ARTICLE IN PRESS

Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Modelling and dynamic simulation of processes with MATLAB.

An application of a natural gas installation in a power plant
J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamantea, J.M. Salaa, L.M. Lopez-Gonzalezb,, J.L. M guezc, I. Floresa
a

Escuela Superior de Ingenieros Industriales de Bilbao, Universidad del Pas Vasco, Alameda de Urquijo, s/n 48013 Bilbao (Bizkaia), Spain
b
Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingeniera Industrial, Universidad de La Rioja, C/ Luis de Ulloa, 20. E 26004 Logrono (La Rioja), Spain
c
Universidad de Vigo, Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales, C/Lagoas-Marcosende, s/n 36200 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
Received 5 August 2004

Abstract
In this paper, it is proposed to incorporate the analysis of the dynamic performance of the process into the design and engineering
stage of projects as a means of analysing and resolving this type of problem. The following contributions are made with this objective in
mind:
(a) The barriers in the way of dynamic analysis are identied.
(b) Software tools which make dynamic analysis accessible during the design and engineering phase of the project are proposed.
To achieve this goal, modelling and mathematical simulation are used, with the following features:
 strict modelling of mass, momentum and energy conservation equations as well as state equations, and
 utilisation of the Matlab-Simulink package as the base-software tool.
(c) The procedure and tool proposed for dynamic analysis during the design phase should enable these studies to be carried out at a
reasonable cost and time for regular industrial projects, and not just for large research projects or nuclear power plants.

To complete this paper, we apply our method to a natural gas installation in a power plant. The model is applied to study the
transients of a natural gas supply line to a steam-electric power plant. The results of the model have been validated with the actual data
on the boiler trip obtained from the distributed control system of a steam-electric power plant.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Preliminary information
Installations where uids are processed sometimes suffer
from operational problems that are a consequence of the
dynamic performance of the process itself. Examples
include interaction between regulation valves placed
consecutively in the same piping, mutually coupled
regulation loops, equipment trips that cause trips in other
equipment because of a transient, incorrect transference
between main equipment and backup equipment, poorly
adjusted regulators, etc.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 941 299 536; fax: +34 941 299 478.

E-mail address: luis-maria.lopez@dim.unirioja.es

(L.M. Lopez-Gonzalez).
0360-5442/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.06.018

The functional characteristics of the equipment, valves

and control elements contribute to this performance, above
all, the basic cause is the submission of the uid to the laws
of conservation of mass, momentum and energy.
In general, the dynamic performance of a process is not
studied at the installation design and engineering phase.
This need has only been recognised and included in the
planning of important experimental or innovative projects
and in nuclear power plants. It is also true that the eld of
nuclear energy pioneered the use of dynamic analysis to
verify the capability of plants to withstand exceptional
situations and accidents. But dynamic analysis is costly in
terms of price and time and has not been incorporated into
normal design practices for industrial processes in the
above-mentioned areas.

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1272

Nomenclature
a
A
E
f e
FR
GM
H
I
I
L
m
Mfm
M
p
pt
qH
Q
Q_
r
ri
re
S
v
vt
va
wturb
_t
W

speed of sound, m/s

cross section of a control volume, m2
total energy per unit of mass E e v2 =2, J/kg
outer forces per unit of mass, N/kg
friction force, N
mass ow GM r v A, kg/s
total enthalpy per unit of mass H h v2 =2
e p=r v2 =2 E p=r, J/kg
turbine inertia
unit tensor
length of control volume, m
mass of control volume m rO, kg
friction momentum in turbine owmeter, N m
momentum, N m
thermodynamic pressure, Pa
thermodynamic pressure plus uid weight, Pa
outer heat source per volume unit, J/m3
actual volume ow, m3/s
heat transferred to the control volume, J/s
mean-square root of turbine inner and outer
radii, m
turbine inner radii, m
turbine outer radii, m
surface containing a control volume, m2
uid speed, m/s
tangential uid speed, m/s
axial uid speed, m/s
turbine angular speed, rad/s
technical power provided by the control
volume, J/s

Introducing dynamic performance at the design stage

means specifying and complying with requirements during
operational transients. This is closely related to the analysis
of the regulation and control systems to be implemented
and, therefore, implies the participation of control engineers in the design phase.
In actual fact, control design engineers are now asking to
be included at the basic design stage of the project [1]. The
ability to model and simulate process systems means that
computer experiments can be carried out which eliminate risks and reduce commissioning costs. It also enables
tests to be run that are physically impossible to perform
on the actual installation.
Simulation is closely linked to modelling, and logically
depends on the ability to draw up process models. In this
sense there is a signicant need for tools that back up the
modelling. In order to model a process, a sound knowledge
of control and of the application considered is required [2].
And this is where a fundamental difculty in efforts to
achieve an interdisciplinary system appears. In general,
there is a lack of understanding among process engineers
and control engineers as to the way in which the

r
Dx
Dt
O

density, kg/m3
space increment, m
time increment, s
arbitrary control volume O A L, m3

Suffixes
In
Out
CV

input
output
control volume

Mathematical symbols
d/dt
dO
ds
()
[]
{}

total derivative of time

volume differential element
differential surface vector (pointing towards the
outside of the closed surface)
scalar magnitude (order 0)
vector magnitude (order 1)
tensor magnitude (order 2)

Multiplication signs
Either no symbol or .
S : summation of the order
of the factors

S1 : summation of the order of the factors less
1

S2 : summation of the order of the factors less
2
:
S4 : summation of the order of the factors less
4

mathematical models of the systems they study should be

made up [3].
During the design, doubts arise regarding the performance of the system in case of transients. These doubts are
not resolved due to the unavailability of calculation tools
to model and simulate the dynamic performance within a
reasonable time and cost. Under these circumstances,
designs are established according to the permanent rating
criteria and with the expectation that the margins will be
sufcient. It is therefore possible that better solutions have
been abandoned or errors committed which will show up in
commissioning.
The objective is therefore to create a work environment
in which process engineers can model their systems
according to their usual variables and in which control
engineers can design, analyse and test regulation algorithms for the system.
The aim of the study presented herein is twofold:

To present a dynamic model that responds strictly to the

laws of conservation of mass, linear momentum and
energy, and to equations of state. This model can be

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J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

outlined during the design of installations by process

engineers.
On the other hand, these models are developed in a
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. This software has
been selected to take advantage of its capabilities for
algorithm control design already built-up in specialised
toolboxes and blocksets and ready for use by control
engineers.

The achievement of this twofold aim is the basic

contribution of this paper. As far as the authors are aware
no model such as the one presented in this paper has been
reported in a MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The
availability of a software environment at low cost that
covers interdisciplinary requirements clearly improves design activities.
2. Model denition and simulation environment
2.1. Model requirements
In general, there are two reasons that justify carrying out
dynamic analysis:




The design of regulation and control systems.

Predicting the performance of systems during transients,
including accidents.

With this purpose in mind, the drawing up of

models which comply with the following specications is
justied:
(a) The software must be designed to simulate the dynamic
behaviour of process systems, i.e. complete installations
consisting of equipment, piping and regulation and
control systems.
(b) The objective is to use the software at the design stage
of the system. It must therefore be useful as a tool for
dening topologies, pipe and duct diameters, equipment capacities, actuator speeds, control algorithms,
etc., in other words all the parameters that inuence
transients in any way whatsoever.
(c) The model must be based on:
 mass, momentum and energy conservation principles,
 state equations.
This approach allows us to develop general models
which can be adapted to particular cases through the
use of characteristic parameters.
This approach contrasts with experimental models in which it is necessary to take measures of
input-output variables at the actual installation to
establish the mathematical model. Consequently,
this type of model cannot really be used at the design
phase of the installation.
The aim is to model fast transients (time scale:
0.00110 s). Fast transients can be caused either

1273

by an equipment trip or as a result of quick

manoeuvres.
The assumption of one-dimensional ow is sufciently valid to model process systems in which mass
ows sequentially through equipment undergoing a
continuous process. Three-dimensional models
(CFD) are essentially used for designing specic
devices or units of equipment.
The mathematical formulation of the laws of
conservation are presented in Appendix A of this
paper. The integration process is also included as
Appendix B. These annexes contain the basic
mathematical model to be used in all process
elements.
(d) The model must have a modular structure, i.e. each
element of the system must be represented by a
different module of the programme. The programme
must be able to aggregate modules to create a new
module in a higher hierarchical structure.
(e) The software and its environment must form an
open platform for the user so that he will be able
to modify and adapt it according to the variable
requirements of the nal user. This is a major
requirement because nal users will most probably
want to implement a characteristic of their own.
(f) The software environment must truly incorporate
capabilities to analyse and design the regulation
and control system, so that both process and
control engineers can work with the same software
package.
Control is one of the weak points in the software devoted
to thermal and uid devices [4,5]. This is true to such an
extent that there are usually no true controller models
available in these simulators.
There is software dedicated to dynamic analysis on the
market but it is not considered to respond satisfactorily to
all these requirements: in particular it is usually lacking in
requirements (e) and (f) listed above. This is a eld which
requires further development before it can reach the
objective of application in common industrial practise.
This is precisely the initial motivation of the work
presented in this paper.
2.2. Software selection
The software selected to simulate the dynamic performance of systems is a key feature if the aims set out in this
paper are to be achieved.
MATLAB/SIMULINK [6], a general-purpose software
package for dynamic systems, has been selected to carry
out the task of modelling, for the following reasons:
MATLAB is well-known among the control community. It offers excellent performance qualities for
designing regulation algorithms. This makes it the best
candidate for accomplishing the objective of fostering

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J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

interdisciplinary integration if thermohydraulic models

can be implemented.
SIMULINK is capable of achieving models that comply
with the above-mentioned model requirements through the
innovative use of S-functions.
MATLAB toolboxes and SIMULINK blocksets
(e.g. the Nonlinear Control Design blockset) can be used
together with the process modules to design control and
instrumentation algorithms. This fulls requirement f).
An original contribution of this work is to incorporate a
model based on strict conservation principlesmass, linear
momentum, angular momentum and total energyas
reported in Appendix A and B, within a MATLAB/
SIMULINK environment, so that the complete library of
control design capabilities of this environment can be used
together with these process modules to reinforce the design
stage of a process.

common steady-state design criteria, a design and dimension assessment of the installation must be carried out.
Next, the general layout of the installation must be
established.
At this point the base-design is ready to undergo an
analysis of its dynamic performance. The system is
modelled and its behaviour simulated in a graphic
environment. The modelling of a system consists of two
stages:

First, the system is physically congured in a fully

graphic manner, by taking modules (icons) from the
libraries, selecting them and dragging them over the
computer screen to form a new model. These modules
will be interconnected in suitable order to represent a
particular process.
Second, when each icon is clicked, a window opens and
the user is asked for specic information pertaining to
that equipment.

3. Procedure of dynamic analysis at the design stage

A process library can be developed following the scheme
set out. Process modules are available for modelling
installation performance through mass, momentum and
energy conservation laws as well as state equations. In
particular, piping, turbine owmeter, control and isolation
valve and regulator modules have been developed, and it is
possible to build other models of process equipment as
required.
From a practical viewpoint, a working method that
incorporates dynamic analysis at the design stage would
follow this sequence: rst of all, in accordance with

Once the installation has been modelled, simulations can

be performed.
We propose an approach to the problem based on the
denition of the so-called problem cases. Each problem
case refers to operational conditions which seem to be
critical for the installation in the sense that they tend to
produce either unacceptable or undesirable transients. For
these cases a required performance must be specied so
that the designer has clear criteria to determine what
constitutes acceptable behaviour of the system.
Simulation can be stopped or paused at any time, so it is
possible to change different parameters in order to analyse

Fig. 1. Process variables (pressure, temperature, speed, density, mass ow and mach number) through a pipe section.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

their inuence on the nal result. The results of the

simulation can be viewed as the process takes place. All
process variables are available at all times at any point in
the system. As an example, Fig. 1 presents a screen showing
different process variables such as pressure, temperature,
speed, density, volume ow and the Mach number
corresponding to the entire length of pipe section at any
given time.
From the model and the problem cases to be analysed,
the use of MATLAB/SIMULINK toolboxes of the design
of control systems is incorporated, allowing us to nd
solutions for the control algorithms on an efcient and
economical basis.
The procedure set out allows for the incorporation of
any other new element we may need to describe a system,
e.g. other equipment, valves, regulators, and so on. It is
also feasible to modify an existing element to include new
characteristics. All of the above makes the software
environment open and exible, ready to adapt to any
new requirement.

1275

4.2. Basic description of a natural gas line

An installation to supply natural gas from the supply
company consists of the following parts (Fig. 2):




Reception installation.
Consumption device.

The reception installation consists of: inner connection,

regulation and metre station (RMS), distribution line
and pressure regulation unit. The inner connection and
distribution line basically consist of piping, ttings
and instrumentation. The RMS has three jobs: to lter
the gas, regulate the pressure of the gas to be distributed
within the plant and measure gas consumption for
customer invoicing. The pressure regulation unit adjusts
the pressure to the level required by the consumption
device. The consumption device consists of the ow
regulation valve and the burners themselves.
4.3. Justification of problem cases

4. Application to a natural gas installation in a power plant

4.1. Introducing a case study
Power plants run on natural gas in conventional Rankine
cycles or through new combined cycles are currently being
heavily promoted. In all cases, natural gas is supplied
through a natural gas installation from the supply network
to the burners of the consumption device. In this context it is
advisable to perform a dynamic study of the natural gas
installation for the following general purposes:

During the design stage, regulation problems may be

expected as a result of the three control valves being placed
consecutively in the same pipe section (pressure valve at the
RMS, pressure valve of the regulation unit and ow valve
of the consumption device).
During the commissioning phase, control valve algorithm parameters (gain, integral time, etc.) are tuned to
render the plant operational. Nevertheless, some problems
still remain, e.g. the following:






prediction of system performance during transients,

control and regulation system design and
fullment of the dynamic requirements set out in
national regulations and international standards.

The dynamic requirements for these installations are

specied in Spanish national UNE Standard 60-620-88 and
in criteria established by the gas supply company. One
well-known international standard which can be applied is
Standard NFPA-85-C.
The requirements of these regulations and standards do
not always refer to a specic operational condition
occurring in the consumption device, such as trips, startup, sudden load increases or decreases, etc., and normally
are not quantied requirements, so a more detailed
denition is required if they are to have any practical
application during the design of an installation.
Obviously dynamic effects causing transients are undesirable. This means that essential design criteria should
aim to minimise these effects in order to achieve suitable
performance in start-up, stopping and normal operations.
The theoretical considerations mentioned in the rst part
of this paper are applied to the analysis of a natural gas line
in a conventional power plant.

After a two-burner trip (this conventional boiler has 16

burners) due to ame detection failure, the power plant
reduces its load and the nominal load is not recovered
quickly enough.
Load following, which was presumed to be quick and
easy with natural gas, turns out to be unsatisfactory and
becomes slower than stated in the specications.

Because of this operational problem, the following

problem cases are simulated:




Two-burner trip at nominal load.

Load following.

These cases are useful for analysing regulator performance. Other problem cases are useful for analysing the
inuence of the regulation unit layout, the shutoff valve
closing speeds and the performance of the turbine-type
RMS owmeter. Due to space limitations, only the cases
mentioned are expanded upon in this paper.
A natural gas installation for a power plant appears in
Fig. 2 and the model developed is shown in Fig. 3.
It is important to emphasise that MATLAB/SIMULINK tools to design regulation and control systems are
available for use in conjunction with the new process

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J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

Fig. 2. Natural gas reception installation and consumption device.

Fig. 3. Natural gas installation model.

modules. The objective in the following two cases is to

determine the proper tuning of the regulators with the
model developed and the MATLAB/SIMULINK NCD
blockset design tool.
4.4. Case a: two-burner trip
Fig. 4 shows the unacceptable behaviour of the original
regulators (b, blue line) under the two-burner trip

condition. The load does not recover quickly enough after

the trip because of poor tuning of the pressure regulator at
the pressure regulation unit and of the ow regulator at the
consumption device.
We are looking for a regulator that meets the following
specication within the time domain: when a twoburner trip occurs mass ow will always remain above
95% of the load and recovers 100% load within 10 s of
the trip.

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J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

1277

Fig. 4. Two-burner trip.

The model plus the NCD tool provide the result shown
in Table 1. Fig. 4 also shows how performance clearly
improves with the new tuning (r, red line), with the ow
regulator improving substantially.

Table 1
Regulator parameters of the natural gas installation
Pressure
regulation
Regulation unit

Mass ow
regulation
Consumption
device

Original parameters

PB 190
iT 60 s
dT 0 s

PB 275
iT 35 s
dT 0 s

Parameters according to model

+NCD for Case A: two-burner trip

PB 115

PB 77

iT 53 s
dT 0 s

iT 14 s
dT 0 s

PB 103

PB 77

iT 10 s
dT 0 s

iT 14 s
dT 0 s

4.5. Case b: load following

Fig. 5 shows the unacceptable behaviour of the original
regulators (b, blue line) ion the load following case (actual
load does not follow the setpoint). Even the tuning
obtained under the two-burner trip condition does not
show a good response (r, red line).
We are looking for a regulator that meets the following
specication within the time domain: when the load
setpoint goes from 55% to 100% in 10 s, the actual mass
ow follows the setpoint, resulting in 100% load within
30 s.
The model plus the NCD tool provide the result shown
in Table 1. As shown in Fig. 5, behaviour improves under
the parameters found specically for load following
(g, green line). This design includes a faster pressure
regulator, offering better error integration capacity so that
downstream pressure can be maintained more easily, which
clearly improves supply to the consumption device.

Parameters according to
model+NCD for Case B: load
following

PB: proportional band; iT: integral time; dT: derivative time.

Numerous cases have been analysed, both in pipes of

constant and varying sections. As an example, for pipes of
a constant section, the conclusions obtained are as follows:

For Mach o0.8 (subsonic ow), the error is lower than

1% (normally 0.5%).
For Mach 40.8 the error increases to 5%.

5. Validation of the models

The methods used for validation of the models are

described briey below.
The pipe model is validated by comparing the results
obtained using UFLOW1D software [7]. This software is
designed to calculate compressible ow in pipes of variable
sections, and it has been adopted as a validation tool for
our models in view of the excellent results obtained.

Considering that in industrial processes the speed is

normally less than Mach 0.3, the model is considered to be
validated for the experimental framework of application.
With regard to the turbine owmeter, since we have
no data in the dynamic regimen the model has been
validated in reference to the stationary regimen. It has
been compared with the real calibration curve, obtained

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J.A. Gonzalez-Bustamante et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12711282

Fig. 5. Load following.




The calculated and actual pressures are closely matched

throughout the 10 s of the transient state.
The nal calculated and actual overpressures along the
gas line match.

TURBINE FLOWMETER. CALIBRATION LINES

G-10.000/DN500
0.5
a
m
% ERROR (MEAS.REAL/REAL)

with a type G10,000 metre of size DN500, with the

mathematical model (See Fig. 6). As can be appreciated,
the error between the real curve and that of the model is
minimal.
Lastly, the complete gas line model has been validated by
comparing the actual data from the power station SCADA
with those of the model when the boiler trips (see Fig. 7).
The straight lines in the gure are pressures taken by the
distributed control outlets, which sample every 2 s. The
curved lines are the simulation outlets for the same
pressures.
With these data it can be proven that:

0
0%

20 %

40 %

60 %

80 %

100 %

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Following this acceptable comparison between actual

and calculated values, the set of the model for the
experimental framework of application is considered valid.
6. Conclusions

% VOLUMETRIC FLOW Q(m3/s)

(m) Model curve adjusted with calibration coefficient
(a) Actual curve

Fig. 6. Turbine owmeter calibration lines.

The following conclusions have been reached:

1. We commence from the fact that process installations
suffer from problems deriving from the dynamic
performance of the process. It is not usual practise to
consider the dynamic study of the installation during the
design and engineering phase of the project as a means
of reducing these problems. The incorporation of such a
dynamic analysis requires the joint efforts of process
and control engineers in these initial design phases.
2. The fact that the software tools of both disciplines are
not integrated in the same work environment (during

the design phase of the installation) so that a control

algorithm design process and tools are available is
identied as a signicant barrier.
3. Models based on the strict fullment of conservation
lawsmass, linear momentum, angular momentum and
energyhave been developed and implemented in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment (and its toolboxes
and blocksets). Thus, a real integrated design platform is
provided covering process and control techniques.
4. The model developed has been applied to the analysis of
transients in a natural gas line which supplies a boiler at

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1279

Fig. 7. Complete gas installation validation.

a steam-electric power plant. The following transients

have been specically analysed:
 two-burner tripping of the boiler;
 load following of the plant.
5. The models of the different components have been
duly validated. The pipe section model has been
validated by comparing the results obtained with those
of duly contrasted pipe software, and the results of the
gas metre model have been compared with the calibration curves provided by the manufacturer. Finally, the
results of the overall model have been compared with
the actual tripping data of a boiler at7 a steam-electric
power plant, obtained from its distributed control
system.
6. As a nal comment, we should indicate that the
proposed solution permits us to carry out a
dynamic analysis of process systems and to design
regulation and control systems at a reasonable cost for
industrial projects, thus extending the use of dynamic
analysis.

Appendix A. Integral formulation of conservation laws

This section establishes the mathematical model used to
describe uid performance in process equipment. Applicability range and restrictions for this model are






Continuous medium.
One-component ow and therefore no chemical reactions.
No generation of heat inside the uid.
One-phase ow.

Laminar ow. Mathematical techniques developed for

turbulent ow are not used; nevertheless, the use of
mean values in laminar ow models turns out to be quite
satisfactory in practise [8].

Furthermore, the following nal simplications are

considered due to the application to a compressible uid
such as natural gas in a natural gas installation:





Fixed control volume.

Viscous forces are considered negligible at input and
output sections (Poiseuille ow) [9].
Compressible ow, so that uid weight is not taken into
account.

The equations developed are included without showing

intermediate developments.
Let us consider a control volume O, as in Fig. 8
arbitrarily bound by a closed surface S. Starting from
the general conservation equations and considering the
above-mentioned scope of application and restrictions,
we have:
Mass conservation
Z
Z
d
r dO
r v dS 0.
(1)
dt O
Sin;out
Linear momentum conservation
Z
Z
n
o
d
r v dO
r v v pt I dS
dt O
Sin;out
Z
pt I dS F R 0.

SSin;out

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1280

Fig. 8. Control volume and magnitudes of conservation principles.

Fig. 9. Control volume for spatial discretisation of conservation laws.

Angular momentum conservation

Z
Z


d
r  r v dO
r  r vv dS
dt O
Sin;out
Z
Z
n
o


r  p I dS M
r  r f e dO.

Sin;out

Total energy conservation

Z
Z


d
r H v dS Q  W t .
r E dO
dt O
Sin;out

(4)

Appendix B. Integration and discretisation method

To solve the conservation equations system the control
volume method [10] is used. According to this method,
equations are rst of all discretised in the space variable to
obtain ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with time
derivatives and afterwards the equations are integrated in
the time domain.
B.1. Discretisation method
This section shows how the original equations are
discretised in control volumes. The following simplifying
hypotheses are used:




one-dimensional ow but with variable uid cross

section, known as pseudo one-dimensional ow;
uid cross section is variable but rigid, that is to say, it
does not vary in time.

Considering a generic control volume with input and

output sections as shown in Fig. 9, space distributed
variables are transformed into mean variables inside
the generic control volume (lumped parameters), which
are identied with the centre of the control volume. Inputs
and outputs are those parts of the control volume-

bounding surface which allows mass ow through the

boundary.
From the equation of mass conservation (Eq. (1)), the
discretisation over the control volume allows us to obtain
in a few steps
d
m GM in  GM out .
dt

(5)

Likewise, from the equation of lineal momentum

conservation (Eq. (2)), we have
d
1
GM p Ain  p Aout r v jvj Ain
dt
L
 r v jvj Aout pmean DA  F R .
6
R
The surface integral SSin;out pt I dS 0 of the equation
(Eq. (2)) has been evaluated, which is the force exerted over
the uid through pressure due to an increase or decrease of
the jet through the use of average pressure due to an
increase in the jet cross-section. This term arises to
maintain the possibility of a variable cross-section in the
uid ow.
From the equation of angular momentum conservation
(Eq. (3)), also made discrete over a control volume
containing a turbomachine (see Fig. 10) [8] we have
d
r r vt O r vt GMin  r vt GMout  M.
dt

(7)

The speed of the turbomachine is considered to depend

on the average condition of the ow which exists in the
radius situated in the average square root of the inside and
outside radii [1112].
In the application of the pseudo one-dimensional
model of this conservation equation, the turning of a
turbomachine and the existence of axial components v a
(one-dimensional) and tangential v t (pseudo one-dimensional) components of the speed of the uid should be
considered.

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1281

Fig. 10. Piping divided into control volumes.

From the equation of total energy conservation (Eq. (4)),

made discrete over the control volume, we obtain
d
_ t.
m E GM Hin  GM Hout Q_  W
dt

(8)

B.2. Integration method

From these ODEs, the corresponding numerical integration is carried out by using the explicit fourth-order
RungeKutta method. The staggered nite volumes
method is used to implement the integration. Under this
method [13], we have to make calculations concerning
lineal momentum in staggered control volumes with those
used to carry out mass and energy calculations; therefore,
we force conservation and avoid the problem of numerical
oscillations.
Equations related to mass and energy conservation are
solved over the main control volumes and the equation of
linear momentum conservation is solved over the secondary control volumes as per Fig. 9. The detailed equations
become:
From the equation of mass conservation (Eq. (5)),
applied to main control volume I
d
mI GM inI  GM outI .
(9)
dt
From the equation of total energy conservation (Eq. (6)),
applied to main control volume I
d
_ tI .
m EI GM HinI  GM HoutI Q_ I  W
(10)
dt
From the equation of linear momentum conservation
(Eq. (7)), applied to secondary control volume J
d
1
GM I
p AI1  p AI r v jvj AI1
dt
L

p
pI
 r v jvj AI I1
AI  AI1  F R
2
11
with the force being evaluated as F R f r=8
v jvj Superficie_de_contacto.
In order to solve the above equations, the gures for
enthalpy at the input and output sections of the main
control volume (Fig. 10) are needed. This requires
additional hypotheses. To determine energy ows through
the input and output areas of the control volumes we use

Fig. 11. Turbine owmeter blade speed diagram.

the upwind or Donnor cell scheme; in accordance

with which
H inI H I1 if GM inI 40;

H inI H I if GM inI o0

and
H outI H I if GM outI 40;

H outI H I1 if GM outI o0.

To calculate the remaining thermodynamic variables we

add the hypothesis of ideal gas for compressible uid
applications (Fig. 11).
The fourth-order RungeKutta method [14] assures
the stability of the calculation, provided that (since this
is an explicit method) we keep Dt compliant with the
Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy (CFL) stability condition
for each control volume; such a requirement states
that Dt must full DtpDx=a (where a is the speed of
sound) [10].
This method is valid within the intended experimental
framework, where uid speed is always less than 0.3 Mach.
The validity of the method is conrmed through the
corresponding validation of the models.
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