 is mainly English and where no
concern is taken about previously acquired foreign languages, and one L3 study, where informants had L1 English and L2 French. No obvious L1 transfer was found, but a tendency was
found in the second study to select the typologically closer (pp. 2526) French L2 as the transfer
source.
The next chapter, by Chin, Language Transfer in the Acquisition of the Semantic Contrast in
L3 Spanish, concerns learners with L1 Chinese
and L2 English. Transfer from both L1 and L2
was found, although the main source of transfer
was English L2, which is typologically closer to
Spanish, in the sense that both English and Spanish mark the perfective and the imperfective aspect with tenseaspect morphology, whereas Chinese uses only aspectual markers.
In Multilingual Universal Grammar as the
Norm, Cook extends the logical problem for language acquisition from the monolingual childs
capacity to acquire language from defective input to the capacity of those who grow up in
bilingual or multilingual settings to separate two
languages from input that is not tagged as Language A or Language B. Continuing with arguments and facts from sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic studies on bilingualism and multilingualism, he concludes that multilingualism is
the norm and that monolingualism is a subcategory, and he discusses the implications of this view
for UG.
In the next chapter, UG and L3 Acquisition:
New Insights and More Questions, Flynn builds
on studies on the acquisition of the relative clause

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

in English L1, L2, and L3. Those studies indicate
that experience from any prior language (L1 or
L2) can be drawn upon in L3A, supporting the
Cumulative Enhancement Model. Furthermore,
Flynn argues for the Constant Model, a model for
the initial state of language acquisition, equivalent
to the Strong Continuity Hypothesis, where UG is
distinct from, but continuously available in the
construction of, specific grammars.
In Transfer in L3 Acquisition: The Role of
Typology, Foote is able to distinguish between
factors such as language status and typology,
thanks to well-designed data collection. The acquisition of aspect is explored in three learner
groups: L1 EnglishL2 RomanceL3 Romance,
L1 RomanceL2 EnglishL3 Romance, and L1
EnglishL2 Romance. Results suggest that either
L1 or L2 can transfer into L3, depending on language typology (in the form of shared features
and feature values).
In L3 Enhanced Feature Sensitivity as a Result
of Higher Proficiency in the L2, Jaensch investigates whether a previously acquired L2 helps in
the acquisition of an L3, relating her study to previous research on cognitive advantages found in
bilinguals, especially those with a high proficiency
level in both of their languages (the Threshold
Hypothesis), and to studies that indicate that previously acquired languages have a positive effect
on the learning of an L3. Interestingly, both seem
to be the case, even in the acquisition of a feature that is present in neither the L1 nor the
L2. Jaensch comes to this conclusion by looking at the acquisition of DP gender agreement in
German in learners with Japanese L1 and English
L2, and she suggests that the advantage for L3
learners, found especially in those who have a relatively high proficiency level in their L2s, is motivated by better lexical knowledge, as well as superior metalinguistic and cognitive abilities.
Jins Third Language Acquisition of Norwegian Objects reports on the status of null objects
in the interlanguage grammars of both L2 English
and L3 Norwegian of a group of learners with L1
Chinese. Although participants rejected ungrammatical sentences in L2 English, they failed to do
so in L3 Norwegian. Hence, little trace of transfer
from L2 to L3 was found, and Jin claims strong L1
transfer to L3.
In Null Objects in L1 ThaiL2 EnglishL3
Chinese: An Empiricist Take on a Theoretical
Problem, Na Ranong and Leung investigate the
interpretation of null objects in L3 Chinese. Comparing the results with a group of English native speakers who learn Chinese as their L2 and
finding no significant differences between the

Reviews
groups, they argue that L1 has a privileged role
in both L2 and L3 acquisition of null objects and
that typology plays a strong role.
Finally, in Tsangs The L3 Acquisition of Cantonese Reflexives, native speakers of Tagalog with
L2 English were tested on Cantonese reflexives.
No transfer from L2 was found, but there was possible influence from L1 Tagalog. Tsang discusses
the results from the perspective of the sociolinguistic status of a language.
In sum, the book brings new insights about L3
syntax, but gives a slightly disjointed impression.
It is not obvious whether previously acquired languages always have a positive effect in the learning
of an additional language, although some of the
studies point in that direction (e.g., Flynn, Jaensch). The importance of typological proximity, especially when languages are related and similar
at a general level, however, is convincingly argued
out by several of the authors. Many new studies
will be undertaken in this expanding field of study,
and with the right language pairings and mirrored
control groups, new answers will be provided.
CAMILLA BARDEL
University of Stockholm

MACKEY, ALISON, & CHARLENE POLIO.

(Eds.). Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Second
Language Research in Honor of Susan M. Gass.
New York: Routledge, 2009. Pp. vi, 281. $115.00,
cloth. ISBN 9780805864588.
This collection of articles in honor of Susan Gass is
an exploration of the influence of the interaction
approach on current thought in second language
acquisition (SLA) and underscores the impact of
this approach. Consisting of an introduction followed by 10 chapters and an epilogue, this book
brings together articles on such disparate topics
as cognitive theory, motivation, and computerassisted language learning, among others. Each
chapter is written by a different researcher or team
of researchers. Although several of these authors
are scholars who do not focus their research on
interaction, each relates his or her work to the
interaction hypothesis and demonstrates its relevance to a theory of SLA integrated by the study
of interaction.
The introduction, written by Mackey and Polio,
gives a brief history of the progression of Gasss
thinking about interaction and its development
into a comprehensive theory of SLA.

459
In the first chapter, Ellis explains the cognitive
approach to SLA, that learning a language consists of acquiring the formmeaning relationships
characteristic of the target language by noticing
patterns in the input and forming associative networks. Since more recent psycholinguistic models
of learning are taking into account the social situations within which these associative networks are
embedded, psycholinguistics research and traditional interaction studies are becoming complementary.
In chapter 2, Tarone argues that to understand L2 acquisition, we need to take the social
context of interactions into account. She calls
for studies of language learners across the social spectrum, as opposed to the educated learners in classroom or laboratory settings that have
been the focus of most studies of interaction.
Tarone also believes that the SLA research agenda
should include studying output in different social contexts to observe the quantity and quality of language that learners produce in each
situation.
In the third chapter, Brooks and Swain report
on a study conducted within Vygotskys sociocultural framework. However, although Vygotsky
wrote about expertnovice relationships, Brooks
and Swain looked at peer relationships. They
found that students constructed zones of proximal development in their interactions as they engaged in pair work on a collaborative writing task.
This interaction helped them to reach higher levels of expertise in English.
In chapter 4, Bygate and Samuda note that
although interaction using the target language
seems to be necessary for language learning to occur, engaging in classroom conversations does not
necessarily lead to gains in language proficiency.
This phenomenon may be because classroom
tasks do not always elicit the kinds of involvement
that foster language learning. The researchers examine the qualities of task-based learning (field,
purpose, and engagement) and how tasks can be
constructed to maximize opportunities for acquisition.
In the fifth chapter, Dornyei and Tseng examine the construct of motivation and its role in interaction. Using a tripartite model of motivational
processing that includes a learners appraisal of
his or her progress toward a goal, they conclude
that accurate appraisal processes are important
for keeping students motivated to complete the
pedagogical task. Although their study is focused
on vocabulary learning, these findings can be applied to the dyadic activities that underlie interaction.

460
In chapter 6, Oliver looks at young (57 years
old) second language learners to determine
whether or not the features that characterize interaction among these children are similar to those
of older students. She found that young learners
engage in and benefit from interaction much as
older learners do with two exceptions (that may
depend on developmental stages). First, young
children are more concerned with self-regulation
than other-regulation; second, they are not inhibited by the directions for completing a task,
adding, for example, items to a picture to be described instead of describing what appears in the
picture.
In the seventh chapter, Lightbown and Spada
review the evolution of the interaction hypothesis since the 1970s. They conclude by calling for
replication of past studies and for future research
on the social context of interaction and the kinds
of tasks that are assigned, among other topics.
In chapter 8, Loewen looks at recasts in formfocused negotiations in meaning-based lessons.
He concludes that more research investigating the
role of this kind of feedback on students learning
needs to be undertaken.
In the ninth chapter, Smith proposes synchronous computer-mediated communication
(SCMC) as a vehicle for examining interaction.
He notes that chatscripts, which record every
keystroke learners make (as opposed to transcripts of chats after they have been sent), reveal
much of the learners mental processing of language. For example, learners often backspace to
make word-level corrections and sometimes abandon messages they are composing to respond to
incoming messages from their partners.
In chapter 10, Ortega reviews SCMC research
on the interaction hypothesis since 2000, focusing on studies that explore constructs like negotiation for meaning, negative feedback, and attention to form. She concludes that although some
studies are encouraging, others are problematic
and that, at this point, we cannot say that SCMC is
better than face-to-face interaction for language
learning.
In the epilogue, Philp notes the progress that
has occurred in research on the interaction hypothesis from early descriptive studies to more
recent explanatory research. She identifies three
directions for future study: cognitive processes, social perspectives, and interactions in instructional
contexts.
This collection, which relates insights from different areas of SLA to the interaction hypothesis,
may be construed as a step toward the articulation of a theory of SLA integrated under the con-

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

struct of interaction. Such an integrated theory
would provide a framework for research in language learning and could serve to identify central
themes to be explored from different perspectives. With supplementation, this book could serve
as a text in a graduate course on SLA; however, if
the book were used this way, the instructor might
want to assign chapter 7, which reviews research
on interaction, first, and chapter 10, which reviews SCMC research, before chapter 9. Overall,
this book provides interesting research on various
aspects of the interaction hypothesis and advances
our understanding of language learning.
MARY EMILY CALL
Montclair State University

SHRUM, JUDITH L., & EILEEN W. GLISAN.

Teachers Handbook: Contextualized Language Instruction. 4th ed. Boston: Heinle, 2010. Pp. xviii,
510. $105.99, paper. ISBN 9781413033212.
In the fourth edition of Teachers Handbook the authors have introduced five notable changes. The
first change expands potential users of the volume. The previous editions focused on pre- and
in-service teachers and, as a result, were less relevant for language instructors in postsecondary
contexts, such as graduate teaching assistants and
college and university faculty. The authors now
use a marginal icon to signal sections of greatest
relevance for this population. A second change is
the inclusion of a Techno Focus section in every
chapter. Although one chapter is dedicated solely
to technology, the inclusion of material related
to technology in every chapter demonstrates the
importance of this topic. The authors have provided suggestions for the use of various technological media, such as blogging, cell phones, and
YouTube, among others. This addition strengthens the textbook, as technology is highlighted in
most methods courses.
Third, new themes appear in the Conceptual
Orientation section that begins each chapter
and, thus, are repeatedly woven into the topics
treated in the book. These include language policy, research on brain-based learning, sheltered
and dual language instruction, genre-based writing, and dynamic assessment. Also, this edition
enhances topics introduced in previous editions
with more in-depth treatment and additional
research, a change that will be of particular interest for those who teach in postsecondary contexts.

461

Reviews
The fourth change focuses on the Implementation sections, which follow the theoretical component of each chapter. These sections are designed to apply theory to practical issues encountered by language instructors. The authors intend
that readers investigate, reflect, and discuss the
issues. These sections embody the handbook focus of the text. The fourth edition expands the
number of case studies, with some designed with
postsecondary readers in mind.
The fifth change is found on the books companion Web site. Already a positive component
of the textbook, the Web site now includes additional resources, many supplied by practicing
teachers. The resources are all nicely packaged
in one location, so that readers do not have to
search for appropriate materials, research-based
data, and links that will benefit both preservice
and in-service teachers.
Overall, the changes are positive. Considerable
focus has been given to postsecondary students
and faculty, a change needed because the previous editions had a limited focus on this level.
Those who have used the text at the undergraduate level may not welcome these additions, but
the postsecondary sections are identified with an
icon and can be easily omitted should the instructor choose to do so. The important factor is that
nothing was taken away from the other levels; instead, additional material was presented.
Teachers Handbook consists of 12 chapters with
an extensive range of topics that include contextualized and integrated language instruction, language learning in elementary and middle schools,
the three modes of instruction (interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational), grammar instruction, assessment, and technology. This comprehensive range of topics would certainly satisfy
requirements for most foreign language or English as a second language (TESOL) methodology
courses.
Each chapter is divided into three sections:
Conceptual Organization, Implementation,
and Discuss and Reflect. Conceptual Organization provides the backbone of the chapter with
ample research and theory. A positive note is
that this section is both well documented and a
straightforward read. The language is concise and
comprehensible, even for readers new to the field.
The authors have provided in-depth background
and theory for each concept that is addressed in
the text. The Implementation section is impressive, especially for students and in-service teachers seeking applicable substance for their observations and classes. Each episode lists the NCATE
standards for foreign language and TESOL that

the activities address. This section provides ample opportunity to assess if the students have understood the chapter. Additional case studies and
reference to the Teachers Handbook Web site comprise the Discuss and Reflect section. This section could be used for independent work or incorporated into class time.
A final note for each of the chapters is that the
main terms or objectives are listed at the beginning of the chapter, and an impressive list of citations concludes each chapter. It is obvious that the
authors have put into practice what they articulate
throughout their text.
The downside of Teachers Handbook may be that
it could be somewhat daunting for the undergraduate student who is just beginning a teacher education program or a first-level practicum course.
Its abundance of material may lend itself to being used over two methods courses, or instructors may wish to assign only some of the chapters, according to the level of the students. The
positive aspects of the text far outweigh any negatives. Teachers Handbook is a user-friendly textbook for both the instructor and the students. It
provides a plethora of research-based theory that
supports the content of each chapter, the writing
is clear and concise, and the information is presented in an easy-to-read format. Once the theory
and research have been presented, the opportunity to apply what has been learned is provided
and, finally, further reflection and discussion is
made available for those who choose to expand
on the concepts presented in a given chapter.
Teachers Handbook is an impressive textbook that
should be considered for a methods course and
should be found on teachers shelves as a fundamental and practical resource to help current
and future teachers succeed in a second language
classroom.
TERRI A. GEBEL
University of Iowa

ARABIC
MCLOUGHLIN, LESLIE. Colloquial Arabic (Levantine): The Complete Course for Beginners. 2nd ed.
New York: Routledge, 2009. Pp. vi, 227. $31.95,
paper. ISBN 9780415448574.
In Colloquial Arabic (Levantine), McLoughlin sets
out to accomplish the following: (a) exhibit language features acceptable throughout the Levant;

462
(b) display natural, idiomatic and correct speech;
and (c) present speech not particular to a village
or area (p. 6).
Prefaced by a list of abbreviations, an introduction, and an Introduction to Arabic Pronunciation, the book comprises three parts. Part 1,
entitled The Units, is the longest. It is divided
into 11 sections displaying Levantine colloquial
features, although it includes at times a mix of
Modern Standard and Classical Arabic (CA) features. Part 2, ambitiously entitled All the Things
You Have to Know in Order to Have a Meaningful Conversation in Arabic, is divided into eight
sections, including religious terms and festivities;
values, including those relating to honor, fate,
marriage, and divorce; instructions on how not
to learn Arabic; courtesy expressions; terms of address; proverbs; idioms; and topics like numerals,
gender designations, telling time, dates, trades,
professions, colors, and shapes. Part 3 consists
of five appendices: a grammar index, a glossary,
notes on the Arabic script, countries in the Arab
League, and a bibliography. A key to the exercises
is also included.
The preface offers a concise and informative
introduction, ordering topics logically from general to specific. It starts with Arabic Language
in the World, proceeds to The Arabic Written
Language, The Varieties of Spoken Arabic, and
then moves to the specific features of Levantine
Arabic, followed by The Structure of Arabic.
This last section presents with simplicity, for the
benefit of beginners, the 10 (according to the author) most important features common to written
and spoken Arabic.
The weakness of the preface is the looseness
with which some information is conveyed. Thus,
one may take issue with the oversimplification of
some of the language features described in points
6 through 8 (pp. 1011). First is the statement that
the two tenses in Arabic can render any tense we
use in English (p. 10), without the author mentioning the need, at times, of an auxiliary, and the
statement that female singular verb endings are
marked by the sound ee without stating that this
feature pertains only to the past tense. He also
uses fee Kitaab as an illustration of an equational
sentence without qualifying it as a dialectal and
not a classical Arabic form. Moreover, feature 10
on intonation (p. 12) does not describe to students how it works, but gives the general advice to
pay attention to it.
The strengths of the Introduction to Arabic
Pronunciation are partly due to the detailed information and to contrasting the Arabic sounds
with English for additional clarification. However,

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

there are numerous flaws. The letter thaa E is
presented for pronunciation at the end position
of the word, an anomaly when all of the other
27 letter sounds are presented in initial positions,
a decision that will confuse novice learners. The
letter identified in writing as zay (p. 15) is inconsistent with its pronunciation zaa (CD 24). The
sounds of two letters, Saad W and Daad Q,
on the CD are not pronounced in words, as is
the case with all of other letters. The letter qaaf
R is transcribed as faaf (p. 16), and the kasra
vowel is transcribed as kesra. Finally, one questions the justification for maintaining the liaison
(transcribed, p. 17) of proper names with initial
sun letters, numbers 14, 19, 33, 34; for example,
9abdun-naaSir , but not with initial moon letters 2,
3639; for example, ameer al-kuwait, even though
liaisons are reflected in oral speech with sun and
moon letters.
Part 1 does manage to compress a wide array
of language structures in 111 pages. It contains
communicative expressions, structures expressing
possession, types of verbs (the tri-consonantal, the
derived patterns, the assimilated, and the defective, including their tenses), the participles, the
relative pronouns, and more. However, both the
formatting and content are problematic. Each
unit has a different layout, and there are no advance organizers or lists of learning outcomes,
which would facilitate use of the text for the
novice. The titles vacillate between expressions
of grammar forms (units 2, 3, 5, 7) and functions
(1, 4, 6, 8, 9) and often do not indicate what one
should anticipate in the unit. The title of unit
10, Four-Letter Words, refers to the causative
verbs but may be unintentionally offensive to native speakers of English. Moreover, the exercises
reflect a long-gone traditional method of translation, which displays lists of discrete sentences
that the learners are to memorize or render into
English.
Although the dialogues in part 1 are interactive and exhibit natural, communicative language,
they are fraught with inconsistencies that occur in
every dialogue, namely between the written transcripts and their oral counterparts, indicating a
lack of careful proofreading of the manuscript.
Specifically, the written transcriptions reflect either the Modern Standard form or a different
dialect pronunciation from the one that is being
recorded.
Part 2, despite its presumptuous title All the
Things You Have to Know in Order to Have a
Meaningful Conversation in Arabic, is the most
spirited. Section 13, entitled O My Teacher!,

463

Reviews
deals successfully with terms of address, although
it is somewhat limited. McLoughlin emphasizes
the contextual particularities of terms of address in Levantine societies, conveying this salient
feature of this social group. The spectrum, from
most formal to more informal, that a student
would most likely utilize and encounter when visiting that region, is well chosen and well explained.
Unfortunately, McLoughlin fails to provide adequate information about the local color of these
terms in this wide region.
In this connection, this reviewer takes issue with
the lumping together of the linguistic features of
Jordan and the rest of Levantine Arabic. Despite
the fact that Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Jordan
comprise geographically what is referred to as the
Levant, the dialect of Jordan spoken by the original inhabitants of the area is more akin to that of
the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula, which
McLoughlin does not address.
In closing, it is quite surprising that the second edition is not much different in methodology from the first edition of 1982. The author
and publisher appear to remain oblivious of the
changes that have taken place in foreign language
teaching and learning in the last three decades.
AMAN M. ATTIEH
Swarthmore College

CHINESE
BAI, JIANHUA. Chinese Grammar Made Easy:
A Practical and Effective Guide for Teach150 New Haven, CT: Yale Uniers.
versity Press, 2008. Pp. xix, 315. $45.00, paper.
ISBN 9780300122794.
In producing this volume, Bai and his colleagues
at the renowned Middlebury Chinese School have
provided the Chinese teaching profession with a
marvelous new pedagogical tool that bridges the
gap between the precise structural linguistic descriptions of traditional grammar reference books
and the pedagogical needs of communicationbased classroom teaching to English-speaking
learners. Although not comprehensive in its coverage of Chinese grammar, it offers clear analysis
and creative teaching approaches to many common or problematic grammatical constructions.
Except for the acknowledgments page and a
translation of the introduction, the book is entirely in Chinese; it is intended for teachers, not

for students. (Thankfully, the subtitle makes this

clear because it would be unfortunate if beginning
students ordered the book online, only to discover
that it was far beyond their reading ability.) Besides the introduction and a 1-page bibliography
of useful grammar references and dictionaries,
the book consists of 150 treatments of important
Chinese grammatical items, each of which is 12
pages in length.
All of the treatments follow the same format.
Each one begins with a brief semantic and functional description of the construction, with citations of some of the standard grammar references
for readers who want to delve further. In cases
where grammatical constructions are near synonyms (or, more relevant, where Chinese makes
a distinction that English does not make), key
points of contrast are often (but not always)
pointed out, along with American students common errors. These descriptions are models of clarity and brevity. The focus is on pedagogical practicality, rather than on the descriptive comprehensiveness found in grammar reference works.
Next appears a table showing the structure of
model sentences. Example sentences are well chosen for their typicality and for content that illustrates the meaning and grammatical function of
the construction in question.
Finally, four to five exercises are presented,
starting with a sample Socratic question-andanswer dialogue designed to lead students to an
understanding of the construction. The remaining exercises move from teacher-controlled exercises (expansion, transformation, sentence completion) to lower-control exercises (circumlocution, open-ended questions), ending with relatively free usage by students (discussion, debate,
role-play). The guiding principles behind the exercises are that it should not be necessary to resort
to English explanations, that focus is always on the
meaning rather than on only the structure, and
that more practice is always better than more explanation.
Organization by individual grammatical pattern makes the book a very valuable reference
tool. A teacher looking for a new way to explain
a certain pattern or looking for appropriate communicative exercises to replace structure drills or
translation can simply flip to the relevant page and
find useful ideas. In this way, it is as easy to use as a
dictionary. However, this organization prevents a
holistic view of the grammar, and the book is not
intended as a substitute for the sequenced introduction to grammar that a textbook provides. In
fact, the scope of coverage seems to be limited by
the format. The introduction states that the items

464
we identified are the most fundamental and most
frequently used grammar items that students need
to learn in order to communicate successfully and
effectively (p. xv), but a grammar item seems usually to involve a particular lexical item used as a
grammatical or discourse marker, whereas some
of the most basic (and difficult) grammatical phenomena do not easily fit that description. For example, relative clauses, resultative complements,
potential complements, and the aspectual system
are not covered.
The aforementioned lack of comprehensiveness by no means negates the value of this book.
I believe it deserves a spot on every Chinese
teachers bookshelf, not necessarily instead of the
reliable grammar references, but as a guide to
action, putting their theory into practice in the
classroom.
MARK HANSELL
Carleton College

BAI, JIANHUA, JUYU SUNG, & JANET ZHIQUN

XING. Beyond the Basics: Communicative Chinese
for Intermediate and Advanced Learners. 2nd ed.
Boston: Cheng & Tsui, 2009. Pp. xix, 393. $49.95,
paper. ISBN 9780887276231.
Taking the national standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century as the guiding principles, this textbook for intermediate and
advanced students of Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) at the college level aims to develop
CFL learners communicative competence with
an emphasis on speaking proficiency. It incorporates relevant research findings and adopts new
ideas and techniques in the text organization and
exercise delivery, all of which shows that the authors know what students need and what should
be done to improve CFL learning and teaching
effectiveness. With an appealing storyline and authentic texts, the book is culturally rich, linguistically appropriate, and fun to read. Except for
lesson 1, all the lessons are in the form of conversations contextualized in varied social cultural
settings, such as dining out, voting and elections,
pains and gains in telemarketing, music and film,
homelessness and poverty, and challenges and
predicaments in school life. These themes are
related to students real-life experiences and fit
the ACTFL assessment criteria for speaking at the
level targeted by the book, which is, as stated in the
preface, for students who have studied Chinese

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

for at least 2 years in a regular college program
(p. xi).
In the United States, Chinese is learned as a
foreign language (i.e., not as the tool of societal
communication); thus, it shares many commonalities with other foreign languages. First, in a
foreign language context, authentic linguistic input is typically not available, so the instructor and
the teaching materials become the major source
of target language input. Thus, it is imperative
for CFL pedagogy to bring real-life experience
into the classroom and to build an environment
conducive to students target language use and
engagement in meaningful communication. Second, most CFL classrooms in the United States
must accommodate two types of students: those
with a Chinese family background, and those without. With a mixed student population in the classroom, it is essential for CFL instruction to closely
attend to individual learners needs and address
them appropriately. Beyond the Basics shows full
awareness of such issues and, in response, provides a wide range of discussion questions and
learning activities, as well as a large pool of supplementary vocabulary (p. xi).
Beyond the Basics consists of 15 lessons. Except for lesson 15, which is a review designed
to help students practice extemporaneous speech
(p. xiii), all of the lessons are conversations, which
are, by complexity in tasks and functions, grouped
into categories: (a) narrative; (b) descriptive;
(c) narrative with abstract concepts; and (d) narrative with abstract concepts and debate. The narrative strand contains two lessons (1, 6) with text
(Childhood) and
(Dining Out);
titles
the descriptive strand includes three lessons (2
(Describing a Person),
4) with text titles
(Master Salesperson), and
(Various Professions). The abstract-concept strand
contains two lessons (8, 14) with the text ti(Crime) and
(Movies), while
tles
the last strand includes five lessons (913) with
(Love and Romance),
the text titles
(The Poverty Problem),
(Culture Discus(Happiness), and
(Political Elecsion),
tion). Moreover, each lesson consists of a model
dialogue, discussion questions, a list of new words,
a list of supplementary words, notes on sentence
patterns and useful expressions, and a set of multicategory homework assignments. Collectively,
they provide optimal opportunities for students
to practice and use the language for meaningful
communication.
Pedagogically, the book demonstrates a number of strengths. First, most of the texts are
two-party debates on controversial issues with

465

Reviews
challenging information gaps and intelligent arguments, which will be attractive and stimulating to students and general readers. Second, the
notes on sentence patterns and useful expressions are well written and are contextualized in
conversations, which will be easy for students to
understand and for teachers to explain. Third, the
homework is comprehensive, which in most cases
includes multiple-choice vocabulary and sentence
exercises, sentence completions, fill-in-the-blank
sentences, written discourse composition, oral discourse writing, and supplementary activities. Such
a wide range of tasks gives students abundant
opportunities to review and practice what they
have learned. Finally, the discussion topics and
written activities are well directed and contextualized, which teachers will find easy to implement in
class.
Compared with the other CFL textbooks used
in the United States and elsewhere, this book offers a distinctive and innovative approach. However, CFL is an emerging field in which research
on pedagogy is embryonic, and there are not
many models to follow for textbook writing. It
would, therefore, be impractical to expect the
book to be flawless. From the perspective of a
CFL researcher and teaching practitioner, I point
out some areas that would benefit from improvement. First, the language model provided in the
texts does not correspond well with some of the
after-class tasks. Specifically, given that the texts
are, except for lesson 1, conversations, each lesson gives the students writing tasks in written
discourse, either paragraphs or essays. For instance, although the text of lesson 2 is a conversation on Deng Xiao-Ping, the late Chinese
head of state, the after-class activity asks students
to write two letters, of 200 characters each, with
one describing a female and the other a male.
Ample discourse research demonstrates that written and oral discourses differ from each other
in, among other aspects, lexicon, sentence patterns, conjunctions, connectors, and discourse
markers. Recent CFL research also shows that
learners, heritage and non-heritage alike, do not
have the ability to convert oral discourse to written discourse without access to model texts in
their teaching materials. Next, although the book
presents detailed notes on sentence patterns and
useful expressions, it does not have a grammar section that explains Chinese-specific linguistic features, such as zero pronouns, frequent omission of
sentence constituents, and topic-prominent constructions, to name just a few. Finally, some textrelated background knowledge is lacking that
could help students comprehend the texts and

have a model at hand when composing written

discourse. To create the best-fit textbook for CFL
learners at the intermediate and advanced levels, it is essential to foster their intra- and intersentence analytical skills and to provide them with
the needed Chinese linguistic and background
knowledge.
YUN XIAO
Bryant University

EVERSON, MICHAEL E., & HELEN H. SHEN.

(Eds.). Research among Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 2010. Pp. 200. $20.00, paper. ISBN 9780
980045949.
This book is the fourth volume in the monograph
series sponsored by the Chinese Language Teachers Association to disseminate empirical research
results to guide Chinese as a foreign language
(CFL) pedagogy. It is comprised of three sections:
(a) the editors introduction; (b) eight chapters,
each of which presents one empirical study on a
key issue in CFL learning; and (c) biographical information about each contributor to the volume.
In the editors introduction, Everson and Shen
explain the purposes of the volume and briefly
describe each chapters research focus, research
design, and major findings.
Chapter 1 reports on a mixed-methods study
by Du on adult English-speaking CFL learners
acquisition of the ba construction. Using both
quantitative and qualitative data, the study examined whether CFL learners at different proficiency levels acquired the complexity constraints
of the ba construction in resultative causative
constructions and of le, and what developmental trends were revealed during the acquisition
process. Chapter 2 reports on a study by Tseng
that examined CFL learners self-assessed attrition
rate in grammar, listening, and reading skills after a 3-month summer break. In chapter 3, Shen
reports on a study that employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigate how
CFL learners acquire radical knowledge and how
they perceive the importance of radical knowledge in learning Mandarin characters. Chapter 4
is a quantitative study by Lu that examined the
effects of word-knowledge depth, part of speech,
and proficiency level on word associations among
learners of Chinese in Beijing. Chapter 5 reports
on Changs research examining the correlation

466
between college-level CFL learners proficiency
level and their usage of cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies. Chapter 6 follows up with
a study by Liu employing descriptive statistics to
examine the factors that affected the free
recall performance of Japanese learners of Chinese. Chapter 7 presents Xiaos study, in which she
analyzed both non-heritage and heritage collegelevel CFL learners discourse features and uncovered developmental trends in CFL writing over
one academic year. Chapter 8 is a survey study
conducted by Tasker that investigated CFL distance learners perception and beliefs about CFL
learning and their attitudes toward CFL distance
learning.
This book is a great contribution to the fields of
Chinese as a second language acquisition (CSLA)
research and CFL pedagogy. Its contributions are
reflected in three major areas: the topics, the research designs, and the pedagogical implications
covered in the studies. First, the studies investigated a broad scope of CFL, issues including
the acquisition of radical knowledge, word association, grammar structures, reading strategies,
writing discourse features, language attrition in
grammar and receptive skills, as well as CFL distance learning from the student perspective. The
literature review and research findings in the studies provide invaluable and bountiful information
to researchers in the field of CSLA and connect
the research on CSLA to SLA in general. Second, the majority of the studies in this volume
adopted the mixed-methods approach to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze students learning outcomes. The studies in chapters 1, 3, 4, 5,
and 8 also investigated developmental trends by
comparing the performance of CFL learners at
different proficiency levels. The methodological
endeavors enable a broader and deeper understanding of CSL development as well as provide
great examples for novice and experienced researchers in CSLA.
The third contribution of this volume is the
thoughtful pedagogical implications provided in
each study. Facing the urgent need to expand and
strengthen Chinese language programs at various
levels and a relatively small pool of empirical research providing reliable and concrete guidance,
CFL pedagogy, particularly at the college level,
can benefit greatly from all the well-thought-out
and scientifically verified findings provided in the
book.
Despite its values, this book is limited by a lack of
comprehensiveness in the topics, theoretical perspectives, and research approaches in the studies.
First, it is apparent that the contributions are arranged based on the linguistic units and particular

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

skills CFL learners need to acquire: vocabulary,
grammar, reading, and writing at the discourse
level. The exclusion of attention to the acquisition of listening and speaking skills will disappoint
readers. Second, the majority of the studies focus on CFL learning outcomes from a traditional
psycholinguistic perspective, rather than on the
learning process. None of studies adopt other SLA
theoretical perspectives, such as sociocultural theory and the ecological perspective, which focus
on learners learning process by investigating the
relationship between learners and their discursive
social-cultural contexts. This limitation constrains
the volumes theoretical and empirical influences.
Third, limited by one dominating theoretical perspective, most studies in the volume, despite their
adoption of a mixed-methods approach, emphasize the quantitative analysis of the correlation between various potential factors and learning outcomes rather than a meticulous qualitative analysis of learners dynamic learning process.
In all, this volume provides a much-needed
and valuable resource for CFL researchers as well
as language educators. The studies included in
the volume are thoughtfully selected. The information reviewed and discovered as well as the
research approaches adopted in the studies are
very resourceful and thought provoking. However, readers of this volume should be aware that
most of the studies are guided by a psycholinguistic perspective, in which language learning is analyzed and interpreted through a traditional cognitivist lens. In addition, listening and speaking
skills development is not addressed in the volume.
Researchers interested in other theoretical frameworks and in CFL learners listening and speaking
skills may not find this volume as helpful.
LI JIN
DePaul University

XIAO, RICHARD, PAUL RAYSON, & TONY

MCENERY. A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin
Chinese: Core Vocabulary for Learners. New York:
Routledge, 2009. Pp. x, 390. $35.95, paper. ISBN
9780415455862.
This publication details a lexicography project using statistical and grammatical analyses that are
based on scientific, linguistic, and pedagogical
theories. It provides the rationale for a frequency
dictionary, the structure of the corpus used in
the project, a review of various frequency dictionaries of Chinese, explanations for the selection

Reviews
of words and Chinese characters based on their
frequencies and distributions in different registers, and the organization of this dictionary with
examples of lexical entries. Prospective users of
the dictionary can also benefit from reading a
brief introduction to Mandarin Chinese, touching on issues such as simplified and traditional
Chinese characters, pinyin (i.e., the romanized alphabetical system of Mandarin Chinese), the definition of Chinese wordhood, and the approach
the dictionary takes in deciding what constitutes
a word in the corpus. In particular, the authors
have
classify formulaic expressions such as
that is to say,
meanwhile, and
to,
cannot help but as words, noting that such
commonly occurring expressions are useful for
learners. Such an approach seems to corroborate
Chinese word processing on computers. When
one inputs the above expressions in pinyin, the
correct simplified or traditional characters appear
most of the time.
The corpus itself is the crux of the dictionary.
It consists of data extracted from the Lancaster
Corpus of Mandarin Chinese and the UCLA Written Chinese Corpus, in addition to various types
of publications and oral communications, for a
total of approximately 73 million Chinese characters, which make up almost 50 million words in
the corpus. The written text in the corpus constitutes the bulk of the data, and it is categorized into
news, fiction, and non-fiction, with the news category exceeding the other two categories by a slight
margin. The transcribed speech in the corpus accounts for approximately only one-fifteenth of the
data, and it consists of various genres, ranging
from casual face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, to formal public lectures and radio
broadcasts.
The main portion of the volume consists of a
full page devoted to the part-of-speech annotation scheme, followed by four indices of varied
lengths. Unfortunately, the page number of the
former, which is 19, is misprinted as page 190
in the table of contents. The first three indices
comprise words arranged by frequency, by alphabetical order, and by part of speech, respectively.
Chinese characters that make up the words are
arranged by frequency in the last index. In the
frequency index, there are a total of 5,004 entries
ranging from the most frequently occurring word
to the least frequently occurring word
.
Each entry consists of simplified and traditional
Chinese characters, pinyin, part of speech, English gloss, an illustrative example in simplified
characters, English translation for the example,
and so forth. In the alphabetical index, the frequency rank that accompanies each word is par-

467
ticularly useful for cross-referencing with the frequency index. The part-of-speech index expounds
the functions of certain entries, e.g., how the different classifiers (measure words) and sentencefinal particles are used. Finally, the character frequency index consists of 2,112 entries. It lists all
of the Chinese characters in the corpus by rank,
from the most frequently occurring character
to the least frequently occurring character . In
each entry, words in which the character occurs,
as well as their ranks, are listed. These words are
a particularly attractive feature for self-study.
To stimulate learning authentic Mandarin
Chinese in a meaningful context, a series of 30
vocabulary lists are interspersed throughout the
frequency index in embedded tables, and they
are organized by themes such as matters related
to living and activities, the Chinese people and
culture, and the commonly used words in spoken,
fiction, non-fiction, and news registers. The majority of the lists include simplified and traditional
Chinese characters, pinyin, and English gloss.
Most of the words are arranged by frequency rank,
and the rest are arranged in alphabetical order or
some other logical order. Sociolinguists may find
the English loanword list to be of particular interest, whereas students of Chinese may find useful
grammatical terms in the language learning list.
The last four lists of the series, which consist of
commonly used words in the spoken and written
registers, are a little different in that the words are
arranged by statistical salience, although their frequency ranks are also provided. An obvious shortfall is the absence of pinyin for each word. Without the accompanying pinyin, nonnative speakers
of Mandarin Chinese will not know how to pronounce the words, which is an important part of
language learning. Another shortcoming of the
thematically organized vocabulary lists is the unpredictable order in which they are embedded in
the frequency index. The words in each list do not
necessarily correspond to the words in the index
that are presented on the same page. Since it is
not feasible to arrange the lists in an ideal logical
order in the index, it is more efficient to consolidate them and place them altogether in a separate
index, which would make it easier for readers to
view them at a glance. In fact, such an index could
be a valuable tool for learners to acquire thematically related vocabulary, especially because it is
currently common for schools to teach across different subjects based on a common theme.
In sum, this dictionary applies corpus linguistics to lexicography and Chinese language pedagogy using authentic text and speech, and the
practical approach it takes is conducive to the acquisition of frequently occurring vocabulary and

468

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

grammar in real situations. It is hoped that users

will be able to learn the language with a fraction
of the time and effort, at least in the theme of
their interest. Additionally, this dictionary will be
an effective reference for teachers and students of
Mandarin Chinese and Chinese linguistics. Overall, the authors deserve praise for carrying out this
detail-oriented and time-consuming project.
KYLIE HSU
California State University, Los Angeles

FRENCH
BOOTH, TRUDIE MARIA. A Complete French
Grammar for Reference and Practice. New York: University Press of America, 2010. Pp. ix, 488. $49.95,
paper. ISBN 9780761849711.
This volume provides a new French comprehensive grammar guide intended to hone learners
writing, reading, and speaking skills. Booth envisions the text for the intermediate and advanced
levels, as well as for self-study and reference.
With an anticipated readership of Anglophone
students who hope to improve their written and
spoken French, the principal goal of the manual is to provide a useful reference and practice
tool for students and teachers alike . . . and help
learners acquire proficiency in oral and written
French (p. ix). Secondary goals include increasing student cultural competence and expanding
vocabulary knowledge.
The volume contains 30 chapters; the first begins with numbers, telling time, days of the week,
months, seasons, dates, and fractions. In chapters 2 through 10, Booth progresses to various
types of verbs. The tenses covered include the
present indicative (including pronominal verbs),
imperative, passe compose , imperfect, pluperfect,
passe simple, passe anterieur , close and simple
future, present and past conditional, and present,
imperfect, and pluperfect subjunctive. Later
chapters focus on personal pronouns, negative
expressions, the infinitive, the present participle, articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs,
comparisons, superlatives, question formation,
prepositions, conjunctions, direct and indirect
speech, and false cognates. At the end of most
chapters is a section entitled Translation Difficulties that treats expressions and grammatical concepts that are difficult to translate from French
to English and vice versa. Moreover, phonetic
transcriptions using the International Phonetic

Alphabet are often provided to show the proper

pronunciation of difficult words. The volume concludes with a FrenchEnglish and EnglishFrench
glossary.
In her preface, Booth maintains that this manual covers French grammar more thoroughly than
other grammar reference guides. Topic comprehensiveness is the books major strength. Despite
the number of grammatical structures reviewed, it
is easy to locate particular grammar topics, thanks
to the well-organized table of contents and complete index. The organization of the book is clear
and logical. In addition, the last chapter on false
cognates is particularly helpful for advanced students wanting to improve their writing skills.
The strongest features of the book are the detailed grammar explanations and the use of English for the explanations. In contrast, the directions for all of the exercises following the grammatical explanations are in French, which is one
reason that the exercises are the weakest feature of
the book. In the preface, Booth states that the numerous oral and written exercises include translations, suggestions for communicative activities
with a partner, as well as topics for written compositions (p. ix). Although it is true that the exercises are numerous, there is little variety; the
majority are translations. There are few communicative activities, and the infrequent oral exercises mostly entail asking a list of questions to a
partner. Thus, it is unclear how this book could
be used to refine speaking skills.
In addition to the limited directions provided
for the exercises, there are other major problems. First, the exercises are not contextualized.
In many instances, the only instruction given is
the singular word Translate. Although the exercises focus on the grammatical concepts covered in their respective chapters, the vocabulary
is random. For example, in an exercise reviewing
the definite article, students are directed to fill
in the blank with the proper definite article. The
first six nouns listed are: femme woman, beurre
butter, universite university, histoire history or
story, hors-doeuvre, and honte shame (p. 210).
The accompanying vocabulary is not taught in the
chapter, and the book does not have a vocabulary
section other than the glossary at the end. Thus,
to complete the exercises throughout the manual,
a dictionary is required. Lacking proper context,
it is difficult to see how learners may be expected
to retain new vocabulary.
The preface is also misleading when it
states that poems and other authentic French
texts . . . such as an excerpt from Le Petit Nicolas
illustrate the grammar aspects discussed (p. ix).
These literary examples are few and far between.

469

Reviews
Although an excerpt from the aforementioned
short story is used to review the passe compose and
the imparfait where students are asked to fill in
the blank with missing verbs, only a few poems
are included in the chapters, and most are simply printed in the manual without accompanying
questions, exercises, or activities. Thus, their intended function is unclear. The preface also misleads the reader when it claims that students will
be able to refine their writing skills through the
inclusion of topics for written compositions. The
suggested composition topics are minimal and difficult to locate.
For students to benefit from the exercises in this
book, they would most likely need to have studied
French for a number of years so that they already
have a substantial vocabulary base. If the book is
to be used for self-study or reference, as Booth
suggests, there is one major flaw: An answer key
is not included. There is no way for students to
check their answers, and although in the preface
it says that an answer key is available through the
author, no order form is provided, either online or
in the manual. Furthermore, there are no online
components or ancillaries to this guide.
Still, as the title indicates, this is a complete
French grammar reference guide with clear and
detailed explanations that covers virtually every
aspect of French grammar. In this respect, the
manual is excellent and would serve its readers
well. However, if the book is to be used effectively
for practice, in particular for self-study, several
essential components are lacking: a wider variety
of grammar exercises, the inclusion of more
oral activities, prompts for compositions, and an
answer key.
MOLLY KRUEGER ENZ
South Dakota State University

PORTUGUESE
PIRES, ACRISIO, & JASON ROTHMAN. (Eds.).
Minimalist Inquiries into Child and Adult Language Acquisition. Case Studies across Portuguese.
New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2009. Pp. viii, 354.
$168.00, cloth. ISBN 9783110215342.
This anthology comprises 12 papers by 22 contributors from Brazil, Portugal, and the United
States. Its two parts include six studies on first language (L1) acquisition of Portuguese and a second section with another six studies on additional

language (L2, L3) acquisition of Portuguese by

adults. Four of the studies examine European
Portuguese (EP) and eight deal with Brazilian
Portuguese (BP). This volume is the first entirely
dedicated to generative analyses of L1, L2, and L3
Portuguese acquisition.
Lightfoots succinct foreword carefully delineates the wide-ranging nature of the studies (diachronic and synchronic research, child language
acquisition, adult language acquisition, experimental and corpus-driven data based). In his discussion, Lightfoot points out that in the study
of language acquisition evaluation models are
driven directly by E[xternal]-language [ = individual linguistic input data for models of I-language
construction, pp. 1112] phenomena while cuebased models take E-language as a source of
cues and are therefore more I[nternal]-language
[ = language cognition, p. 11] driven (p. 3).
In their introduction, Pires and Rothman provide an excellent overview of the issues raised
in the 12 core studies. They point out that
Portuguese is indeed a world language, a result
of Portuguese imperialism (p. 17). Its two most
studied dialects are European and Brazilian Portuguese, a fact that is reflected in this volume.
Nevertheless, it is also an official language in seven
other countries (Angola, Cape Verde, East Timor,
Guinea Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mozambique,
and Sao Tome and Principe). Furthermore, it is
spoken in Goa (India) and Macau (China), and
it ranks seventh worldwide in the total number
of speakers, with the second largest number of
native speakers of the Romance languages (after
Spanish). Moreover, in the recently released MLA
report (Enrollments in Languages Other Than
English in United States Institutions of Higher
Education, Fall 2009, 2010), Portuguese ranks
thirteenth overall with a significant enrollment
increase of 10.8% during the period 20062009.
Pires and Rothman recapitulate the two major goals of linguistic theory; namely, to explain
the properties of the underlying cognitive devices
possessed by all humans that allow them to acquire language, and to explain how people proceed from an initial state to later stages of linguistic competence (p. 5). The authors describe the
purpose of this dual quest as explaining language
cognition and explaining the path of linguistic development (p. 6, italics in original).
In their discussion of the contents of this volume, the co-editors subscribe to Chomskys Minimalist Program with its theoretical focus on
methodological minimalism and substantive, or
ontological minimalism, neither one of which
is incompatible with earlier linguistic models,

470
including the Principles and Parameters model
(p. 7). The authors of the 12 studies in this volume
use one or the other of these approaches. In terms
of methodology, production and comprehension
data are considered with either experimental or
corpus-based data. Likewise, various techniques
(elicited task production, picture selection tasks,
act-out tasks, and truth-value tasks) are employed
(p. 21).
Sicuro Correa (part 1, ch. 1) reports on the issue of bootstrapping, or how children initiate the
identification of the grammar of a given language
(p. 35). Her study examines the identification of
phi-features (gender, number, person) in the acquisition of BP. In two chapters, Costa and Lobo
(part 1, ch. 2) and Madeira and Xavier (part 2,
ch. 5) address the acquisition of clitic pronouns
in EP in L1 and L2 respectively. Another five chapters study empty category acquisition: (a) Vasconcellos Lopes (part 1, ch. 4) analyzes L1 acquisition of null objects in BP; (b) Santos (part 1,
ch. 6) studies child VP ellipsis in EP; (c) Montrul, Dias, and Thome-Williams (part 2, ch. 6) examine the acquisition of subjects in L2 BP; (d)
Cabrelli-Amaro, Iverson, and Judy (Part 2, ch. 1)
analyze nominal ellipsis in L3 BP compared to L2
steady state in BP; and (e) Iverson (part 2, ch. 3)
studies nominal ellipsis in the initial state of two
groups of L3 BP learners. Next, Fruit Bell (part
2, ch. 2) examines the syntaxdiscourse interface
in the acquisition of focus and its prosodic configuration in L2 EP by L1 Anglophones. Grolla
(part 1, chapter 3) considers the acquisition of
wh-questions in childrens BP. Kato, Cyrino, and
Reche Correa (part 2, ch. 4) examine matters related to variation and language change between
EP and BP with respect to the recovery of lost clitics. Finally, Pires and Rothman (part 1, ch. 5) seek
to determine if BP children acquire inflected infinitives in late adolescence and the implications
for syntactic theory and language change.
Pires and Rothman aptly observe that the
studies collected in this volume cover the
acquisition of a wide gamut of morphosyntactic
properties in native and non-native Portuguese
acquisition, providing valuable evidence that transcends the questions pondered by the individual
studies themselves (p. 28). To be sure, the two varieties of Portuguese studied (EP and BP) demonstrate that morphosyntactic change is rapidly occurring, and these shifts can provide additional
information for acquisition theory. As Pires and
Rothman note, the research in each chapter reveals a wide range of L1, L2, and L3 data, which
point to the assortment of issues that require further research (p. 28).

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

In his laudatory assessment of the twelve essays
in this collection, Quicolis afterword enumerates
the areas of acquisition research noted above (finite agreement, infinitive agreement, null subjects, clitics and null objects, Nominal and VP
ellipsis, focus, wh-questions, phi-features), all of
which require further theoretical knowledge in
acquisition in general, and for Portuguese, in particular. He provides excellent recommendations
for further empirical investigation.
Notes and references appear at the end of
each chapter. A list of contributors, an author
index, and a subject index appear at the end.
This volume should be on the shelves of every
major research library in the United States and
abroad.
FRANK NUESSEL
University of Louisville

RESEARCH METHODS
LICHTMAN, MARILYN. Qualitative Research in
Education: A Users Guide. 2nd ed. Los Angeles,
CA: Sage, 2010. Pp. xxi, 265. $49.95, paper. ISBN
9781412970525.
This volume provides a practical introduction
to qualitative research in education that has
been designed to accommodate the typical needs
and interests of post-baccalaureate (or advanced
undergraduate) education majors across social
science disciplines. The book consists of 14 chapters organized into three major sections that reflect a logical sequence, from Traditions and Influences (part 1), a presentation of historical
influences and traditions associated with qualitative research in education and the social sciences; to Gathering, Organizing, and Analyzing
(part 2), an overview of techniques of qualitative
data collection and organization; and Putting
It All Together (part 3), a culminating synthesis in which data analysis, interpretation, and
issues of research writing are addressed. A glossary of terms is also included. Significant revisions
and updates in the second edition include a new
chapter (ch. 4) that addresses ethical issues in
qualitative research, in addition to recommended
links to useful online resources, major publications and chat venues, as well as a Student Study
Site (www.sagepub.com/lichman2estudy), where
ancillary materials may be accessed. The essential character of the first edition remains intact,

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Reviews
however, to the extent that the author provides a
thorough yet accessible, student-friendly (in both
substance and scale) approach to a wide range of
relevant topics.
One strength is the authors explicit treatment of the qualitative versus quantitative debate, where potential advantages and pitfalls
associated with major models of research are
rigorously examined. Although her general
enthusiasm for qualitative frameworks is evident
throughout, Lichtman successfully and tactfully
integrates current challenges into her discussion;
these include critical issues such as the impact
of No Child Left Behind on qualitative research
in doctoral programs, approaches to establishing
and implementing criteria for the fair and effective evaluation of qualitative studies, and the need
to strike a balance between an acceptance of new
models for conducting research and more traditional notions of what constitutes scholarship and
rigor in academic circles.
In particular, students and instructors of research methodology in second language education will find chapter 1 (Introduction and
Overview of the Field) useful, both for the historical context it provides and for the detail with
which the qualitative versus quantitative debate is
contextualized and addressed (i.e., Table 1.1a on
p. 9 nicely summarizes key points). In addition,
the authors Ten Critical Elements of Qualitative
Research provide a useful framework for helping graduate students and novice consumers of
research to identify and evaluate key aspects of
qualitative studies.
Subsequent chapters also include information
and practical suggestions, exercises, and group
activities from which potential qualitative researchers will greatly profit. With regard to ethical issues in qualitative research, the (new to this
edition) chapter 4 contributes an ample, wellsynthesized overview of sample cases from published studies to illustrate the kinds of problems
that arise as studies are carried out in the field.
Additional vignettes are drawn from the authors
experience as a supervisor of graduate-level researchers and director of research projects.
Initiation to the form and function of fieldspecific research writing often comprises an important objective of initial coursework at the graduate level. Whereas many introductory research
texts emphasize theoretical and empirical content
to the exclusion of writing process, Lichtman incorporates all of these issues into her textbook.
With regard to the writing process, chapters 8 and
12 (The Role and Function of a Literature Review and Communicating Your Ideas, respec-

tively) draw attention to step-by-step frameworks

for conducting, organizing, and writing up primary and secondary research projects. Readers
are also guided in a process of self-editing through
a series of activities, strategies, rubrics, and checklists.
Although the sample studies she selects to illustrate key concepts (e.g., Kidder, 1989; Liebow,
1967; Sacks 1985) categorically hit their mark, an
annotated bibliography of recent published research at the end of each chapter would be a welcome addition that could significantly strengthen
the text as a source for introductory research
courses. In addition, an effort to ensure a careful
integration into the discussion of current studies
conducted in a range of educational content areas (and across levels and settings) would increase
readers perception of this texts potential pertinence to a wider range of academic programs.
Overall, Lichtmans second edition makes a
valuable contribution to the body of existing resources and literature on the topic. In applied
linguistics and second language education, in particular, major textbooks on research either tend
to emphasize quantitative empirical studies and
traditions, or to focus too exclusively on the theoretical models and debates that underlie current
trends of primary research. Especially as research
within a sociocultural framework has come into its
own over the past 15 years and as classroom-based
ethnographies and case studies increasingly compete in both number and quality with traditional,
quantitative and statistical projects in major publication venues, this superb Users Guide can provide second language specialists with a timely and
thorough grounding in key aspects of qualitative
design.
CHARLES E. GROVE
West Chester University of Pennsylvania

MERTLER, CRAIG A. Action Research: Teachers as

Researchers in the Classroom. 2nd ed. Los Angeles,
CA: Sage, 2009. Pp. xxii, 265. $44.95, paper. ISBN
9781412968577.
Research savvy is a vital tool for present-day K12
teachers. This volume serves as a training tool for
K-12 educators to engage in research to solve instructional problems, test instructional and assessment techniques, and develop and test solutions.
The text is approachable even to the novice researcher, elucidating the whys and hows of action
research through clear explanations and helpful

472
visuals that motivate readers to practice these research techniques in their classrooms.
I work primarily with undergraduate, preservice teachers in a Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) program at an
institution that is nationally recognized for its
student/faculty collaborative research. I am well
versed in teaching quantitative and qualitative
research methodology along with their complementary data-gathering and analysis techniques
in a practical and non-threatening manner. I have
long sought a textbook that would explain research methodology without verbose and complex explanations that confuse and demotivate
undergraduates.
I began reading Mertlers text with a jaded eye,
worrying that it would be typical of the breed.
I scanned the table of contents for comprehensibility, probing to determine the presence of
requisite aspects and whether it would be lopsided in the methods it presented. Of course,
the text includes chapters to introduce action research and describe the process. It includes sections on limiting the topic and conducting a literature review, which are frequently glossed over.
I became pleasantly inclined toward it because it
included common research paradigms and provided insights into practical design, data collection, and analysis. The coverage coup de grace was
that it contained chapters on sharing the findings and writing up the research, two vital areas that are not usually included in comparable
texts.
I was wowed while reading the preface by the
practical suggestions about fitting the textbook
content and the research activities into 15- or
10-week academic terms. I sensed my cold, cynical attitude melting when I read the first chapters Introduction to Educational Research discussion. The passage described a classic scenario
of a teacher trying to determine the most effective instructional strategies to help a struggling
student. In the research-based methods era, it is
essential that teachers determine effective strategies and validate them through research. Mertler
explained various approaches to solving problems and finding answers, stating research is one
way humans employ to seek answers. My undergraduate students would understand and respond
to this idea, and it would help them be betterinformed teachers.
Mertlers text continued to stir my admiration
through its clear explanations of processes with accompanying visuals and illustrative research portraits. The visuals placed throughout the text serve
as advance organizers and help clarify minute

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

differences in research processes and plans. The
text hosted a reader-friendly chapter on developing research plans, starting with hypothesis formation, discussing which research paradigms answer which questions, and then explaining basic
research design categories, like case or observational studies (qualitative) and descriptive and
correlational designs (quantitative). The chapter
concluded with a section on developing a research
plan, illustrated with three action research portraits and suggestions of websites for developing
research questions and designs.
The data collection chapter was as clearly and
approachably written as previous chapters, but it
was here that the texts organization caused mild
frustration. Because each chapter ebbs and flows
between qualitative and quantitative paradigms,
I am concerned that my learners would blend
them. Employing this text, the instructor would
need to distinguish explicitly which data collection techniques are associated with which research paradigm. This same consideration appears in the chapter on data analysis. Mertler
could have parsed the research paradigms with
the complementary data collection and analysis
techniques into separate chapters rather than discuss both in each chapter. However, this choice
could have been a practical one; learners in
a research course will have different projects
and will need to read the design, data collection, and analysis sections together while simultaneously carrying out the steps in their project
activities.
The texts data analysis portion could have been
convoluted and complex, but Mertler again makes
the analysis section reasonable and clear. His discussion of qualitative coding and inductive analysis is brief, and it could have been improved by
some elaboration. When I endeavor to describe
these concepts, I find that learners tend to look
thunderstruck. It is not until they work with their
data that they understand it. Clearly, Mertler has
experienced this problem also, because he follows
his two-page description with three pages of stepby-step examples. I worried that the texts statistical analysis section would be oblique and intimidating to students weak in math, but Mertlers
lucid explanations with stepwise examples were
far from frightening. The chapter also included
data analysis software.
The text ended with developing action plans
and writing the report. I appreciated the section
on developing an action plan and sharing the findings with various district stakeholders, as this is a
delicate matter. The chapter on writing the report dealt with all aspects from stylistics (person,

Reviews
voice, etc.) to conventions and formats. A mustread for new researchers was the short section
entitled Tentative Versus Definitive Statements.
Mertlers text even provided two models of
research reports to analyze and evaluate with
ones students.
The strengths of Action Research strongly outweigh the minor negatives. It is a solid instructional tool for any education program. The texts
minor drawbacks can be overcome in planning
and teaching by a mindful instructor. My evaluation of this text can be summarized as follows:
How and where can I include it in my courses?
KATE MASTRUSERIO REYNOLDS
University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire

PUNCH, KEITH F. Introduction to Research Methods

in Education. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2009. Pp. xiii,
380. $49.95, paper. ISBN 9781847870186.
Introduction to Research Methods in Education
overviews qualitative, quantitative, and mixedmethods approaches to understanding, conducting, and writing about general educational research with a focus on the novice researcher.
Punchs easy-to-understand explanations lay the
groundwork for novice educational scholars to
write proposals, theses, dissertations, and articles.
Punch emphasizes sound design principles within
a conceptual framework to focus research questions that guide data collection and analysis. In
addition to presenting research jargon and conceptual structures, this volume provides in-depth
analyses of shifting research paradigms, of the
roles of researchers and subjects (including ethical considerations), and of critical evaluation of
research.
The first three chapters of this 15-chapter book
introduce the reader to types of research and data,
stages in the research process, the researchers
conceptualization of the project, and ethical issues, especially in educational research involving
children. Readers are directed to professional organizations and institutions for codes of conduct.
Design and data collection are taken up in the
next two chapters. Punch demonstrates how to
focus research questions from the general to the
specific, with the research questions as frame and
focus for the project. Data collection is examined through quantitative and qualitative lenses,
including such means as gathering numeric

473
data, conducting interviews, and taking field
notes.
The review of secondary-source literature is addressed in chapter 6 and focuses on the needs
of thesis and dissertation writers. The author describes the role of empirical and theoretical literature and strategies for searching, screening, documenting, organizing, and synthesizing research
literature. Punch emphasizes evidence and locating research gaps, and he examines the genres
of published educational research while pointing
to useful resources, such as dissertation abstracts
and educational research reviews. A list of cautions assists the novice writer in making informed
choices on how much to quote or how to select
timely sources. Sample titles of reputable journals
provide useful sources for literature reviews. Almost buried at the end of this chapter is a set of
tips for writing research proposals.
The following three chapters are devoted
to qualitative research, including case studies, ethnography, and application of grounded
theory within field experience. Qualitative research is shown to be contextualized and allowing for holistic interpretations. Feminist and
postmodern research perspectives with goals of
emancipation are addressed, and sociocultural
understanding and insiders viewpoints are emphasized. Research using grounded theory is
presented as unfolding with data collection and
analysis leading to new data collection and analysis cycles. Qualitative strategies from interviewing to observing to participant observation are
detailed. Qualitative analysis is shown as diverse
and includes coding and reducing, verifying, and
displaying data. Grounded theory using open coding systems to break open the data (p. 183) is
presented as a way to manage and organize data,
with axial coding and member checking used to
pull the data back together into theoretical categories. Other analytic approaches include literary
and semiotic narrative analysis, ethnomethodological conversation analysis, and applied linguistic and rhetorical discourse analysis. Useful
computer-assisted analysis tools are described.
Quantitative research is described in the next
three chapters with a focus on quasi-experimental
and non-experimental designs. Descriptive and
inferential statistics are explained from simple
means to complex correlations, multiple linear regressions, and factor analyses in data reduction. The role of control variables in managing variance is addressed. Punch introduces
types of variables, measurement processes, and a
brief historic view of quantitative research in the

474
twentieth century. He addresses latent traits and
multiple indicators thereof. Pilot testing is emphasized in instrument design with careful consideration of sampling. In terms of analysis, Punch
presents the logic, not the mathematics, of statistical procedures while promoting Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). He provides
references useful in learning SPSS, including one
appendix devoted to explanations of the softwares features for carrying out the procedures
presented in the chapter.
Mixed-method designs are taken up in chapter 13. Uses for gathering and analyzing multiple
data points demonstrate the flexibility of this approach. Punch uses this chapter to advocate for
grounded theory in what he calls investigating
process (p. 294). He points to an international
quarterly devoted to mixed-methods research and
examines the topics and scope covered by the
journal. Chapter 14 on evaluation is divided in
two parts: (a) a reconsideration of evaluative criteria, procedures, and reliability, validity, and reactivity (how research processes change the data);
and (b) program evaluation, common in educational research, to meet stakeholder needs and
justify political decision making. Program evaluation is viewed as empirical activity, and smallscale projects are suggested as a starting place for
novice researchers.
The final chapter presents information for the
research writer on research proposals, thesis and
dissertation abstracts, and the projects themselves.
Choices the writer makes and the benefits of
combining qualitative and quantitative research
perspectives are examined. This chapter will be
especially helpful in early stages of research
writing. Other features of the book include a
useful summary and a detailed tables of contents,
a helpful glossary and index, and two appendices,
one focused on coding qualitative data and the
other on SPSS. Each chapter contains graphic
organizers, including conceptual charts, tables,
and figures; each one concludes with additional
readings and study questions, most of the reading
comprehension type. On the publishers website,
the author has posted helpful teaching notes on
each chapter.
Although I find the book useful as a textbook
in an applied linguistics research methods course,
I have three issues with the text or marketing
thereof. First, the book is marketed for both
undergraduate and postgraduate students, but it
seems best suited for postgraduate students very
early in the thesis or dissertation planning and
proposal writing stages. Second, with a focus on
general educational research, in an applied lin-

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

guistics research methods course the book would
need to be supplemented by journal articles and
other research documents to show how the general concepts presented by Punch apply to studies
of language acquisition, teaching, and use. Third,
Punch states several times the role of secondary
literature within grounded theory where the
literature coverage is deliberately delayed until
directions emerge from the early analysis of
data (p. 69). I find that researchers need to play
an active role as critical consumers of research
during all of its phases, including the early ones,
so students would need to be reminded that
literature review has a role throughout inquiry.
SARAH RILLING
Kent State University

YIN, ROBERT K. Case Study Research: Design and

Methods. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2009.
Pp. xiv, 219. $41.95, paper. ISBN 97814129
60991.
Case Study Research is a classic. Originally published in 1984, it has been through a revised
edition and three subsequent editions. The current edition retains the forward written for the
first edition by the late Donald Campbell, a
scholar well known for his work in methodology.
Campbell praises the book for attempting valid
inferences from events outside the laboratory
while at the same time retaining the goals
of knowledge shared with laboratory science
(p. vii), and he assures readers that it will become
a standard text in social science research methods
courses (p. viii). This prediction has been a reality for more than two decades.
As the debate continues regarding whether applied linguistics is a social science continues (see
Sealey & Carter, Applied Linguistics as Social Science, New York: Continuum, 2004), it is imperative
applied linguists understand what is knownat
least about their areas of interestto social scientists, including methodological matters. In the
past two decades, scholars and students in applied
linguistics have carried out increasing numbers of
case studies, a research methodology common in
social science. Yins best-selling text on the case
study method, which continues to receive positive
reviews from a wide range of readers, will help
to broaden and deepen the methodological perspectives of applied linguists using or planning to
use the method to conduct research.

475

Reviews
As in the previous editions, the text comprises
six chapters and takes the reader through the process of planning (ch. 1) and designing (ch. 2) case
studies, collecting (chs. 3, 4) and analyzing (ch. 5)
data, and reporting the studies (ch. 6). Yin shows
the iterative nature of this process graphically with
six circles, each representing one of the phases of
case study research, with arrows connecting the
circles (p. 1). The same graph appears at the beginning of each chapter, and the phase discussed
in the chapter is enclosed in a jagged star. Furthermore, the chapters main points are given in
short bulleted phrases. These points are then explained in a brief Abstract section before the
main text of the chapter begins. A Tip box is
placed at the beginning of the main text, which
serves as a knowledge check as it presents essential
questions and answers on what is covered in the
chapter.
Within the main text a number of boxes are
embedded, in which Yin cites actual case studies to illustrate the points he makes in the chapters. There are a total of 46 such boxes scattered
throughout the book, and more than 50 different
case studies are cited. These studies range from
a 1929 study on the transformation of a small
town to a 1956 study on a labor union to a 2005
study on educational reform. Exercises5 tasks
per chapterare also embedded in the main text
to help consolidate the learning of the material
in the chapters. Several graphic representations
of ideas explained in the text are used to good
effect.
Furthermore, each chapter is structured to enhance readers inquiry process. Readers first focus
on a topic by looking at the graph at the beginning of the chapter and reading a bullet-point
summary and an abstract. The boxed tip then
provides a quick self-test of prior knowledge of
the content of the chapter. As readers read the
chapter, they broaden and deepen their knowledge through the illustrative case studies in the
boxes. Finally, they assess their understanding by
doing exercises.
All of these features make the book practical, user friendly, and effective. The book is also
written in accessible language, devoid of jargon,
which I believe is possible only for those who possess a complete grasp of the subject matter. Yins
explanation of what case study research is and
how to do it rigorously is sharp, refreshing, and
erudite. The book has depth that extends far beyond the realm of how-to guides for doing case
studies. This book is the product of many years
of the authors dedicated work on conducting
case study research with rigor that will withstand

critical scrutiny by scholars of all disciplinary and

methodological leanings.
SUFUMI SO
George Mason University

SPANISH

BATCHELOR, R. E., & MIGUEL ANGEL

A Reference Grammar of Spanish. New
SAN JOSE.
York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Pp. xviii,
553. $70.00, paper. ISBN 9780521728751.
Approximately 500 million native and non-native
speakers of Spanish makes it the most spoken
language after English and Chinese. Statistically,
these numbers alone could necessitate the publication of a comprehensive grammar, aligned
to the multiple language functions among the
worlds Spanish-speaking population. Additionally, increasing enrollment in Spanish language
study in colleges and universities gives rise to the
need for a thoroughly researched reference grammar that is contemporary and detailed.
Batchelor and San Jose have written a detailed
reference grammar of Spanish, asserting that the
principal aim of the book is to be as complete
and straightforward as possible, avoiding much
technical terminology that risks clouding the understanding of the linguistic processes of Spanish
(p. xi). The book is organized into parts IX spanning topics that include: register, spelling and
punctuation (part I); articles and gender (part
II); verbs, subordinate clauses and complex verbal expressions (part III); subjunctive (part IV);
pronouns and possessive adjectives (part V); adjectives (part VI); prepositions (part VII); demonstrative adjectives, pronouns and indefinite pronouns (part VIII); conjunctions, negative sentences, measurement and comparative adjectives
(part IX); and, proper nouns, countries, foreign
and indigenous words (part X). Each part contains sections that discuss and analyze the subject
matter in detail, prefaced by a topical reading selection relevant to the topics to be discussed. For
example, the authors discuss and analyze verbs
and moods of verbs in sections 11.1, 11.2, 11.3,
and so forth in part III.
The end matter of the book consists of two appendices and a link to the publishers website,
where readers can access 11 short chapters on
prefixes, emphatic and affectionate expressions,
epistolary usage, abbreviations, forms of address,

476
exclamations, fillers, transition words, uses of s
and ya, and false cognates.
The thematic organization of the grammar
serves the content and scope well. Relevant examples, reflecting the multiple varieties of spoken Spanish, are realistic, not contrived. True to
the authors assertion about the principal aim of
the book, technical terminology is minimal, allowing for a clear and succinct explanation of
grammar concepts. A preliminary examination of
the books contents may lead readers to conclude
that the topical organization is somewhat loose.
However, closer examination of the sequencing of
topics allows the reader to correlate and integrate
multiple language functions within and across the
ten parts.
Of particular interest are the discussions in
part X about foreign and indigenous words as
reflection of an ever-growing awareness about
the linguistic origins of Spanish and significant relationships (Latinisms, Arabic terms,
Anglicisms, Gallicisms, Italianisms, Palenquero,
Nahuatl, Basque, Catalan) among words, culture,
and lexicon. Notably, and reflecting contemporary language use, the authors present a section
in part II about the language of texting, complete
with examples and translated transcriptions. Similarly, part IX contains a well-organized and detailed section on diminutives and augmentations,
topics that often are embedded and minimally discussed with adjectives. The authors analyze these
topics admirably, albeit cautiously, calling attention to the pejorative tone that may accompany
the use of diminutives and augmentations. Section 66 (part VII) includes well-explained and useful analysis of the prepositions por and para.
Although the authors have presented their topics thematically, it is worthwhile to question the
rationales for some of the groupings. Part I covers
the use of register, spanning extreme informality
to extreme formality, but lacks focus on language
functions within register. For example, it would
have been appropriate to include such sociolinguistic concepts as making requests, expressing
doubt, expressing regrets and apologies, taking
leave, and greetings. Similar observations could
be made about expressions used in personal or
business letters, memos, or other forms of written
communication. The authors do include links to
relevant web sources, but it would be preferable
to incorporate these often-used forms of communication in the main text. Additionally, parts III
and IV, sequentially themed topics about verbs
and moods, appear somewhat out of balance in
content. Part III covers more than 54 topics about
verbs, simple and compound tenses, clauses, reg-

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

ular and irregular conjugations, and other temporal related topics, all of which focus on the use
of the Spanish indicative. Part IV contains only
one section about the Spanish subjunctive, delineated into several subsections that analyze form
and use. Given that both indicative and subjunctive provide a thorough grounding for speakers,
writers, and readers, perhaps elements of parts III
and IV could have been combined or analyzed
comparatively for readers.
In summation, A Reference Grammar of
Spanish joins the ranks as a well-developed and
well-written scholarly reference for researchers,
faculty, and Spanish language students around
the world. Given the spoken and written varieties
among the worlds Spanish speakers, a grammar
book should not be prescriptive or impose one
language variety over another. The role of a comprehensive grammar should be to assess and to
analyze what is spoken among constituents, not
to gauge against a stand-alone variant. Batchelor
and San Jose accomplish their goal well.
DONNA M. WILSON
University of Maryland University College

TESTING
KNOCH, UTE. Diagnostic Writing Assessment: The
Development and Validation of a Rating Scale. Berlin:
Peter Lang, 2009. Pp. 320. $80.95, cloth. ISBN
9783631589816.
What if the results from a writing assessment were
not just a simple proficiency score on the usual set
of holistic band levels featured in most language
or literacy tests, but rather an informative, diagnostic description of a persons ability to write,
pointing out specific areas of strength and weakness and including personalized, recommended
steps for improvement that could guide test takers in their development as well as teachers or
tutors preparation of teaching materials? What
if such a writing assessment were grounded in
empirical evidence about a full range of characteristics of written texts as well as current theories about discourse and language acquisition,
validated through a systematic series of research
studies, and demonstrated to be practical for experienced assessors to administer? What if the
originator of this writing assessment were to produce a book that documents the development of

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Reviews
the assessment supplemented by analyses of current issues in writing assessment and recommending helpful steps for future inquiry?
Knoch has addressed all of these matters in
the book reviewed here. Although not all of her
aims were achieved, it is well worth knowing how
Knoch approached them, particularly for practicing assessors aiming to develop or refine writing assessments for language or literacy programs,
but also more generally for scholars, graduate students, administrators, or other educators wanting
to make the information from formal tests useful
for learning as well as teaching.
Elaborating on her 2007 Ph.D. thesis from the
University of Auckland about the Diagnostic English Language Needs Assessment (DELNA) and
extending her research to her current work at the
University of Melbourne, Knoch makes a solid
contribution to current knowledge, as well as
several distinct advances in assessment practices.
The research project that forms the substance
of the book is a series of investigations addressing the assessment of writing in educational contexts. Knoch first conducted a thorough review of
relevant publications in search of appropriate indicators of discourse to serve as criteria for the assessment instrument. The updated reviews of theories, practices, and other inquiry about writing
assessment that appear in the opening chapters
of the book are insightful and balanced. Second,
she analyzed a corpus of written scripts to prepare
a new rating scale and to judge the suitability and
feasibility of these indicators. Here, Knochs empirical findings supersede other research of this
kind and point toward numerous robust indicators of writing ability in English. Finally, she applied a refined set of scale descriptors to field-test
the instrument and to inquire into raters uses
and perceptions of it. She handles each phase expertly, makes use of a variety of discourse analytic
and statistical methods, and produces empirical
substantiation of the new rating scale.
Of notable interest are four themes that guided
but also result from Knochs analyses. These represent both exciting prospects and challenges for
assessment practices. The first theme concerns
moving writing assessment from the normative
basis of demarcating proficiency levels to providing more pedagogically useful diagnostic information. Although this was Knochs principal aim in
this project, when it came to asking experienced
assessors to apply and evaluate the refined assessment criteria, the assessors found it difficult to
shift from a perspective of evaluating proficiency
to a perspective of making pedagogically relevant
diagnoses. The second theme concerns the multi-

faceted and variable nature of writing ability, particularly in second languages. Knoch casts her net
wide in considering the many aspects that distinguish more or less effective written texts, including constructs of accuracy, fluency, complexity,
mechanics, coherence, cohesion, reader/writer
interaction, and content. The measures that she
validates empirically for each of these constructs
on the DELNA will be particularly useful for future research and other assessments. She is also
careful to acknowledge how these measures can
be expected to vary by task, context, and learner
population. A third, related theme concerns selecting and using concrete indicators for assessment purposes. For instance, Knoch found that
errors in spelling and punctuation bore no relation to writing proficiency, but effectiveness of
paragraphing and uses of hedging phrases did,
at least for the tasks and subject populations she
studied. At a different level, assessors found it both
useful and problematic to reference the range
of students written vocabulary in relation to the
Academic Word List. The fourth theme involves
framing the validation of an assessment as an ongoing process phrased in the form of a hypothetical argument based and evaluated on specific
claims and evidence, which Knoch has wisely done
to conclude the book.
Despite the value of this book, one minor fault
irritated me that must be blamed on the publisher
rather than author: Nearly every page has an inappropriately hyphenated word, seemingly arising from the correction then justification of line
breaks in the original proofs. For example, procedure, inter-national, and then or-ganization
all appear on page 11. Surely someone at
Peter Lang must know how to handle and correct final copy or be able to use a word-processing
program that does.
ALISTER CUMMING
University of Toronto

MILTON, JAMES. Measuring Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 2009. Pp. vii, 278. $43.96, paper.
ISBN 9781847692078.
Measuring Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition
may be one of the most definitive works to date
on measuring second language vocabulary learning. In the introduction to the book, Milton
explains that his purpose in writing is threefold: to

478
explain how useful measurements of vocabulary
knowledge can be made; to explain the various
tests that have been used to measure vocabulary
knowledge; and to use this information to confirm or challenge current models of language acquisition. In addition to these objectives, the book
offers an extensive and thorough review of published research on vocabulary learning and the
ways in which it has been measured.
In relation to the first objective, Milton presents
different definitions of what counts as a word, including lemmas (the various inflections of a word,
such as plurals of nouns, conjugations of verbs, or
comparative forms of adjectives) and word families (all the related forms of a word in their various
parts of speech). He then reviews various studies
on how many words a learner must know to comprehend spoken and written texts. Next, Milton
discusses research on the factors that contribute
to the relative ease or difficulty of learning a word,
including the frequency with which it occurs, its
length and complexity, and its similarity to an
equivalent in learners first language. Although
the emphasis is mainly on the learning of English as a second language (given that much of
the existing research has been done in that area),
Milton mentions research on vocabulary learning
in foreign languages as well.
In relation to the second objective, Milton discusses measurements of vocabulary depth and
breadth, with attention to both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Subtopics in this
section of the book include phonological vocabulary breadth, lexical diversity and sophistication,
and the relationship between vocabulary size and
the four language skills. Again, Milton offers a
thorough review of research in these areas, accompanied by multiple tables and graphs summarizing the findings. Also included are occasional
sample items illustrating various vocabulary test
formats, although readers who are looking for
lengthy excerpts from vocabulary tests may be disappointed, as the main emphasis seems to be on
providing general descriptions of these tests and
the findings they produce.
One significant contribution of the book is its
examination of the popular belief that few words
are retained from those which are learned or
taught by direct instruction (p. 205). Milton
cites studies suggesting that nothing could be
further from the truth (p. 205), demonstrating
that learners do in fact learn a high percentage of
the words explicitly taught in language courses.

The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

The book also examines research on incidental
vocabulary learning, and concludes that although
learners may get very little from unfocused and
undirected work of this kind (p. 218), they can
learn large numbers of words through informal,
out-of-class activities, provided that those activities
are well structured and focused.
The final chapter of the book discusses implications for language learning and teaching.
Milton raises several interesting points, including
the fact that contemporary textbooks tend to include short, authentic spoken exchanges rather
than lengthy texts, which limits learners exposure
to the large quantities of lexical items needed to
achieve fluency, and the failure of most research
to account for individual variations in vocabulary
learning. The book concludes with several recommendations for the practice of teaching vocabulary, which include a repeated emphasis on the importance of exposure to a large volume of words
and the role of explicit vocabulary study. The
chapter is surprisingly shortonly 14 pagesand
reads somewhat like a list of recommendations for
further research. However, this approach may be
due to the authors desire to call attention to what
is not yet known about the vocabulary learning
process.
Other useful features of the book include an
appendix containing examples of XLex vocabulary tests in English, French, and Greek, as well
as a 13-page reference list of published works on
vocabulary learning.
The writing style is accessible and easy to read.
There are summaries of each chapters content
at the beginning of the chapter, as well as summaries of major points in text boxes under the
heading Rule of Thumb. One such rule, for example, states, that the most frequent 2000 words
in English are likely to be the most useful to a
learner and knowing these words will enable the
learner to recognize about 80% of any normal
text (p. 47). These summaries are helpful to the
reader in locating and recalling the information
presented.
Overall, Milton presents a thorough and authoritative review of theory and research on measuring second language vocabulary learning. In
the opinion of this reviewer, the book is a mustread for anyone interested in the topic.
BLAIR BATEMAN
Brigham Young University