Cascade theory

The theory in this lecture comes from:

Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachinery
by George F. Wislicenus
Dover Publications, INC. 1965

dc
=0
dt

c = c+c

ds

c2
p0 = p +
= konst.
2

FY
FX

Contour

c is the change of
velocity due to the vane

The contour is large

compared to the
dimensions of the vane

Decompose the velocity in the

normal and the tangential direction
of the contour
c 2 = (c cos + c n ) + (c sin + c s )
2

c 2 = c 2 cos 2 + sin 2 + 2 v (c n cos + c s sin ) + c 2n + c s2

c 2 = c 2 + 2 c (c n cos + c s sin ) + c 2

Bernoullis equation
c2
p0 = p +
2

2
2
p 0 = p + c + 2 c (c n cos + c s sin ) + c
2

Forces in the x-direction

The forces in the x-direction acting on the element ds can be calculated as a
force coming from pressure and impulse.

dFx = p ds cos

(
(c

) (
) ds (c

)
sin + c )sin

c cos + c n ds c cos + c n cos

cos + c n
Flow Rate, Q

Velocity in x-direction, cx

Forces in the x-direction

We insert the equation for the pressure, p from
Bernoullis equation.

p = p 0 + c 2 + 2 c (c n cos + c s sin ) + c 2
2

dFx = p ds cos

(
(c

) (
) ds (c

)
sin + c )sin

c cos + c n ds c cos + c n cos

cos + c n

Forces in the x-direction

We insert the equation for the pressure, p from
Bernoullis equation.

p = p 0 + c 2 + 2 c (c n cos + c s sin ) + c 2
2

dFx = p 0 ds cos

+ c 2 + 2 c (c n cos + c s sin ) + c 2 ds cos

2
c cos + c n ds c cos + c n cos

(
(
(c

cos + c n

) (
) ds (c

)
sin + c )sin
s

Forces in the x-direction

dFx = p 0 ds cos
c 2

c 2
2
+ ds cos + c c n cos + c cs cos sin +
cos
2
2

ds c 2 cos3 + c 2n cos + 2 c c n cos 2

(
ds (c

cos sin 2 + c n cs sin + c cs cos sin + c c n sin 2

Forces in the x-direction

The change of velocity, c is very small because the large distance from the
airfoil to the contour. We neglect the terms that has the second order of c.

dFx = p 0 ds cos
c 2

c 2
2
+ ds cos + c c n cos + c cs cos sin +
cos
2
2

ds c 2 cos3 + c 2n cos + 2 c c n cos 2

(
ds (c

cos sin 2 + c n cs sin + c cs cos sin + c c n sin 2

Forces in the x-direction

dFx = p 0 ds cos + ds c 2 cos cos 2 sin 2 ds c c n cos 2 + sin 2

2

c 2
dFx = p 0 ds cos cos ds c c n ds
2

This is the force acting in the x-direction on a small element, ds of the contour.

Forces in the x-direction

c 2
dFx = p 0 ds cos cos ds c c n ds
2
By integrating around the contour, we will find the total force acting in the
x-direction.
=0

=0

c 2
Fx = p 0 cos ds cos ds c c n ds
2

Fx = c c n ds

dAlembert paradox
Fx = c c n ds = 0
The term cnds is the flow rate through the contour. If the flow is
incompressible, the integral of the term cnds around the contour will be
zero.

A body in a two-dimensional and nonviscous flow with constant energy will not
exert a force in the direction parallel
undisturbed flow, c

Forces in the y-direction

The forces in the y-direction acting on the element ds can be calculated as a
force coming from pressure and impulse.

dFy = p ds sin

(
(c

) (
) ds (c

)
cos + c ) cos

c cos + c n ds c cos + c n sin

cos + c n

Forces in the y-direction

c 2
dFy = p 0 ds sin sin ds c cs ds
2

This is the force acting in the y-direction on a small element, ds of the contour.

Krefter i y-retning
c 2
dFy = p 0 ds sin sin ds c cs ds
2
By integrating around the contour, we will find the total force acting in the
y-direction.
=0

=0

c 2
Fy = p 0 sin ds sin ds c cs ds
2

Fy = c c s ds

Lift
Fy = c c s ds

Circulation
= c s ds

Lift

Fy = c

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
In the absence of any deflecting
body inside the hatched area of
the contour the force in ydirection must necessarily be
zero. This leads to the theorem
that:
For a flow of constant energy,
the circulation around any
closed contour not enclosing
any force-transmitting body
must be zero.

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
Let the circulation around the
outer contour in the figure be:

1 = cs ds

cs

Let the circulation around the

inner contour in the figure be:

2 = cs ds

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
Let the circulation around the
inner and outer contour be
connected along the line A-B.

cs

The circulation around the

hatched area can now be
written as:
B

1 2 = 1 + cs ds 2 + cs ds

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
From the figure we can see that:
B

cs

ds = c s ds
C

The circulation around the

hatched area can now be
written as:

1 2 = 1 2

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
Since we do not have any body
inside the hatched area:

1 2 = 1 2 = 0
cs

Which gives:

1 = 2

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
1 = 2
This leads to the theorem:
cs

For a given flow condition

(with constant energy), the
circulation around the
deflecting body is
independent of the size and
shape of the contour along
which the circulation is
measured.

The law of the circulatory flow about a

deflecting body
The mean velocity for the
circulation around a contour
having the length s is:

= s csm = cs ds

cs

For a constant value of the

circulation, the mean velocity,
csm has to decrease if the
length s increases.
The circulation is in inverse
ratio to the distance of the
contour

Circulation about several deflecting bodies

We have 3 wing profiles in a twodimensional cascade and makes a
contour around the whole cascade.
This contour is marked ABGDEF.

1 =

AEF

2 =

ABDE

3 =

ds = cs ds + cs ds
B

ds = cs ds + cs ds + cs ds + cs ds

BGD

ds = c s ds + cs ds

Circulation about several deflecting bodies

From the figure we can see that:
E

ds = cs ds
E

c
B

ds = c s ds
D

Circulation about several deflecting bodies

Circulation around 3 wing profiles in a
cascade becomes:
A

1 + 2 + 3 = cs ds + c s ds + c s ds + c s ds

1 + 2 + 3 = 0

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

Let us look at the cylindrical section AB through the

axial flow turbine.

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

By unfolding the cylindrical section AB from the last slide,
we can look at the blades in a cascade

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

Circulation around the blades is: (where Z is the number of blades)
b

= Z i = cs ds + c s ds + c s ds + c s ds

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

b

From the figure we can see that:

ds = 2 r c u 2

ds = 2 r c u1

b
a

c
a

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

a

= Z i = 2 r c u 2 + cs ds 2 r c u1 + c s ds

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

a

= Z i = 2 r c u 2 + cs ds 2 r c u1 + c s ds
b

From the figure we can see that:

c
a

ds = c s ds
b

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

The circulation becomes:

= 2 r c u 2 2 r c u1

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

The change of angular momentum is related to the vane
circulation by the equation:

Z
= r c u 2 r c u1
2

Cascade in an axial flow turbine

By multiplying the change of angular momentum from the
upstream to the downstream side of a turbine runner is the
torque acting on the turbine shaft with the angular velocity of
the runner we will recognize Eulers turbine equation.

Z
E = r c u 2 r c u1 =
2

E = u 2 c u 2 u 1 c u1