PETROLEUM

SCIENCE
&
ENGINEERING

ELSEVIER

Journal of Petroleum

Science and Engineering

I4 (1996) 22 l-230

Drilling fluids: State of the art

Ryen Caenn a, George V. Chillingar
Cid

I Westport Technology Center, IITRI, 6700 Pomwrt Dr. Houstm, TX 77024, USA
t%ginerring Department, Unirrrsity ofSouthernCulifornia. Los Angeles, CA 90089-1211, (IsA
Received

1 March 1995; accepted 2 June 1995

Abstract
This is a review article on the state-of-the-art in drilling fluid technology, including the recent advances in fluids for
extended-reach and horizontal drilling. After a general review of mud technology, the currently used polymer additives are
described, followed by a discussion of the new oil-based mud replacements, including the synthetic-based
fluids and
water-based muds formulated to have some oil-based mud characteristics.

1. Introduction
The 1990s have seen the resurgence of interest in
new products and systems for drilling fluids. Much
of the resurgence has been due to the push from
environmental
regulations directed at restricting toxic
and non-biodegradeable
materials. Another major
driving
force
is the tremendous
number
of
extended-reach
and horizontal wells being drilled.
The mud technology needed to drill high-angle holes
is more demanding
than that for drilling straight
holes. The purpose of this article is three-fold: (1) to
update petroleum scientists and engineers on the
latest development in drilling fluid technology, (2) to
give some basic details on muds to help understand
why these developments
came about and to (3)
summarize the latest advances in horizontal drilling
fluid technology.
Most drilling fluid textbooks and manuals list
from 10 to 20 functions that a drilling fluid performs
while drilling a well. In general, the major functions
0920-4 105/96/$15.00
0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDI 0920.4
105(95)0005
l-8

are (Chilingarian
and Vorabutr, 1983; Darley and
Gray, 1988): (1) Carry cuttings from the hole and
permit their separation at the surface. (2) Cool and
clean the bit. (3) Reduce friction between the drillpipe
and wellbore or casing. (4) Maintain the stability of
the wellbore. (5) Prevent the inflow of fluids from
the wellbore. (6) Form a thin, low-permeable
filter
cake. (7) Be non-damaging
to the producing formation. (8) Be non-hazardous
to the environment
and
personnel.
At any one time in the process of drilling a well.
one or more of these functions take precedence over
the others. For example, in the case of extended-reach and horizontal drilling, hole cleaning and maintaining wellbore integrity are generally considered
the most important, but in the sensitive sands, a
requirement for being non-damaging may take precedence. Recent research and development have concentrated on additives and systems for hole cleaning,
lubricity, wellbore stability, and environmental
compliance.

2. Mud types

3. Properties

Traditionally, muds have been classified into three

categories according to the base fluid used in their
preparation. These are: air, water and oil. Most of
the worlds drilling operations use water-based muds.
About 5-10% of the wells drilled use oil muds and a
much smaller percentage use air. Most air-drilled
wells are relatively shallow in hard, competent formations. Water-based muds are formulated with fresh
water with or without added salts. There are a great
number of salt-type muds formulated by adding a
specific salt to fresh water, and by using natural or
commercial brines, or sea water. Most wells still are
based on fresh water with salt muds being used for
special purposes, such as achieving shale stability or
drilling through massive salt zones.
A new generation of muds is evolving which are
formulated with base fluids that are synthetic. The
chemical types in use for these muds include esters,
ethers, polyalphaolefins,
glycols, glycerines and glucosides. These are intended to make muds having the
advantages of oil muds but with the handling and
disposal characteristics of water muds. A great deal
of R&D is currently being conducted on these fluids, particularly as to their relative biodegradability
and bioaccumulation
characteristics.
The new products and systems described herein
were developed in response to horizontal drilling,
shale stability, replacing oil muds and optimizing
drill rates with PDC bits, as well as environmental
acceptance. The individual products described are, in
general, available to all mud companies
through
distributors.
The new mud systems, however, are
proprietary and may be available only through a
specific mud company.

Drilling fluid tests are performed to determine

mud characteristics based on four general classifications: weight, viscosity, fluid loss and reactivity.
Table 1 shows the specific tests done by drilling
fluid technologists to determine basic mud properties. At any given time during the drilling progress,
one or more of these tests will take precedence over
the others. For example, in a shallow, horizontal
well, viscosity for hole cleaning and lubricity is of
primary importance.

4. Additives
Research is continuously
being done to improve
the performance of drilling fluids. Individual additives are developed to affect one or more of the
properties that are measured according to the API
standard test procedures. Much of the work on new
products involve developing new and/or improved
polymers.
4.1. Polymers
There are numerous mud additives that are called
polymers.
A strict definition of a polymer is an
organic chemical having a molecular weight above
200, with greater than eight repeating units. They
vary greatly in function and basic properties, i.e.,
stability, charge, etc. In general, polymers can be
classified as natural, modified-natural
and synthetic.
The following describes the current polymer types in
use in drilling fluids. The use of natural organic,
hydrophilic colloids in drilling fluids was proposed

Table I
Drilling fluid properties
Weight

Viscosity

Fluid loss

Reactivity

Specific weight
Density
Specific gravity

Funnel viscosity
Plastic viscosity
Yield point
Gel strengths
n&K

API Filtrate
Leak off
HPHT filtrate
Dynamic filtrate

Chemical content
Solids Content
Lubricity
PH

R. Curnn,

G.V. Chillingar/

Journul

of Petroleum

by Tchillingarian
in 1950 (see Tchillingarian
and
Beeson, 1950). These included the following gums:
Shiraz. Ghatti and Tragacanth.

4.1. I. Nuturul polymers

(u, Sturch-Manufactured
from either corn or
potatoes. it is usually supplied as a pregelatinized
(water-soluble) powder and sometimes treated with a
preservative.
Starch is either non-ionic or slightly
anionic. It is used as a fluid loss control agent for all
types of mud systems and is particularly useful in
salt water systems. It requires a bactericide to prevent rapid degradation.
(hl Biopolvmers-Polysaccharides
manufactured
from bacterial fermentation.
They have extremely
complex structures with high molecular weights (> 1
to 2 million). Biopolymers are slightly anionic. Examples include xanthan gum, such as Kelzan XC,
Zanvis, Xanvis, XC Polymer, Flodril S and Flopro;
wellan gum, such as Biozan; scleroglucan gum, such
as Shellflo-S. The primary use for biopolymers is as
a rheology control agent. They develop high, lowshear-rate viscosities useful for suspension and carrying capacity.
cc) Guar gum-A
polysaccharide
manufactured
from the endosperm of the seed of the guar plant. It
has a complex structure with a high molecular weight
(Chilingar and Croushorn, 1964). Examples include
the regular guar gum, a natural material containing
impurities, and hydroxypropylguar,
a guar gum modified for purity and consistency.
Its use is as a
viscosifier for completion fluids and fracturing fluids. It reacts with clays making it difficult to control
in drilling fluids.

4.1.2. Modified rzaturul polymers

(ai Cellulosics: Curboxymethylcellulose
(CMC) is
a linear polysaccharide polymer based on a cellulose
backbone. It is anionic with carboxylic acid groups.
Its functions depend on the degree of substitution
CDS-number of CM side chains) and molecular
weight (MW). Examples include: high-MW/highDS. polyanionic celluloses (Drispac, Aquapac); highMW, high viscosity CMC; low-MW, low-viscosity
CMC; and unrefined technical grade CMC, which
can contain up to 40% salt contamination.
Their uses
include fluid loss control and, for the higher MWs,

Science ond Enginrvrincg

14 ~1996/ 221-2-W

233

high-shear rate viscosity (API Yield Point and Funnel Viscosity; API, 1994).
Hydroxyethylcellulose
(HEC) is also a linear
polysaccharide
polymer based on a cellulose backbone. It is nonionic and its functions depend upon its
molecular weight. It is usually supplied as a highmolecular-weight
product: > 250,000 MW. It is not
normally used in drilling fluids, but it is a viscosifier
for brine waters in clear completion fluids, gravel
packs, and fracturing fluids.
(6) Curboqmeth_vl sturch (CMS) is LIpol~saccharide manufactured from corn or potatoes reacted to
have carboxymethyl side chains. It is used as a fluid
loss reducer for all types of water-based muds. It is
more efficient and has a higher temperature stability
than regular starch.

4.1.3. Synthetic polymers

fai Polyacr$ate-Polyacrylates
are synthetic materials manufactured
from petroleum
feedstocks.
They are not as complex structurally as the natural
polymers and usually have a straight-chain
carbon
backbone with different side chains, depending on
the end product desired. They are usually anionic.
Examples of generic and trade names include: polyacrylates, vinyl polymers, copolymers, vinyl acetate,
maleic anhydride, Cypan, WL- 100, Polydril, Polythin and Benex. Their uses are: low molecular weight
(< lOOO)-thinners
and deflocculants;
medium
molecular weight (up to 100,000 MWl--fluid
loss
control, flocculants and shale stabilizers; high molecular weight ( > 100,000 MW)-bentonite
extenders
and flocculants.
(b) Po!,act$amide-Polyacrylamides
are normally copolymers of various ratios of acrylic acid
and acrylamide. They are usually designated by the
generic name of partially-hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide
(PHPA). Usually supplied in the anionic form for
drilling fluids, they can be anionic, nonionic or
cationic when used as a dewatering tlocculant or in
other oilfield applications. Their primary uses are as
flocculants and shale stabilizers.
(cl Cationic Polymers-Cationic
polymers are
copolymers combining positively-charged
chemical
groups with other polymers, such as polyacrylates or
polyacrylamides.
They are used as tlocculants and to
formulate shale stabilizing mud systems.

224

R. Caenn, G.V. Chillingar/Joumal

qf Petroleum Science and Engineering 14 (19%) 221-230

5. Oil muds
Oil muds are selected for their superior temperature stability, lubricity and hole stabilizing attributes.
Although oil muds have unique properties that are
difficult to match with those of water muds, their use
also causes some difficulties, such as:
High costs-The
base fluids used to formulate oil
muds are usually substantially more costly than water.
Special handling-Normally,
oil muds are prepared in a liquid mud plant to ensure proper formulation and conditioning
prior to pumping downhole.
Also, totally enclosed mud handling systems on the
rig are essential to the proper operation of oil muds.
Catch pans and waste collectors are required on the
rig to ensure that no mud is lost or spilled on the
ground or into water bodies causing contamination.
Environmental concerns-Probably
the most important aspect driving the search for oil mud replacements is the environmental
concerns associated with
oil muds, especially diesel muds. It has been found
that diesel is toxic to various organisms. This led to
the development of mineral oil muds and then, in the
early 1980s (Baroid, 1994), to modified vegetable oil
muds. The latter oils, however, are much more expensive than either diesel or mineral oil.
The writers describe the current state-of-the-art of
water mud technology that may equal or improve on
the unique properties of oil muds for drilling highangle holes. It covers the properties of: (1) shale
stability, (2) lubricity, (3) bit balling and (4) hole
cleaning and suspension.

5.1. Shale stabi&

It is generally accepted that a salinity-controlled
oil mud is superior to water muds for shale stability.
Many formations, however, can be drilled with water
muds designed for shale stability. Additives used to
modify water muds for shale stability are: (1)
cations-potassium
(K), calcium (Ca)
and ammonium (NH:);
(2) inorganic mixed-metal
systemsmixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) and mixed-metal silicate (MMs); (3) cationic polymers; (4) coating
polymers-partially
hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide
(PHPA), polyvinylalcohol
(PVA) and (5) refined

polyhydroxy compounds-polyglycerides,
polyglycols
and glucosides.
Many times cations and polymers are used together to optimize shale stability. Also, most polymers used in drilling fluids will coat shales to some
extent, but the PHPA (Clark et al., 1976) and PVA
(Wingrave,
1991) are generally accepted overall to
be the best polymers. The polyols inhibit clays and
shale swelling (Chenevert, 1991). The mechanism of
clay inhibition by polyols is currently under study,
but relates to the miscible/immiscible
state of the
polyol which can change the transient pore pressures
on the surface of the in-situ shale (Downs et al.,
1993; Mody and Hale, 1993).
The major advantage of using an oil mud over a
water mud for shale stability is its ability to set up an
osmotic potential between the mud and shale to
eliminate water uptake into the shale. Water muds
can slow down shale hydration, but never stop it.
The new synthetic base fluids are intended to replace
either diesel or mineral oil in oil-based muds.

5.2. Synthetic base jluids

There are a variety of distinct chemical materials
available to replace the regular oils used in making
oil muds. The particular type of fluid chosen depends
upon many factors, not the least of which is cost.
The toxicity of diesel oil is due to its high aromatic
content. All of the diesel replacements either eliminate or minimize the aromatic content, thereby making the material non-toxic or less toxic. As long as
the material is within the guidelines set by the local
regulatory toxicity tests, it can be used in a drilling
fluid.
Biodegradation and bioaccumulation
depend more
on the chemistry of the molecule of the base fluid. In
general, those materials containing
oxygen within
their structure degrade easier. Degradation, however.
is highly dependent upon the specific conditions
impacting the fluid. Even though laboratory tests do
not necessarily reflect the conditions found at the
bottom of the ocean, they are the only way of
evaluating these materials and determining their relative toxicities. There are four chemical types that are
being used to replace diesel or mineral oils in muds:
esters, polyalphaolefins,
ethers, and detergent alky-

R. Curnn.

G. V. Chillingar/Journal

qfPetroleumScienceand

lates. Two partially water-soluble materials, methylglucoside and polyalcohols, are also under development for oil replacements.
Esters: Baroids Petrofree was the first commercially available synthetic substitute for oil muds
(Carlson, 1994). It is not derived from hydrocarbons,
but is made by processing vegetable oils, specifically
palm oil. It makes a mud similar to a mineral oil
mud, but with slightly higher base viscosity and with
a lower temperature stability. Esters have the added
advantage
of being readily biodegradable
under
anaerobic conditions (Peresich et al., 1991).
PAO: Polyalphaolefin
is a hydrocarbon derivative
that has higher temperature stability than the esters
(Parks, 1994). It is, however, slightly more toxic and
does not biodegrade as readily.
Ethers: The currently used ether-base fluid is also
manufactured
from petroleum feedstocks as a diether, or more properly a di-acetyl compound. It is
non-toxic and has a higher temperature stability than
the ester (Anchor, 1994).
Detergent alkylates; ,fbod-grade parajjk:
Also
called linear alkyl benzene (LAB), detergent alkylates are readily available synthetic materials manufactured from hydrocarbons.
They are the prime
feedstock for manufacturing
household laundry detergents.
Unfortunately,
they still contain
some
amount of benzene in their makeup. Another con-

WBM

Fig.

OBM

Et~ginrerin,q

14 (19961 221-230

225

sumer product used to formulate oil-muds are the

food-grade paraffins, which are also derived from
petroleum feedstocks. Inasmuch as they contain no
benzene and are acceptable for food processing, they
were considered for use in oil-muds. The use of
these two materials was experimental and they are
probably not viable products in the drilling fluid
industry.
Water-soluble or partially water-soluble: ( 1) Glucosides are sugar compounds obtained from certain
grains. Whereas the previously mentioned synthetics
are straight-chain carbon-based compounds with 2 or
3 hydroxyl groups, glucosides are ring shaped with
multiple hydroxyl groups on the ring. The glucoside
currently available for mud use has four hydroxyl
groups that likely assist in shale stability (Simpson et
al., 1994). (2) Polyols, which are used more as
additives in water-based muds (see next section), can
also be used as an oil replacement (Bland, 1994;
Reid et al., 1995). Examples of polyols include
polyglycerine
(dial) and various polyglycols (either
diols or triols).
Any of the above described chemicals can be
manufactured
to varying carbon lengths and with
differing amounts and types of side chains and hydroxyl, oxygen, ester. or ether components. All of
these synthetics, however, are very expensive in
comparison
to diesel and mineral oils. They are

SBM
Mud Type

Polyols

Additives

I. Comparison of typical lubricity coefficients for different types of drilling fluids (after Toups, 1995)

226

R. Caenn, G. V. Chillingar / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

being used only in the environmentally

sensitive
offshore drilling. Although they are much less toxic
than hydrocarbon oils, they are not completely nontoxic (Growcock and Andrews, 1994).

6. Lubricity
Various additives have been used to lower the
friction factor in water-based muds for drillpipe in
contact with either the wellbore or casing. The additives in use in water muds for lubricity include
modified vegetable oils and refined polyols.
These additives can normally be used in any
water-based mud, including muds formulated with
the shale stabilizers mentioned above. For comparative purposes, Fig. 1 shows the lubricity coefficients
of water-based muds (WBM), oil-based and synthetic-based muds (OBM, SBM), polyol muds, and
WBMs with lubricity additives (Toups, 1995).

14 ( 19961 22 l-230

7. Bit balling
The oil-wetting nature of oil muds gives rise to a
film of oil on metal parts in the mud. This film
minimizes the formation of bonds (Chesser and Perricone, 1973) between formation shale and the downhole assembly that can cause what is commonly
called bit balling.
A water-based mud can be formulated to minimize or eliminate bit balling by coating the metal
parts with a hydrophobic
coating (Enright et al.,
1991). Polyol additives have been shown to give this
protection to downhole assemblies. Effective concentrations have been reported to be from 5 to 30%
polyol by volume. The wide range of effectiveness
probably depends upon the purity and the molecular
weight range of the polyol. It may also depend on
the type of polyol, glyceride or glycol.

8. Hole cleaning
6.1. Polyols
Polyols constitute a class of materials with di- and
tri-hydroxyls that are good lubricants. They are variously called glycerines, polyglycerines,
polyols and
glycols. These products are either immiscible
or
partially miscible with water and will change its
wetting characteristics.
A mud with a sufficient
amount of polyol behaves more like an oil mud in its
wetting characteristics.
This greatly improves the
lubricity (Fig. l), shale stability and formation return
permeabilities of the mud (Deem et al., I99 1; Chenevert, 1991). They, however, can also change the
wettability of reservoir rocks, giving rise to waterblocks (for example, see Chilingarian
and Vorabutr, 1983). These materials are also being used
successfully to eliminate problems that occur when
gas hydrates are encountered during drilling (Hale
and Dewan, 1989).
Polyglycerides
are triols, usually esters of 1,2,3
propane trio1 (glycerol). Glycols are diols, such as
polypropyleneglycol
(PPG) a polymerized propylene
(3-carbon-chain)
glycol. Both the glycerines and the
glycols are available in a wide-range of carbon chain
lengths and molecular weights. Most of the drilling
fluid products are processed refinery bottoms materials and may vary from batch to batch.

The major difference encountered in high-angle

holes as compared to straight holes, is in suspension
and carrying capacity of cuttings. The distance a
particle can travel before reaching a resting place is
much shorter in horizontal and high-angle holes, a
few inches compared to 1OS or 100s of feet. In
horizontal wellbores this may lead to a cuttings bed
buildup that may impede drilling and completion
operations. In the build portion of the hole, cuttings
can fall to the side wall of the wellbore causing
torque while drilling and during difficult trips. Also,
the cuttings may buildup on the side until a critical
mass is reached, and then cascade down the hole. In
extreme cases, this can cause stuck pipe.
It is generally accepted that once a hole angle
increases above about 60 it is best cleaned with
turbulent flow. Oil-based muds, in general, are easier
to change into turbulence than water-based muds.
Many times, however, hole or rig circumstances
make it nearly impossible to place the mud into
turbulent flow. In that case, the mud must be viscosified to improve carrying capacity. The ability to
rapidly increase the low-shear rate viscosity and gel
strengths to high levels is easier in water-based muds
than in oil-based muds (see Clements and Jelsma,
1989; Harvey, 1990; Hemphill, 1990).

R. Cuenn. G. V. Chillingar/

Journal

ofPetroleum

Fig. 2 shows viscosity vs. shear rate plots for a

mixed-metal
water-based mud. The low-shear rate
viscosities of this water-based mud are much higher
than for oil-based muds.

Additives used in water-based muds to increase

the low-shear-rate viscosities, and gel strengths, are:
bentonite. xanthan gum, PHPA, and the mixed metal
inorganics.
Bentonite: Bentonite is used in most muds for
viscosity and fluid loss control. It gives excellent
carrying
capacity and suspension
of cuttings if
enough bentonite is present in the mud. The difficulty with using bentonite is that eventually
the
solids build up in the mud making the viscosity
difficult to control. In addition, many so-called bentonite clays contain variable proportions of polymers. making viscosity prediction uncertain.
Xunthm Gum: Xanthan gum is a rheology modifier that increases the low-shear-rate
viscosity of a
mud. It has been found that for adequate carrying
capacity and suspension
of cuttings in horizontal
holes a critical concentration of the polymer must be

12

14 (1996) 221-230

27

present (Kelco Technical Bulletin, 1988). This critical concentration

is dependent on the temperature,
the presence of other solids, and salinity. The critical
concentration
is usually in the I .25 to 13 lb/bbl
range (Powell et al., 199 1).
Mixed Metul Inorganics: Mixed Metal Hydroxide
(MMH) and Mixed Metal Silicate (MMS) are highly
cationic-charged
crystalline materials that electrostatically associate with bentonite forming a unique gel
structure. This gel structure allows the fluid to, in
effect, move as a solid mass when pumped carrying
all solids along with it (Powell et al., 1991). It may
have perfect transport and suspension characteristics.
although further research is needed to prove this.
Typical use dosages vary from 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl. in
combination
with 8 to 12 lb/bbl of untreated bentonite (see Polnaszec and Fraser, 1991 I.

9. Viscosifiers

Science and Engineerin,q

10. Temperature

stability

There are currently no water-based mud which is

as stable at temperatures above 400F as are oil-based
muds. A major difficulty in formulating high-temperature water-based muds is that bentonite is affected

V-G Meter- RPM

25
50
100 200 300 600
Dial IVIscosity IViscosltyl

1001 170

42

*c I

IO

-c-Pits---d-

-*+----Annulus
10

I I

I I

Solids
RemovalEquipment

100
1000
ShearRate-set-'

Fig. 2. Viscosity vs. shear rate for mixed-metal mud system (MMH-based
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, 48674).

51

32

125

c! I

100

1 3200 1

=
10M

drilling fluid), which is extremely

Bit--w
IOOM

shear thinning (courtesy

of the

228

R. Caenn, G.V. Chillingar/Joumul

<?fPetroleum Science and Engineering 14 11996) 221-230

by elevated temperatures,
first gelling excessively
and then becoming inert at extreme temperatures.
Several synthetic polymers have been developed
to stabilize water-based mud properties at high temperatures. Plank (1992) described the following coand ter-polymers
as having good high-temperature
stability:
(1)
Dejbcculants:
maleicanhydridestyrenesulfonate
copolymer
and maleicanhydridesulfonated vinyl toluene copolymer. (2) Fluid Loss
Controllers:
AMPS-n-methyl-n-vinylacetamideacrylamide
terpolymer,
AMPS-n,n-dimethylacrylamide copolymer,
and AMPS-n-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone
copolymer.

11. Water-based
muds

mud

alternatives

to oil-based

The following are mud systems currently in use as

possible replacements for oil-based muds in high-angle holes. They can be classified as polymer muds,
salt/polymer
muds or cationic muds.
(A) Polymer Muds. Several fresh-water, polymer
mud systems have been used in horizontal drilling.
They are cost-effective as long as unstable shales are
not encountered and one can clean the hole effectively with sweeps or a sufficiently
high annular
velocity. The following fresh-water, polymer muds
have been used for horizontal drilling: (1) PAC:
Polyanionic
cellulose muds, such as Drispac, are
used in some high-angle holes. PACs coat shales to
some extent, and thus improve their stability. They
can impart good annular viscosity to assist in hole
cleaning. (2) Polyacrylates: A polyacrylate mud was
used successfully on one of the first horizontal wells
in California (Profco Drilling Fluids, 1989). It was
supplemented with high-viscosity
sweeps for hole
cleaning. (3) PHPA /Humate:
A PHPA mud was
used in a shallow, extended-reach
well in the Gulf
Coast (Kimball et al., 1991). A high concentration of
PHPA was used (approximately
2.0 lb/bbll
which
coated shales, improving cuttings carrying capacity

A sweep is a small volume of specially formulated mud.

usually 25 to 74 barrels, pumped through the drillpipe and annulus
to assist in hole cleaning, lubricity, seepage control, etc.

and the muds lubricity. Inasmuch as this well was

drilled through formations containing large amounts
of mud-making shales and clays, small amounts of a
soluble humic acid product were used to control gel
strengths.
(B) Salt/Polymer
Muds. In areas with wellbore
stability problems,
polymers are usually supplemented with a salt that supplies a cation to help
stabilize the formation.
The following
are some
salt/polymer
muds that have been used: (11
PHPA/K+: The most common polymer mud used as
an oil-based mud replacement is the PHPA/K+
mud
system. It has the advantages of imparting shale
stability and having good carrying capacity. Its disadvantages are that it is affected by solids contamination and does not have good temperature stability.
Any of the regular lubricity additives can be added
to this mud. While using heavily-weighted
muds
through thick mud-making shales, small amounts of
a humic acid are sometimes used. (2) Xanthan
Gum/K+: Inasmuch as xanthan gum is not as efficient as PHPA in coating shales, it is used in wells
that do not have severe shale problems. It does
impart excellent low-shear-rate viscosity to the mud
for good suspension of cuttings and carrying capacity. Xanthan gum has a limited temperature stability
and as in the case of the PHPA system, lubricating
agents can be added. (31 Sized Salt: Several horizontal wells have been drilled using a lluid originally
developed as a completion fluid (Mondshine,
1989;
Dobson and Mondshine,
1990). It contains sized
sodium chloride particles for bridging and a polymer
blend for excellent cuttings suspension and carrying
capacity. It is a saturated salt system and cannot be
formulated for low mud weights. Inasmuch as the
salt is easily dissolved in water and breakers are
added to destroy the polymer, it is a relatively nondamaging fluid.
(C) Cationic Muds. There is no generally accepted definition
for the term cationic
drilling
fluid. Consultation with a number of drilling fluids
experts brought forth a wide range of characteristics
for a cationic mud. The following is the definition used by the writers:
A Cationic Drilling Fluid is a drilling,fluid with CI
predominantly cationic chemical nature, that cannot
accept anionic mud additives without drastic changes
in its basic properties.

K. Cnenn, G. V. Chillingar/

Journal

@Petroleum

The following systems are formulated so that the

predominant nature of the mud is cationic. Cationics
can be extremely inhibitive to shale or clay hydration. The most common difficulty with these systems, however, is the fluid loss control.
(a) Mixed-met&:
The mixed-metal fluid systems
have a unique gel structure unlike any other mud
system now in use. The body of the fluid moves as a
solid mass carrying the cuttings out of the hole in
near-perfect transport (Burba et al., 1988; Fraser,
1990). They also have excellent shale stability and
formation protection characteristics
(Fraser, 1990;
Deem et al., 1991; Sparling and Williamson,
1991).
They develop viscosity through an electrostatic association with bentonite or attapulgite (Crabb et al.,
1989) and require a fluid loss control additive. In
conjunction with PPG, the MMH fluid has excellent
lubricity (Deem et al., 1991).
(b) Cutionic Polymer Muds: Several mud systems
are in the development stage that may prove to be
equivalent to oil-based muds in many respects. These
muds are built around all cationic materials, such as
an amine epichlorohydrin,
and usually contain K+
ions for optimum shale stability (Beihoffer et al.,
1992). They can also be formulated with PPG for
improved lubricity. The temperature stability of these
muds is not as high as that of oil-based muds.

12. Summary

Many types of water-based muds have been used

in horizontal and extended-reach drilling. The ability
to use a water mud and the type to use is dependent
on the operating parameters of the well to be drilled.
The following are, in general, the factors to consider
in choosing a water-based mud for horizontal drilling:
(1) Lubricity is usually not a problem with waterbased muds, because there are additives to lower the
friction factor.
(2) Shale stability, elimination of bit balling, and
hole cleaning are easily attained using the water
muds.
(3) At temperatures above 400F, water muds are
not as stable as oil muds.

Science and Engineering

14 f 19961221-230

229

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