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IIIIIIIIIWAQARSEYAL@GMAIL.COMIIIIII BSCS-308 IIIIII JAN-2014IIIIII PAGES-64IIIIIIII

RESEARCH
METHODS-I

BS COMMUNICATION STUDIES

Research Methods-I

BSCS-SEM-VI

Code
BSCS-308

Cr. Hrs
3

#WaqarSeyal

Semester
VI

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Year
3

OBJECTIVES
This course will give the students an insight into the basic principles of
scientific research. Students will further be sensitized with the methods,
techniques and other relevant concepts to investigate the media related
phenomena in contemporary society.

COURSE CONTENT

1.
2.
3.
4.

Defining Research
Concepts Of Research In Mass Communication
Steps In Research
Elements Of Research
Concepts
Constructs
Variables
Research question
Hypothesis

5.
6.

Measurement Levels And Scale

Kinds Of Scientific Research
Qualitative and Quantitative
Basic and Applied
Historical Research
Observational
Descriptive Research
Correlation Research
Experimental Research

7.
8.
9.

Sampling And Its Techniques

Literature Review And Its Techniques
Ethics In Research

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE CONTENT .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.

DEFINING RESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 4

2.

CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH IN MASS COMMUNICATION ........................................................... 7

3.

STEPS IN RESEARCH .......................................................................................................................... 7

4.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH .............................................................................................................. 10

4.1

CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................................................... 10

4.2

CONSTRUCTS.................................................................................................................................. 11

4.3

VARIABLES...................................................................................................................................... 12

4.4

RESEARCH QUESTION .................................................................................................................... 14

4.5

HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................................................................... 15

5.

NON DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS ............................................................................................. 16

6.

CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS.................................................................................................................. 16

5.

MEASUREMENT LEVELS AND SCALE ......................................................................................... 17

6.

KINDS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ................................................................................................ 24

6.1

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ................................................................................................ 24

6.2

BASIC AND APPLIED ....................................................................................................................... 27

6.3

HISTORICAL RESEARCH .................................................................................................................. 29

6.4

OBSERVATIONAL ............................................................................................................................ 31

6.5

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH................................................................................................................. 35

6.6

CORRELATION RESEARCH .............................................................................................................. 37

6.7

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ............................................................................................................ 40

7.

SAMPLING AND ITS TECHNIQUES ............................................................................................... 46

8.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND ITS TECHNIQUES ........................................................................... 53

9.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH...................................................................................................................... 59

MISCELLANEOUS ..................................................................................................................................... 62

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1. DEFINING RESEARCH
DEFINITIONS
Definitions by Dr. Robert V. Williams:

1. Thorough and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover facts or
principles.
2. A studious inquiry or examination, especially a critical investigation . . . having as its aim the
discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions,
theories, or laws in the light of new discovered facts, or the practical application of such
conclusions, theories or laws.
An attempt to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a
course of critical investigation. [Oxford Concise Dictionary]
Research may be defined as a collaborative activity by means of which a given phenomenon in
reality is studied in an objective manner, with a view to establishing a valid understanding of that
phenomenon.
Research involves the use of carefully prescribed methods and procedures to systematically
observe, collect, and analyze empirical data.
A systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or
contribute to generalizable knowledge.
The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
Redman and Mory define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art.

Martyn Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any

gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge."

Creswell who states - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to

increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect
data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary : "a studious inquiry or examination; especially :

investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of

accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws"
Research can be defined to be search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish

facts.
A detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a (new)

understanding.
New knowledge is created through research. Research is based on primary and secondary sources,
often together with original data collected via research "instruments" (surveys, interviews,
questionnaires, "focus groups," etc.) to produce new knowledge on a particular topic.
In addition to primary sources and original instruments, secondary sources are used to provide an
overview of existing published knowledge on a topic, and possible current debates about the topic.

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The background provided by secondary sources provides a contextual background and establishes
how the new knowledge described in a paper differs from what is already known.
The purpose of all research is to describe and explain variance in the world. Variance is simply the
difference; that is, variation that occurs naturally in the world or change that we create as a result of a
manipulation.
All research focuses on "solving problems" at minimum, as it concerns FIN-1, answering the
defined research question(s). Otherwise, research addresses the perceived "problem" of missing or
inadequate information on a particular topic.
The emphasis and methodology of research may differ between different fields and disciplines,
particularly between the Sciences and the Humanities. However, most fields share the following
concerns:

Discovering the relevant "facts" of an event, issue, procedure, or problem;

Reviewing and evaluating contrasting explanations for the topic being researched, especially
explanations which may differ from what the current research has concluded;
Reviewing the consensus (or lack of it) of the research findings among researchers;
Disseminating the findings and conclusions for critical review.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of Research
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular and
bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

PURPOSE/ OBJECTIVES/ FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH/ What Does

Research Do?

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
to learn something,
to gather evidence.
Advancement of Human Knowledge
Solution to a larger problem
Collate and synthesize existing information
Extracting new meaning
to extend human knowledge of the physical, biological, or social world beyond what is already
known.

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THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

The main function of research is to improve research procedures through the refinement and
extension of knowledge.
The Researches should contribute to the theory and practice of study studies simultaneously. It
should have the image of a helpful mechanism which can be used by researcher/research-scholar
in one way or the other, for the improvement of the process.

Exploration
A great deal of social research is conducted to explore a topic or familiarize oneself with a topic. This
typically occurs when a researcher becomes interested in a new topic or when the subject of study
itself is relatively new. Often times, exploratory research is done through the use of focus groups or
small group discussions, which are frequently used in market research.
Exploratory studies are typically done for three purposes: to satisfy the researchers curiosity and
desire for better understanding, to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study, and to
develop the methods to be employed in any subsequent studies.

Description
Another major purpose of social research is to describe situations and events. The researcher observes
and then describes what he or she observed. One great example of descriptive social research is the
Pakistani Census. The goal of the census is to describe accurately and precisely several characteristics
of the Pakistani population, including race/ethnicity, age, sex, household size, income, etc.

Explanation
A third major purpose of social research is to explain things. While descriptive studies attempt to
answer the what, when, where, and how, explanatory studies attempt to answer the why. For example,
reporting the crime rates of different cities is descriptive. Identifying the variables that explain why
some cities have higher crime rates than others involves explanation. Likewise, reporting the
frequency of church attendance is descriptive, but reporting why some people attend church while
others dont is explanatory.

IMPORTANCE
The main purpose and role of research is to help plan and gather information on a certain topic

before carrying it out. It helps to test and create a theory on a certain things and with the
information given, to gather and generate a topic to find out more on it.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organisation.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.

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CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH IN
MASS COMMUNICATION

Media Research involves the collection of data about the various advertising media,
surveying consumers on their media preferences and habits, and carrying out primary and
secondary research on effectiveness of each medium for selling particular types of products.
The Mass Communication Research (Research
of Mass Communication) is a stream that breaks in
the middle of the twentieth century with the
primary objective of analyzing the social, cultural
and psychological messages that are transmitted
by the mass media and public reactions to media
proposals in order to get the keys to drive the
behavior of the masses.

Advertising Research
Market Research
PR Research
Media Effects
Functional, Critical Research
Ratings (TRP)
Target Audience
It supports audience.
It supports media & trend analysis.
It does message testing
It does issue monitoring, forecasting & evaluating.
It often provides essential data for effectively presenting information.
To formulate strategy.
To gauge success.
To test messages.
To size up competition.
To get publicity.
To sway opinion.

3.

STEPS IN RESEARCH

STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS

1. IDENTIFY AND FORMULATE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Articulate a research question

What exactly is being researched and why; what the relevance or importance is; what questions will
be addressed, and an overview of what conclusions will be drawn.
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem
he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into.

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The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It should state what you will be
studying, whether you will do it through experimental or non-experimental investigation, and what the
purpose of your findings will be.
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question.
It is one of the first statements made in any research paper and, as well as defining the research area,
should include a quick synopsis of how
the hypothesis was arrived at.
A quantitative experimental design uses deductive
reasoning to arrive at a testable hypothesis.
Qualitative research designs use inductive reasoning to
propose a research statement.
An anthropologist might find references to a relatively
unknown
tribe
in
Papua
New
Guinea.
Through inductive reasoning, she arrives at the
research problem and asks,
How do these people live and how does their culture
relate to nearby tribes?
She has found a gap in knowledge, and she seeks to fill it, using a qualitative case study, without a
hypothesis.
The Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment is a good example of using deductive reasoningto arrive at a
research problem and hypothesis.

2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

3. DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES
o Conceptualization and operationalization of concepts and variables
o Defining Terms
o Clarify and narrow down the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope.
In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This
can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project.
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description
of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts
often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about
what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study.

4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The overall design of a research project consists of its methods and procedures. Research design can
be described as Qualitative or Quantitative in approach. It is also possible to have a mixture of the
two approaches, both in overall design and in the specific methods used in the investigation.
Selltiz et al., in their classical book on research methodology, define research design in the following
manner: A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
o Make instrumental plan
o Theoretical framework

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In this section the purpose and research questions or hypotheses are re-stated, and the exact nature of
what is being researched and how (population and sampling) is defined, along with what
instrumentation was used (copies of instruments should be included in Appendices). Also in this
section are details on the procedure and time frame of the research, the analysis plan, the validity and
reliability of the data used, the author's assumptions which are based on the research, and possible
limitations
to
these
assumptions,
or
other
conclusions.
Research methodology is a
way to systematically solve the
research problem. In it we
study the various steps that are
generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his
research problem along with
the logic behind them.
The plan for the study is
referred
to
as
the
instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as
the road map for the entire
study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and
the content of the program.

6. DEFINING POPULATION AND DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually
the consideration of the following:
the means of obtaining the information;
the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and

the reasoning leading to the selection;

the time available for research; and
the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

7. COLLECTION OF DATA
o Collect, record, classify, and control data.
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research
question. Every study includes the collection of some type of datawhether it is from the literature or
from subjectsto answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a
survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature.

8. ANALYZING THE DATA AND INTERPRETING THE RESULTS

The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the
instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now
analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized
in a manner directly related to the research questions.
Significant test

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To test a hypothesis, quantitative research uses significance tests to determine which hypothesis is
right. The significance test can show whether the null hypothesis is more likely correct than the
research hypothesis. Research methodology in a number of areas like social sciences depends heavily
on significance tests.

9. COMMUNICATING THE RESULTS / CONCLUSION

Suggest possible application of the findings and conclusions.

A summary of the nature and application of the "new knowledge" represented in your paper. Also
included here are possible contraindications of your conclusions, along with proposed further research
based on your findings (and the possible contraindications).
Discussion of 'Limitations': This section is increasingly a part of research articles published in
academic journals. It is a separate section of the paper which describes real or potential faults with the
methodology, research material, or other factors that could have influenced the research findings.

Limitations: Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the
researcher that place restrictions on your methodology and conclusions.

10.CITE PROPERLY AND GIVE CREDIT FOR SOURCES OF IDEAS.

4.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH

4.1 CONCEPTS
What is a concept?
A general notion, conception, comprehension, A thing formed in the mind,
A directly conceived or intuited object of thought
An idea of something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars
A general idea derived or inferred from specific instance or occurrence.

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Concepts may be defined as the most elementary symbolic constructions by means of which
people classify or categorize reality.
A concept is a notion about a natural phenomenon. For example "mass" is a concept having different
notions to different people. To a scientist mass is a term for the physical appearance of a matter but to
a social scientist mass is general public. So is the apprehension about the term "medium" to
a layman it is about the size but to a media person it is the channel and tool of communication.
Concepts are abstract symbols (words) that represent some phenomena, idea, or entity. Concepts can
be very abstract (romantic love) or they can be more concrete (income).
Concepts are important for at least two reasons:
First, they simplify the research process by combining particular characteristics, objects, or people
into more general categories.
Second, concepts simplify communication among those who have a shared understanding of them.
Researchers use concepts to organize their observations into meaningful summaries and to
transmit this information to others.

4.2 CONSTRUCTS
DEFINITIONS
A construct is the combination of two concepts.
A construct is deliberately and consciously invented or created for a specific scientific purpose.
It is a concept or idea that may be abstract or concrete or even observable.
Constructs
are mental
abstractions that
we
used
to
express
the ideas, people, organisations, events and/or objects/things that we are interested in.
A construct is a collection of other related behaviours that are associated in a meaningful way.
A construct is a concept that has three distinct characteristics:
1. First, it is an abstract idea that is usually broken down into dimensions represented by lower
level concepts.
2. Second, because of its abstraction, a construct usually cannot be observed directly.
3. Third, a construct is usually designed for some particular research purpose so that its exact
meaning relates only to the context in which it is found.

We often refer to constructs as mental abstractions because seldom are constructs directly
observable (e.g., we cannot directly observe depression, even though we may associate depression
with signs such as a person that often cries, engages in self-harm, has mood swings, and so forth).
Since constructs are very broad and abstract, conceptual clarity has become one of the cornerstones
of good research.
Constructs provide a common language and shared meaning that help us to communicate about
things clearly and precisely. Constructs need to be expressed (i.e., made explicit) in a way that is
clear, precise, and non-ambiguous.

EXAMPLES
For example "Mass" is

a concept, "Media" is again a concept and the "Mass Media" is a

construct which give a third meaning as a whole phrase.
For example, "intelligence" is an idea, a part of what that makes us human and is made up of lots
of smaller ideas. Intelligence is a construct based on observation of presumably intelligent and less
intelligent behaviours. For example, "intelligence" is made up of several behaviours such verbal
ability, quantitative ability, spatial ability, mechanical reasoning, inductive thinking and so forth.
The table below provides some examples of different types of constructs:
Types of
constructs
Ideas

Examples
Ageism, sexism, racism, self-esteem, poverty, social capital, trust, philanthropy,
morality, tolerance, air pollution, genetic engineering, marriage..

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People
Age, gender, ethnicity, height, obesity, energy, muscle soreness, fatigue
Organizations
Financial performance, corporate social responsibility, firm survival,
organizational culture, service quality, corporate governance
Events
famine, Jihad, secularism
Objects/Things
Sun, hurricanes, tsunamis, trees, flowers..

4.3 VARIABLES
DEFINITION
It is the changing value of quantity or quality of a thing or concept is called variable.
Concepts that represent phenomena that can take on different values, quantities, or intensities are

called variables.
A variable is something that varies. A variable is a construct that is deliberately and

consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose.

An event or behavior that has at least two values.

TYPES
1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
It is the variable whose value is independent to change and normally it is denoted by "x" and is placed
horizontally on
the graph with its negative values
on
the opposite side if required. For example "speed" , Media exposure.
An independent variable (IV) (treatment variable, precdictor variables, input variable) is the variable
that is presumed can cause a change in the dependent variable.
Dependent variables are observed and their values presumed to depend on the effects of the
independent variables. In other words, the dependent variable is what the researcher wishes to explain.
Causes are called INDEPENDENT VARIABLES. If one variable truly causes a second, the cause is
the independent variable. Independent variables are often also called explanatory
variables or predictors.
There are two types of independent variables: Active and attribute.
a. ATTRIBUTE: level or score of the variable is brought to the experiment by the subject, usually
as a natural characteristic such as sex, age, etc. An attribute variable is a variable where we do not
alter the variable during the study. For example, we might want
to study the effect of age on weight. We cannot change a
person's age, but we can study people of different ages and
weights.
b. ACTIVE: the level of the IV is manipulated by the
experimenter. If the independent variable is an active variable
then we manipulate the values of the variable to study its affect
on another variable.
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLE
It
is
the variable whose value is
dependent
to change and normally it
is
denoted
by
"y" and is
placed
vertically on
the graph with its negative values
on
the opposite side if required. For example "distance",
Socialization from media etc.
Independent variables are systematically varied by the researcher.
Effects are called DEPENDENT VARIABLES. We explain what has caused dependent variables.
Dependent variables are also sometimes called outcome, output, result, response or criterion variables.
This is the variable that is affected by the independent variable.

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3. INTERVENING VARIABLE/ Extraneous
It is the variable that effects the relation of the independent and dependent variable. For example in `
"quality of the road" is an intervening variable.
Uncontrolled or unobserved variables that may account for variation in the Dependent Variable.
This is a variable that probably does influence the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables, but it is one that we do not control or manipulate. Extraneous variables which
influence the study in a negative manner are often called confounding variables.
4. MEDIATING VARIABLES
A mediating variable is defined as one that links between the independent and the dependent variable.
Thus, an mediating variable is part of a causal chain:
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE -------> MEDIATOR VARIABLE ------> DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Mediator variables inform us about causal sequences or chains, thus explaining the causal process of a
phenomenon.
EXAMPLE: educational level -----> occupational type -----> income level
5. Control variable:
Any variable that may affect Dependent Variable should be controlled; that is, measured and
accounted for statistically or held constant (age, gender, socioeconomic status, etc., could be control
variables)
A control variable is a variable that effects the dependent variable. When we "control a variable" we
wish to balance its effect across subjects and groups so that we can ignore it, and just study the
relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. You control for a variable by
holding it constant, e.g., keep humidity the same, and vary temperature, to study comfort levels.
CONCEPTUAL VARIABLES:
CONCEPTUAL VARIABLES are what you think the entity really is or what it means. Conceptual
variables are about abstract constructs. YOU DO NOT DISCUSS MEASUREMENT AT THIS
STAGE! Examples include "achievement motivation" or "endurance" or "second language".
OPERATIONAL VARIABLES:
On the other hand, OPERATIONAL VARIABLES (sometimes called "operational definitions")
are how you actually measure this entity, or the concrete operations, measures, or procedures that you
use to measure the concept in practice. If you use a Stanford-Binet to measure intelligence or a bar
code scan to assess the popularity of musical artists, those are operational variables.
CATEGORICAL AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
A variable can be either a categorical variable (nominal variable) or a continuous
variable (ordinal variable).
Continuous Variable: A continuous variable has numeric values such as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The relative
magnitude of the values is significant (e.g., a value of 2 indicates twice the magnitude of 1). Examples
of continuous variables are blood pressure, height, weight, income, age, scores on a history test.
Categorical Variable: In the case of the variable "gender" there are only 2 values; i.e. male and
female and is called categorical or nominal variable
In the case of the variable "gender" there are only 2 values, i.e. male (1) and female (0). When
variables have only two values, they are called dichotomous variables. Variables with more than two

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values are called polytomies. Examples are Religion - Islam, Christianity, Buddhism. Hinduism and
Socio-economic status - high, medium & low.
Discrete variables: Variables that usually consist of whole number units or categories and are made
up of chunks or units that are detached and distinct from one another.
Continuous variables: Variables that usually fall along a continuum and allow for fractional
amounts.

4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

A research question summarizes the key relationship between an independent and dependent variable
youll focus on in your report.
A research question proposes a relationship between two or more variables. Just as the title states, it
is structured in form of a question.
A research question is a formal statement of the goal of a study. The research question states clearly
what the study will investigate or attempt to prove. The research question is a logical statement that
progresses from what is known or believed to be true (as determined by the literature review) to that is
unknown and requires validation.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:
1. DESCRIPTIVE. When a study is designed
primarily to describe what is going on or what
exists. Public opinion
polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold
various
opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to
know what
percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a
Republican in the next presidential
election, we are simply interested in
describing something.
A descriptive research question seeks to identify and describe some phenomenon.
An example: What is the ethnic breakdown of patients seen in the emergency room for nonemergency conditions.
2. RELATIONAL. When a study is designed to look
at the relationships between two or more
variables. A public opinion poll
that compares what proportion of males and females say they
would vote for
a Democratic or a Republican candidate in the next presidential election
is
essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting
preference.
3. CAUSAL. When a study is designed to determine
whether one or more variables (e.g., a
program or treatment variable)
causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a
public
opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign
changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the
campaign (cause)
changed the proportion of voters who would vote
Democratic or Republican (effect).
A relationship question asks if two or more phenomena are related in some systematic manner.
For example: If one increases his level of physical exercise does muscle mass also increase?
4. A differences research question asks if there are differences between groups on some
phenomenon.
For example: Do patients who receive massage experience more relief from sore muscle pain than
patients who take a hot bath?

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4.5 HYPOTHESIS
DEFINITION
An hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than
theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study.
A hypothesis is: A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more
general proposition; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things derived from a
theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is
correct.
A hypothesis represents a declarative statement, a sentence instead of a question, of the causeeffect relationship between two or more variables.
A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something.
In research, a hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon.
A prediction regarding the outcome of a study that often involves the relationship between two
variables.
A hypothesis may describe whether there is a relationship, no relationship predicted at all, the
causal direction of the relationship, the mechanics (how) of the relationship, and may even
specify the form of the relationship.
EXAMPLES
An external threat raises team cohesiveness.
Children with an encyclopedia in their home will achieve higher scores on the intelligence

Test.
Fast walking will lower Galvanic Skin Response scores.

TYPES
1. NULL HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis predicting that no difference exists between the groups being compared.
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis which a researcher tries to disprove. Normally, the null hypothesis
represents the current view/explanation of an aspect of the world that the researcher wants to
challenge.
This is the conventional approach to making a prediction. It involves a statement that says there is no
relationship between two groups that the researcher compares on a certain variable. The hypothesis
may also state that there is no significant difference when different groups are compared with respect
to a particular variable. For example, "There is no difference in the academic performance of high
school students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who do not participate in such
activities" is a null hypothesis. In many cases, the purpose of the null hypothesis is to allow the
experimental results to contradict the hypothesis and prove the point that there is a definite
relationship.
In classical statistics inference testing, it is mathematically the easiest to disprove a null hypothesis,
which is sometimes written as Ho. A null hypothesis will assert that:

There is no relationship among two or more variables (EXAMPLE: the correlation between
educational level and income is zero)
Or that two or more populations or subpopulations are essentially the same (EXAMPLE: women
and men have the same average science knowledge scores.)

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If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the
prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis.
When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis.

2. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS/ ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis that the researcher wants to support and that predicts a significant difference exists
between the groups being compared.
Research methodology involves the researcher providing an alternative hypothesis, a research
hypothesis, as an alternate way to explain the phenomenon.
If the null hypothesis is rejected, typically an alternative hypothesis (usually styled H A:) is accepted.
Usually the alternative hypothesis will assert that a relationship among two or more variables exists or
that two or more subpopulations differ in some respect. A direction to the relationship (e.g., external
threat raises team cohesion) may be specified. Directional alternative hypothesis are specified in
advance of data collection procedures.
The researcher tests the hypothesis to disprove the null hypothesis, not because he/she loves the
research hypothesis, but because it would mean coming closer to finding an answer to a specific
problem. The research hypothesis is often based on observations that evoke suspicion that the null
hypothesis is not always correct.

3. DESCRIPTIVE
Descriptive hypotheses ask a specific question regarding some phenomenon. Descriptive hypotheses
are always phrased in the form of a question regarding some aspect of the research question. Usually a
descriptive hypothesis does not include an active independent variable.

4. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
Directional hypotheses are never phrased as a question, but always as a statement. Directional
hypotheses always express the effect of an independent on a dependent variable. When we use an
independent variable, a directional hypothesis is usually needed.
Investigator bases this hypothesis on the trends apparent from previous research on this topic.
Example: High school students who participate in extracurricular activities have a lower GPA than
those who do not participate in such activities." Such hypotheses provide a definite direction to the
prediction.

5. NON DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

Certain hypothesis statements convey a relationship between the variables that the researcher
compares, but do not specify the exact nature of this relationship. This form of hypothesis is used in
studies where there is no sufficient past research on which to base a prediction.

6. CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS
Some studies involve a measurement of the degree of influence of one variable on another. In such
cases, the researcher states the hypothesis in terms of the effect of variations in a particular factor on
another factor.
ONE-TAILED HYPOTHESIS (DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS): An alternative hypothesis in
which the researcher predicts the direction of the expected difference between the groups.
TWO-TAILED HYPOTHESIS (NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS): An alternative
hypothesis in which the researcher predicts that the groups being compared differ but does not predict
the direction of the difference.

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The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles:

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The formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all
possible outcomes
The testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected.

ERRORS IN RESEARCH
Logically, there are two types of errors when drawing conclusions in research:

1. Type 1 error is when we accept the research hypothesis when the null hypothesis is in fact
correct.
2. Type 2 error is when we reject the research hypothesis even if the null hypothesis is wrong.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH QUESTIONS & HYPOTHESIS

Definitions
Structure
Before
Writing
Writing
Conclusions

5.

HYPOTHESIS

RESEARCH QUESTION

A hypothesis is defined as an educated

guess.
Hypothesis are written as statements
preceded with the words "I predict."
Before writing a hypothesis, the researcher
must determine what others have
discovered about this subject.
the researcher will write whether the
hypothesis was correct or incorrect,
followed by an explanation of the results.

A research question is simply the researcher

wondering about the world.
As its name suggests, research questions are
always written as questions.
On the other hand, a research question requires
less preparation, but focus and structure is
critical.
The researcher using only a research question
will write the answer to the question, followed by
the findings of the research.

MEASUREMENT LEVELS AND

SCALE

Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules.

Level of measurement refers to the way that a variable is measured.
The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes for a variable.
In statistics and research methodology, levels
of
measurement or scales of measure are types of
data that arise in the theory of scale
types developed by the psychologist Stanley Smith
Stevens.
Stevens
proposed
his
typology
in
a
1946 Science article titled "On the theory of scales
of measurement". In that article, Stevens claimed
that all measurement in science was conducted
using four different types of scales that he called
"nominal," "ordinal," "interval," and "ratio,"
unifying both "qualitative" and "quantitative"
Before we can conduct a statistical analysis, we need to measure our dependent variable. Exactly how
the measurement is carried out depends on the type of variable involved in the analysis.

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Although procedures for measurement differ in many ways, they can be classified using a few
fundamental categories. In a given category, all of the procedures share some properties that are
important for you to know about. The
categories are called "scale types," or just
"scales.
The level of measurement for a particular
variable is defined by the highest category
that it achieves.
It's important to recognize that there is a
hierarchy implied in the level of
measurement idea. At lower levels of
measurement, assumptions tend to be less restrictive and data analyses tend to be less sensitive. At
each level up the hierarchy, the current level includes all of the qualities of the one below it and adds
something new. In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of measurement (e.g., interval or
ratio) rather than a lower one (nominal or ordinal).

Why is Level of Measurement Important?

First, knowing the level of measurement helps you decide how to interpret the data from that variable.
Second, knowing the level of measurement helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on
the values that were assigned.
Being familiar with the level of measurement of the variables in your data set is crucial because they
will help determine what statistical procedure you use. Not every statistical operation can be used
with every variable. The type of procedure used depends on the variables level of measurement.
SCALE TYPES WITH THEIR PROPERTIES ACCORDING TO STANLEY SMITH
STEVENS
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale

+
Logical/
math
operations
<
>
=

Dichotomous:
Date
Age
Examples: Dichotomous:
Dichotomous
(from 1457 BC
(from 0 to 99
and
Gender
Health
to AD 2013)
years)
non(male vs. female)
(healthy vs. sick),
dichotomous
Latitude
Non-dichotomous:
Truth
(from +90 to
Variable name
(true vs. false),
90)
(data values) Nationality
(American/Chinese/etc) Beauty
(beautiful vs.ugly)
Non-dichotomous:
Opinion
('completely agree'/

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'mostly agree'/
'mostly disagree'/
'completely
disagree')

Measure of
Mode
central
tendency
Qualitative or
Qualitative
Quantitative

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Median

Arithmetic Mean

Geometric Mean

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

1. NOMINAL SCALE
The nominal type, sometimes also called the qualitative type, differentiates between items or subjects
based only on their names or (meta-)categories and other qualitative classifications they belong to.
A nominal scale, as the name implies, is simply some placing of data into categories, without any
order or structure.
The lowest level is the nominal scale. This may be thought of as the naming level.
With nominal scales, you can tell whether two cases or instances fall into the same category or into
different categories. Thus, you can sort all cases into mutually exclusive, exhaustive categories.
It refers to quality more than quantity. A nominal level of measurement is simply a matter of
distinguishing by name, e.g., 1 = male, 2 = female. They are categories or classifications.
Because the different categories (for instance, males and females) vary in quality but not quantity,
nominal variables are often called qualitative variables. An important feature of nominal variables is
that there is no hierarchy or ranking to the categories.
No data is captured that can place the measured object on any kind of scale say, for example, on a
continuum from one to ten. Coding of nominal scale data can be accomplished using numbers, letters,
labels, or any symbol that represents a category into which an object can either belong or not belong.
This classifies individuals, companies, products, brands or other entities into categories where no
order is implied.

EXAMPLES
In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no distance between

YES and NO.

When we ask subjects to name their marital status, they will respond with wordsnot numbers
that describe their status such as married, single, divorced, etc. Notice that nominal data do
not put subjects in any particular order. There is no logical basis for saying that one category such
as single is higher or lower than any other.
Examples of nominal scales include: Zodiac sign, Gender, Birth country and Religious affiliation
(or denomination), POLITICAL ORIENTATION, Language, Genre
A physical example of a nominal scale is the terms we use for colours. The underlying spectrum is
ordered but the names are nominal.
Nominal time of day: AM&PM - categories; no additional information.

STATISTICAL OPERATIONS

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The nominal scale forms the basis for such analyses as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) because those
analyses require that some category is compared to at least one other category.
cross-tabulation - with chi-square
Central tendency: The mode, i.e. the most common item, is allowed as the measure of central
tendency for the nominal type. On the other hand, the median, i.e. the middle-ranked item,
makes no sense for the nominal type of data since ranking is not allowed for the nominal type.

2. ORDINAL SCALE
At this level we put subjects in order from high to low.
Ordinal scales involve the ranking of individuals, attitudes or items along the continuum of the
characteristic being scaled.
With ordinal scales, the categories themselves can be rank-ordered from highest to lowest.
Ordinal refers to order in measurement. An ordinal scale indicates direction, in addition to providing
nominal information. Low/Medium/High; or Faster/Slower are examples of ordinal levels of
measurement.
The ordinal type allows for rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) by which data can be sorted, but still does
not allow for relative degree of difference between them.
A researcher wishing to measure consumers' satisfaction
with their microwave ovens might ask them to specify their
feelings as either "very dissatisfied," "somewhat
dissatisfied," "somewhat satisfied," or "very satisfied." The
items in this scale are ordered, ranging from least to most satisfied.

This means the scores must be rank-ordered from highest to lowest (or vice versa) first, before you
can use any ordinal measures. Like runners in a race, we can rank scores--and the categories
themselves--from first to last, most to least, or highest to lowest.
In rank-ordered cases, we can literally rank order the finishers in a race or the students by their
grade point average (first in class, second in class, and so on down to last in class). Notice that the
intervals between cases probably are not the same (or equal).
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
or Strongly Disagree with that statement.
The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking. An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not
the relative positional distances.
When a market researcher asks you to rank 5 types of beverages from most flavourful to least
flavourful, he/she is asking you to create an ordinal scale of preference.
There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective scale. For you the top
beverage may be far superior to the second prefered beverage but, to another respondant with the
same top and second beverage, the distance may be subjectively small.

The ordinal scale has at least one major advantage over the nominal scale. The ordinal scale contains
all of the information captured in the nominal scale but it also ranks data from lowest to highest.
Rather than simply categorize data by placing an object either into or not into a category, ordinal data
give you some idea of where data lie in relation to each other.
Unlike nominal scales, ordinal scales allow comparisons of the degree to which two subjects possess
the dependent variable. For example, our satisfaction ordering makes it meaningful to assert that one
person is more satisfied than another with their microwave ovens. Such an assertion reflects the first
person's use of a verbal label that comes later in the list than the label chosen by the second person.

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On the other hand, ordinal scales fail to capture important information that will be present in the
other scales we examine. In particular, the difference between two levels of an ordinal scale cannot be
assumed to be the same as the difference between two other levels.

EXAMPLES
For example, if a researcher asked farmers to rank 5 brands of Detergent in order of preference.
For instance, an employer might rank order applicants for a job on their professional appearance.

Traditionally, we give a rank of 1 to the subject who is highest, 2 to the next highest, and so on. It
is important to note that ranks do not tell us by how much subjects differ. To measure the amount
of difference among subjects, we use the next levels of measurement.
For example, social class is an ordinal variable because we can say that a person in the category
"upper class" has a higher class position than a person in a middle class category, which again is
higher than "lower class."
RANK: 1st place, 2nd place, ... last place
LEVEL OF AGREEMENT: No, Maybe, Yes
POLITICAL ORIENTATION: Left, Center, Right
the order of finish (e.g., class rank or a horse race)
collapses of numeric data into categories with unequal widths or intervals (e.g., collapsing
years of education into degree level).

Ordinal time of day - indicates direction or order of occurrence; spacing between is uneven

STATISTICAL OPERATIONS

Median and mode

Rank order correlation
Non-parametric analysis of variance.
Modeling techniques can also be used with ordinal data.
Boolean operations possible
Central tendency: The median, i.e. middle-ranked, item is allowed as the measure of central
tendency; however, the mean (or average) as the measure of central tendency is not allowed.
The mode is allowed.

3. INTERVAL SCALE
The interval scale indicates the distance one object is from another.
Unlike the nominal and ordinal scales, you can make relative distance measurements among objects
using the interval scale.
In interval measurement, the distance between the attributes, or categories, does have meaning.
Interval scales are numerical scales in which intervals have the same interpretation throughout.
The interval type allows for the degree of difference between items, but not the ratio between them.
Interval scales provide information about order, and also possess equal intervals. The standard survey
rating scale is an interval scale.
It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of the scale
elements. This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this
to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree of
order.

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It is only with an interval scaled data that researchers can justify the use of the arithmetic mean as the
measure of average. The interval or cardinal scale has equal units of measurement, thus making it
possible to interpret not only the order of scale scores but also the distance between them. However, it
must be recognized that the zero point on an interval scale is arbitrary and is not a true zero.
It is possible to add or subtract a constant to all of the scale values without affecting the form of the
scale but one cannot multiply or divide the values.
Interval scales are not perfect, however. In particular, they do not have a true zero point even if one of
the scaled values happens to carry the name "zero." The Fahrenheit scale illustrates the issue. Zero
degrees Fahrenheit does not represent the complete absence of temperature (the absence of any
molecular kinetic energy).

EXAMPLES
For example, when we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as

distance from 70-80. The interval between values is interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense
to compute an average of an interval variable, where it doesn't make sense to do so for ordinal
scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios don't make any sense - 80 degrees is not twice
as hot as 40 degrees (although the attribute value is twice as large).
Scores obtained using objective tests such as multiple-choice tests of achievement.
POLITICAL ORIENTATION: Score on standardized scale of political orientation

Interval time of day - equal intervals; analog (12-hr.) clock, difference between 1 and 2 pm is same as
difference between 11 and 12 am

Interval scales may be either numeric or semantic.

STATISTICCAL OPERATIONS
Central tendency and statistical dispersion: The mode, median, and arithmetic mean are
allowed to measure central tendency of interval variables, while measures of statistical
dispersion include range and standard deviation.
Mean and standard deviation
Correlation r
Regression
Analysis of variance
Factor analysis
Plus a whole range of advanced multivariate and modeling techniques

4. RATIO SCALE
The scale that contains the richest information about an object is ratio scaling. In addition to all the
properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval variables, ratio variables also have a fixed/non-arbitrary
zero point (a point where none of the quality being measured exists).
Ratio levels have an absolute zero that is meaningful (i.e. no numbers exist below zero). That is, you
can construct a meaningful ratio, or fraction, with a ratio variable.
Using a ratio scale permits comparisons such as being twice as high, or one-half as much.
The ratio scale of measurement is the most informative scale. It is an interval scale with the additional
property that its zero position indicates the absence of the quantity being measured. You can think of

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a ratio scale as the three earlier scales rolled up in one. Like a nominal scale, it provides a name or
category for each object (the numbers serve as labels). Like an ordinal scale, the objects are ordered
(in terms of the ordering of the numbers). Like an interval scale, the same difference at two places on
the scale has the same meaning. And in addition, the same ratio at two places on the scale also carries
the same meaning.
The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the properties of an interval scale together
with a fixed origin or zero point. Examples of variables which are ratio scaled include weights,
lengths and times. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in scores and the
relative magnitude of scores. For instance the difference between 5 and 10 minutes is the same as that
between 10 and 15 minutes, and 10 minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes.

EXAMPLES
For example, the number of clients in past six months. Why? Because you can have zero clients and
because it is meaningful to say that "...we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we did
in the previous six months."
The Fahrenheit scale for temperature has an arbitrary zero point and is therefore not a ratio scale.
However, zero on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero. This makes the Kelvin scale a ratio scale. For
example, if one temperature is twice as high as another as measured on the Kelvin scale, then it has
twice the kinetic energy of the other temperature.
Another example of a ratio scale is the amount of money you have in your pocket right now (25
cents, 55 cents, etc.). Money is measured on a ratio scale because, in addition to having the properties
of an interval scale, it has a true zero point: if you have zero money, this implies the absence of
money.
Examples include mass, length, duration, plane angle, energy and electric charge.

RULER: inches or centimeters

INCOME: money earned last year
GPA: grade point average
YEARS of work experience
NUMBER of children

STATISTICAL OPERATIONS
Central tendency and statistical dispersion: The geometric mean and the harmonic mean are allowed
to measure the central tendency, in addition to the mode, median, and arithmetic mean. The range and
the coefficient of variation are allowed to measure statistical dispersion. All statistical measures are
allowed because all necessary mathematical operations are defined for the ratio scale.

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6. KINDS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

6.1 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research, involving the counting and measuring of communication events, is often
equated with scientific empiricism. The approach yields a body of numerical data, which the
researchers analyze statistically. Any of the materials including measurement techniques, sampling
methods, and statistical tests are geared toward quantitative research. Importantly, quantitative
analysis may be conducted in naturalistic or laboratory research settings and may be applied to vast
array of communication phenomena including mass media, organizational communication, &
interpersonal interaction. The approach is distinguished, only by its use of numerical data as a means
of understanding the nature of human communication. Quantitative research is concerned with how
often a variable is present and generally uses numbers to communicate this amount. In quantitative
research, reality is objective; which exist apart from researchers and can be seen by all. It believes all
human beings are basically similar and looks for general categories to summarize their behavior or
feelings.
The quantitative in quantitative research contains the word quantitysomething that can be
counted. So quantitative research includes any research methods that produce hard numbers which
can be turned into statistics. Census is an example of large-scale quantitative research in action.
Quantitative research methods, including surveys and controlled experiments.
Market researchers conduct surveys to find out demographic information about their customers.
Quantitative research aim to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past records and
tries to project for future period. In social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The
objective of qualitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or
hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research
because it provides fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical
expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in
quantitative research. Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and
commerce. Quantitative research involving the use of structured questions, where the response
options have been Pre-determined and large number of respondents is involved.

There are a number of core characteristics to quantitative dissertations:

They typically attempt to build on and/or test theories, whether adopting an original approach or
an approach based on some kind of replication or extension.
They answer quantitative research questions and/or research (or null) hypotheses.
They are mainly underpinned by positivist or post-positivist research paradigms.
They
draw
on
one
of
four
broad quantitative
research
designs (i.e., descriptive, experimental, quasi-experimental or relationship-based research
designs).
They try to use probability sampling techniques, with the goal of making generalisations from
the sample being studied to a wider population, although often end up applying non-probability
sampling techniques.
They use research methods that generate quantitative data (e.g., data sets, laboratory-based
methods, questionnaires/surveys, structured interviews, structured observation, etc.).
They draw heavily on statistical analysis techniques to examine the data collected,
whether descriptive or inferential in nature.

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They assess the quality of their findings in terms of their reliability, internal and external
validity, and construct validity.
They report their findings using statements, data, tables and graphs that address each research
question and/or hypothesis.
They make conclusions in line with the findings, research questions and/or hypotheses,
and theories discussed in order to test and/or expand on existing theories, or providing insight
for future theories.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Although statistical analysis is prominent in communication research, much contemporary inquiry is
qualitative. Often equated with humanistic studies, qualitative research rejects numerical measures in
favor of narrative data, meaning that qualitative data" appear in words rather than in numbers.
Examples of qualitative data may include transcripts of naturalistic conversation, communication
documents such as public speeches and media artifacts like printed editorials and videotapes of
television of programs. Qualitative analysis involves the critical analysis and synthesis of narrative
information to derive verbal rather than statistical conclusions about the contents and functions of
human talk.
Chadwick, Bahr, &Albrecht, (1984) defined it as Qualitative research refers to several methods of
data collection which include focus groups, field observations, in-depth interviews, and case studies.
Although there are substantial differences among these techniques, all involve what some writers refer
to as 'getting close to the data
While quantitative research can tell you when, where, and how often things happen, qualitative
research looks at the why and how. Qualitative research produces observations, notes, and
descriptions of behavior and motivation. Research methods in this category include:
Interviews: either a series of structured questions, or allowing a subject to narrate their
experience
Focus groups: soliciting observations from groups of people who share a similar attribute (for
example, a group of women over 40) to give opinions on a topic
Reviews: Combing through scholarly literature or other published writings to determine
attitudes towards a subject
Observation: researchers watch people on their daily routine and make notes or
recordings documenting their behavior
Qualitative research presents non-qualitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research research
refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things.
Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting
information,mainly individual, indepth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of
research is exploratory and open ended. Small number of people are interviewed in depth and or a
relatively small number of focus groups are conducted. Qualitative research can be further classified
in the following type:
I.

II.

III.

Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or
more individuals experience a phenomenon. Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of bhopal
tragedy.
Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A
culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a
group of people. Eg:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman
island and study the culture and the educational practices.
Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of

one or more cases

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Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the

observations of data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources,
including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys V.
Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the
present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current
issues and problems.

There are a number of broad characteristics to qualitative dissertations:

They follow an emergent design, meaning that the research process, and sometimes even
the qualitative research questions that you tackle, often evolve during the dissertation process.
They use theory in a variety of ways - sometimes drawing on theory to help the research
process; on other occasions, using theory to develop new theoretical insights; sometimes both but the goal is infrequently to test a particular theory from the outset.
They
can
be
underpinned
by
one
of
a
number
of research
paradigms (e.g., interpretivism, constructivism, critical theory, amongst many other research
paradigms).
They follow research designs that heavily influence the choices you make throughout the
research process, as well as the analysis and discussion of 'findings' (i.e., such research designs
differ considerably depending on the route that is being followed, whether
an autoethnography, case
study
research, ethnography, grounded
theory, narrative
research,phenomenological research, etc.).
They try to use theoretical sampling - a group of non-probability sampling techniques - with
the goal of studying cases (i.e., people or organisations) that are most appropriate to answering
their research questions.
They study people in-the-field (i.e., in natural settings), often using multiple research methods,
each
of
which
generate qualitative
data (e.g., unstructured
interviews, focus
groups,participant observation, etc.).
They interpret the qualitative data through the eyes and biases of the researcher, going backand-forth through the data (i.e., an inductive process) to identify themes or abstractions that
build a holistic/gestalt picture of what is being studied.
They
assess
the quality of
their
findings
in
terms
of
their dependability, confirmability, conformability and transferability.
They present (and discuss) their findings through personal accounts, case studies, narratives,
and other means that identify themes or abstracts, processes, observations andcontradictions,
which help to address their research questions.
They discuss the theoretical insights arising from the findings in light of the research questions,
from which tentative conclusions are made.

COMBINING RESEARCH METHODS

Naturally, you can use a mix of research methods to help gather comprehensive evidence or give a
more complete picture of what it is youre studying.

QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Criteria
Purpose

Qualitative Research
To understand & interpret
social interactions.

Quantitative Research
To test hypotheses, look at cause &
effect, & make predictions.

Group Studied

Smaller & not randomly selected.

Larger & randomly selected.

Variables

Study of the whole, not variables.

Specific variables studied

Type of Data Collected

Words, images, or objects.

Numbers and statistics.

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Form of Data Collected

Qualitative data such as open- ended

responses, interviews, participant
observations, field notes, &
reflections.

Quantitative data based on

precise measurements using
structured & validated datacollection instruments.

Type of Data Analysis

Identify patterns, features, themes.

Identify statistical relationships.

Objectivity and Subjectivity

Subjectivity is expected.

Objectivity is critical.

Role of Researcher

Researcher & their biases may be

known to participants in the study, &
participant characteristics may be
known to the researcher.

Researcher & their biases are not

known to participants in the study,
& participant characteristics are
deliberately hidden from the
researcher (double blind studies).

Results

Particular or specialized findings

that is less generalizable.

Generalizable findings that can be

applied to other populations.

Scientific Method

Exploratory or bottomup: the

Confirmatory or top-down: the
researcher generates a new
researcher tests the hypothesis and
hypothesis and theory from the data theory with the data.
collected.

View of Human Behavior

Dynamic, situational, social, &

personal.

Regular & predictable.

Most Common
Research Objectives

Explore, discover, & construct.

Describe, explain, & predict.

Focus

Wide-angle lens; examines the

breadth & depth of phenomena.

Narrow-angle lens; tests a

specific hypotheses.

Nature of Observation

Study behavior in a natural

environment.

Study behavior under

controlled conditions;
isolate causal effects.

Nature of Reality

Multiple realities; subjective.

Single reality; objective.

Final Report

Narrative report with contextual

description & direct quotations
from research participants.

Setting for data gathering

Natural environment of research

Participants

Statistical report with

correlations, comparisons of
means, & statistical
significance of findings.
Office, agency, or via mail or
Internet

6.2 BASIC AND APPLIED

Basic research looks at causes, effects, and the nature of things

Applied research tries to find answers and solutions to specific problems.

BASIC RESEARCH

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Basic research is conducted to expand knowledge and
understanding by either developing or testing theory. Its
focus is knowledge for knowledge's sake. It is typically
what we think of when we think of scientific research.
Basic research is used to explore the fundamental bases
of behavior, without regard to how those bases are
manifested in the real world. Basic research aims to
explain, predict, and describe fundamental bases of
behavior.
It exemplifies by the experiment paradigm explores
theoretical relationships with little regard for the practical
implications of the research findings. Given this focus,
basic scientific research is conducted in the laboratory
where minimum attention is paid to generalizing results
to real life settings.
Basic research is generally not related to a specific
problem and its findings cannot be immediately applied.

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Pure research, basic research, or fundamental

research is research carried
out
to
increase
understanding of fundamental principles. It is not intended to yield immediate practical benefits; pure
research can be thought of as arising out of curiosity.
The research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have immediate
commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant
kingdom welfare. Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research.

APPLIED RESEARCH
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science. It
accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories,
knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or client-driven purpose.
Applied research is compared to pure research (basic research) in discussion about research ideals,
methodologies, programs, and projects.
Applied
research
deals
employs empirical methodologies.

with

solving

practical

problems and

generally

Applied research directly addresses the problem at hand. Applied research is launched by the firm,
agency, or individual facing a specific problem.
The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting,
and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide
variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe.
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledges sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It
focus on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on
large scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it often conducted with the support of some financing
agency like government , public corporation , world bank, UNICEF, UGC,Etc,.
Applied research is research conducted to further the development of effective policies and programs.
It collects and analyzes empirical data to provide knowledge that can be used to develop new policies
and programs or evaluate existing ones.

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It is concerned with the practical and theoretical sides of communicative life. It explores theoretical
relationship of the purpose of understanding and solving problems related to everyday communicative
actions and interactions. Survey research including political poles and analysis of peoples media
preferences often has an applied orientation. Public speaking studies that generate prescriptive rules of
effective speech may be applies as well. Because of its pragmatic posture, applies research is usually
taken place in field settings.

Types of applied research

Needs assessment.
Program evaluation and outcome assessment.
Client, patient, employee, and product satisfaction research.
Cost-benefit analysis.
Social impact assessment.
Action research.
Operations research and organizational analysis.
Market research and utilization studies.
Public opinion and political polling.
Quality assurance research.

6.3 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

DEFINITION
Historical research is the process of systematically examining past events to give an account of what
has happened in the past.
It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events which involves an interpretation of the these events in
an attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that influenced these events. It is not a
mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description of past events.
Historical research describes past events, problems, issues and facts. Data are gathered from written
or oral descriptions of past events, artifacts, etc. It is different from a report in that it involves
interpretation of events and its influence on the present.
Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis
of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events (Borg (1963).
The values of historical research have been categorized by Hill and Kerber as follows:
it enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past;
it throws light on present and future trends;
it stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be found
within all cultures;
it allows for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and generalizations
that are presently held about the past.

Examples of Historical Research

A study of the factors leading to the historical development and growth of cooperative learning
A study of the effects of the historical decisions of the United States Supreme Court on American
prisons
A study of the evolution of print journalism in the United States through a study of collections of
newspapers
A study of the historical trends in public laws by looking recorded at a local courthouse

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Ethnographic research develops in-depth analytical descriptions of current systems, processes.

OBJECTIVES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

One of the goals of historical research is to communicate an understanding of past events.
Historical research is conducted to

Uncover the unknown,

Answer questions,
Identify the relationship that the past has to the present,
Record and evaluate accomplishments of individuals, agencies, or institutions,
Aid in understanding the culture in which we live.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

The following gives five important reasons for conducting historical research (based on Berg, 1998):
1. To uncover the unknown (i.e., some historical events are not recorded).
2. To answer questions (i.e., there are many questions about our past that we not only want to know
but can profit from knowing).
3. To identify the relationship that the past has to the present (i.e., knowing about the past can
frequently give a better perspective of current events).
4. To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, agencies, or institutions.
5. To assist in understanding the culture in which we live (e.g., education is a part of our history and
our culture).
Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over time which can help us to see
where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past. We usually will see that
what we do today is specifically rooted in the past. Understanding this can add perspective on how we
examine current events and educational practices. It can also show us that we do not need to
continually reinvent the wheel because we should always start with what history tells us.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ STEPS

There is no one approach that is used in conducting historical research although there is a general set
of steps that are typically followed. These include the following steps although there is some overlap
and movement back and forth between the steps:

1. Identification of the Research Topic And Formulation of the Research Problem or

Question
This is the first step in any type of educational research including historical research. Ideas for
historical research topics can come from many different sources such as current issues in education,
the accomplishments of an individual, an educational policy, or the relationship between events.

2. Data Collection or Literature Review

This step involves identifying, locating, and collecting information related to the research topic:
The information sources are often contained in documents such as diaries or newspapers, records,
photographs, relics, and interviews with individuals who have had experience with or have
knowledge of the research topic. Documents and records include, for example, written or printed
materials such as diplomas, cartoons, diaries, memoirs, newspapers, photos, yearbooks, memos,
periodicals, reports, files, attendance records, census reports, budgets, maps, and tests.
Oral histories is another very useful type of information. An oral history is what you obtain when
you interview a person who has had direct or indirect experience with or knowledge of the chosen
topic. Interviews with individuals who have knowledge of the research topic are called oral
histories.
The documents, records, oral histories, and other information sources can be primary or secondary
sources.
A primary source is a source that has a direct involvement with the event being investigated like a
diary, an original map, or an interview with a person that experienced the event. A primary source

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is an original, first hand record or account or artifact that has survived from the past; it has direct
involvement with the event being investigated.
A secondary source is a source that was created from a primary source such as books written
about the event. Secondary sources are considered less useful than primary sources.
Relics are also used and include, for example, articles of clothing, buildings, books, or any other
object that might provide useful information about the past.
3. Evaluation of Materials
Every information source must be evaluated for its authenticity and accuracy because any source can
be affected by a variety of factors such as prejudice, economic conditions, and political climate.
There are two types of evaluations every sources must pass.
1. External Criticismthis is the process of determining the validity, trustworthiness, or authenticity of
the source. Sometimes this is difficult to do but other times it can easily be done by handwriting
analysis or determining the age of the paper on which something was written.
2. Internal Criticismthis is the process of determining the reliability or accuracy of the information
contained in the sources collected. This is done by positive and negative criticism. Internal criticism
refers to the determination of the reliability or accuracy of the information contained in the source; it
is important for determining what a good interpretation is of the information contained in the source.
Positive criticism refers to assuring that the statements made or the meaning conveyed in the
sources are understood. This is frequently difficult because of the problems of vagueness and
presentism. Positive criticism is a strategy for internal criticism and it refers to making sure that
you understand the meaning conveyed in the source.
Vagueness refers to uncertainty in the meaning of the words and phrases used in the source.
Presentism refers to the assumption that the present-day association of terms also existed in the
past.
Negative criticism refers to establishing the reliability or authenticity and accuracy of the content
of the sources used. This is the more difficult part because it requires a judgment about the
accuracy and authenticity of what is contained in the source. Firsthand accounts by witnesses to an
event are typically assumed to be reliable and accurate. Historians often use three heuristics in
handling evidence. These are corroboration, sourcing, and contextualization.
Corroboration, or comparing documents to each other to determine if they provide the same
information, is often used to obtain information about accuracy and authenticity.
Sourcing, or identifying the author, date of creation of a document, and the place it was created is
another technique that is used to establish the authenticity or accuracy of information.
Contextualization, or identifying when and where an event took place, is another technique used to
establish authenticity and accuracy of information.
4. Data Synthesis and Report Preparation
This refers to synthesizing, or putting the material collected into a narrative account of the topic
selected.
Synthesis refers to selecting, organizing, and analyzing the materials collected into topical themes
and central ideas or concepts. These themes are then pulled together to form a closest and
meaningful whole.

6.4 OBSERVATIONAL
DEFINITION
It is watching other persons behaviour as it actually happens without controlling it.
Observations are recordings that are taken of the participant without requiring interaction. These
recordings are made while participants are engaged in routine behaviors and are used as an
indicator of what participants actually do rather than relying completely on self-reports of
participants' behaviors.

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Example: Watching the life of street-children provides a detailed description of their social life.
Lindzey Gardner (1975) has defined it as selection, provocation, recording and encoding of that set
of behaviour and settings concerning organisms in situ (naturalistic settings or familiar
surroundings) which are consistent with empirical aims.
The keywords of the above definition are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Selection: There is a focus in observation and also editing before, during and after the
observations are made.
Provocation: Though observers do not destroy natural settings but they can make subtle
changes in natural settings which increases clarity.
Recording: The observed incidents/events are recorded for subsequent analysis.
Encoding: Simplification of records.

This enables researchers to understand the context of programmes, to be open-ended and inductive, to
see things that might otherwise be unconsciously missed, to discover things that participants might not
freely talk about in interview situations, to move beyond perception-based data (e.g. opinions in
interviews), and to access personal knowledge.
Observations, it is argued (Morrison, 1993:80), enable the researcher to gather data on:
the physical setting (e.g. the physical environment and its organization);
the human setting (e.g. the organization of people, the characteristics and make up of the groups or
individuals being observed, for instance gender, class);
The interactional setting (e.g. the interactions that are taking place, formal, informal, planned,
unplanned, verbal, non-verbal etc.);
The programme setting (e.g. the resources and their organization, pedagogic styles, curricula and
their organization).

TYPES
Participant observation : In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is

already) part of the group to be observed. Studies in which the researcher actively participates in
the situation in which the research participants are involved.
Non-participant observation : In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part
of the group being studied. The researcher decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour is
relevant to the study and can be realistically and ethically observed. Studies in which the
researcher does not participate in the situation in which the research participants are involved.
Overt observation: Most research that uses observation as a research method will be overt in
nature; that this, the research participants will be aware that you are observing them and should
know what you are observing.
Covert observation: Covert observation can be viewed as ethically problematic
because it is a form of deceptive practice. Not only are respondents not giving
you informed consent, but you may also be keeping the observation covert because you
feel that respondents would be otherwise unwilling to take part in your research.
Undisguised observation: Studies in which the participants are aware that the researcher is
observing their behavior.
Disguised observation: Studies in which the participants are unaware that the researcher is
observing their behavior.

WHAT IS OBSERVED IN OBSERVATION METHOD?

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According to Zikmund (1988), six kinds of contents/dimensions can be observed in observation
method. These are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Physical actions: Pattern of working, watching TV etc.

Verbal behaviour: Conversations between students, workers etc.
Expressive behaviour: Tone of voice, facial expressions etc.
Spatial relations: Physical distance between workers in a factory, two students in
conversation etc.
Temporal patterns: Amount of time spent in performing rituals, shopping, conversation etc.
Verbal records: Content of slogan shouted, scolding etc.

v.
vi.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION:
Lofland has said that this method is more appropriate for studying lifestyles or sub-cultures, practices,
episodes, encounters, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, and roles.
The following are the characteristics of observation among others:

Behaviour is observed in natural surroundings.

It enables understanding significant events affecting social relations of the participants.
It determines reality from the viewpoint of the observed person/Researcher.
It avoids manipulations in the independent variables.
Recording of data is not selective.

PURPOSE OF OBSERVATION:
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

To capture human conduct as it actually happens. In other methods, we get a static comprehension
of peoples activity. In actual situation, they sometimes modify their views, sometimes contradict
themselves, and sometimes are so swayed away by the situation that they react differently
altogether. Ex: Tone of voice, facial expressions and content of slogans by the demonstrators.
To provide more graphic description of social life than can be acquired in other ways. Example:
The graphic details of behaviour of women when they are physically assaulted by their husbands
can only be got by observation method.
To explore important events and situations. By being present on the scene, issues that might
otherwise be overlooked are examined more carefully. Example: Visiting office soon after the
office hours and finding that the married men and single women are working overtime whereas
single men and married women had gone home.
It can be used as a tool of collecting information in situations where methods other than
observation cannot prove to be useful. Example: Workers behaviour during a strike.

PROCESS OF OBSERVATION:
Williamson, et al (1977) have pointed out the following four stages through which an observer has to
pass:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Choosing a research site

Gaining access in setting and taking role
Jotting down notes
Formulating analysis

1. Choosing a research site:

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After deciding the problem or the phenomenon of interest, the researcher can pinpoint a manageable
area for observation and data collection.
2. Gaining access in setting and taking role:
Once the site for the study is chosen, the observer faces the problem of obtaining entry in the
setting. This is possible by spelling out the motives of the study and seeking permission from the
administrator or by concealing the motive and seeking the help of a known person in the situation.
In some settings, however, the entry is not restricted. It is free and open to anyone who might
choose to be there.
Raymond Gold (1969) has pointed out four basic roles which a fieldworker (observer) can
assume:
Complete observer: Here, the observer remains disguised and detached from the situation studied.
Observer as participant: The observer is completely open about his research objectives and he
approaches people on that basis.
Participant as observer: Here, the observer gets involved effectively or conceals his role as
researcher.
Complete participant: The observer becomes fully involved both behaviourally and emotionally.
After gaining access and taking up role, the success or failure of getting information by the observer
would depend upon the trust or the mistrust he is able to get from the people who are to be observed.
3. Jotting down notes:
Taking accurate and detailed notes objectivity is very crucial. Since the researchers initially may not
know which data would be ultimately useful and important, he should take down all details to be
sorted out later on. The notes should record the description of the setting under investigation,
description of subjects, and description of conversations with persons and among persons, and any
fact or relevance or of unusual importance. This should be followed by tentative explanations of
things observed.
4. Formulating analysis:
It is possible that two researchers studying/observing same situation may give two different types of
analyses, particularly if the analysis is qualitative. One might focus on one type of social dimensions
and other on different types altogether. One analysis may challenge the existing theoretical view of
social life while other may support it. Classifying the initial data one the basis of accepted concepts
and categories (like status, role, soicialisation, mobility, structure and so on.) may provide a core basis
but later on new conceptual categories may be developed.
Sarantakos (1998) has pointed out the following six steps in the observation:
I.

II.

III.
IV.
V.

Selection of the topic: This refers to the issue to be studied though observation. It may be marital
conflict, domestic violence, riot, caste panchayat meeting in a village, child labourers in a glass
factory among others.
Formulation of the topic: This involves fixing of categories to be observed and pointing out the
situations in which cases are to be observed. Example: The life of child labourers in glass
factories: A study in X factory of Kanpur.
Research design: This determines identification of subjects to be observed, preparing observation
schedule, if any, and arranging entry in situations to be observed.
Collection of data: This involves familiarization with the setting, observation and recording.
Analysis of data: In this stage, the researcher analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets the
facts.

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VI. Report writing: This involves writing of the report for submission to the sponsoring agency or for
publication.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION:
Bailey (1998: 249-50) has pointed out four advantages of observation:
Superior in data collection on non-verbal behaviour: When a persons opinion on a particular
issue is to be assessed, survey method is definitely more useful, but when the non-verbal
behaviour is to be discovered or when memory failure of the respondent is possible, observation
will be more functional.
Intimate and informal relationship: Since the observer often lives with the subjects for an
extended period of time, the relationship between them is often more intimate and more informal
than in a survey in which the interviewer meets the respondents for 30-40 minutes on a very
formal basis.
Natural environment: The behaviour being observed in a natural environment will not cause any
bias. Observation will neither be artificial nor restrictive.
Longitudinal analysis: In observation, the researcher is able to conduct his study over a much
longer period than in the survey.
Sarantakos has mentioned the following advantages of observation among others:
It is less complicated and less time-consuming.
It offers data when respondents are unable or unwilling to cooperate for giving information.
It allows collection of wide range of information.

LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION:
According to Bailey (1982:250-52), the disadvantages in observation technique are:
Lack of control: In natural setting, control over variables is not possible that affect the data.
Difficulties of quantification: The data collected through observation cannot be quantified. In
communal riots, looting, arson, killing may be observed but it cannot be quantified what type of
people indulged in what? It is difficult to categorise in-depth emotional and humanistic data.
Small sample size: Observational studies use a smaller sample than survey studies.
Gaining entry: Many times the observer has difficulties in receiving approval for the study.
Lack of anonymity/studying sensitive issues
Limited study: All aspects of the problems cannot be studied simultaneously. The observation
technique studies only limited issues. Similarly, internal attitudes and opinions cannot be studied.

6.5 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

DEFINITION
Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the population or universe being
studied. But it can only describe the "who, what, when, where and how" of a situation, not what
caused it.
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena
to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

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Any study that is not truly experimental.
A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment
(i.e., nothing is manipulated).

PURPOSE
Descriptive research is used when the objective is to provide a systematic description that is as factual
and accurate as possible. It provides the number of times something occurs, or frequency, lends itself
to statistical calculations such as determining the average number of occurences or central tendencies.

TYPES
The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study
which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time.

1. Survey Studies
Survey studies assess the characteristics of whole populations of people or situations.
School Surveys - Used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a
school system.
Job Analysis - Used to gather information to be used in structuring a training program for a
particular job.
Documentary Analysis - Closely akin to historical research; deals with documenting present
situations.
Public Opinion Surveys - Used to enhance the decision making process by government officials.
Community Surveys - Used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a
community.

2.

Interrelationship Studies

Interrelationship Studies trace relationships among the facts obtained to gain a deeper insight into the
situation.
Case Studies - Probes in depth into an individual situation or personality with the intent of
diagnosing a particular condition and recommending corrective measures.
Causal Comparative Studies - Compares the likeness and difference among phenomena to
determine if certain factors or circumstances tend to accompany certain events, conditions, or
processes.
Correlation Studies - Determine the extent of the relationship between two or more variables

3. Developmental Studies
Developmental studies are concerned with the existing status and interrelationships of phenomena and
changes that take place as a function of time.
Growth Studies - May be either longitudinal or cross-sectional. The longitudinal technique is the
most satisfactory for studying human development. The cross-sectional technique is more
commonly used because it is less expensive.
Trend Studies - Used to make predictions from social trends, economic conditions, technological
advances, etc. to future status.

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Model or System Development - Creative development of a model or system (paradigm) based
on a thorough determination of the present situation or system and the goals sought.

RESEARCH DESIGN OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Statement of the problem

Identification of information needed to solve the problem
Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information
Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure
Design of procedure for information collection
Collection of information
Analysis of information
Generalizations and/or predictions

EVALUATION
Critical Examination of Source Materials - Descriptive studies cannot produce useful findings
if the investigation is based on erroneous information.
Technical Terminology - An absence of clearly assigned meanings for terms results in
ambiguous communications which cannot provide a solid foundation for scientific understanding.
Formulation of Hypotheses - Ambiguously formulated over-generalized or logically unsound
hypotheses lead to erroneous conclusions.
Observation and Experimentation - Experimentation involves the manipulation of independent
variables under controlled laboratory conditions and direct observation of the results. Observing
the phenomena as they exist may be the only way to examine and analyze the factors that are
associated with their occurrences in a natural situation.
Generalization and Prediction - Universal generalizations that permit highly accurate
predictions may be ideal, but even the physical scientists are less certain today than they once
were of their ability to predict in certain areas except in terms of scientific probability.
One of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine what causes a specific behavior,
motivation or occurrence. In other words, it cannot establish a causal research relationship
between variables.

6.6 CORRELATION RESEARCH

Definition& Purpose
The correlation is a way to measure how associated or related two variables are. The researcher looks
at things that already exist and determines if and in what way those things are related to each other.
The purpose of doing correlations is to allow us to make a prediction about one variable based on
what we know about another variable.
A method that assesses the degree of relationship between two variables.
For example, there is a correlation between income and education. We find that people with higher
income have more years of education. (You can also phrase it that people with more years of
education have higher income.) When we know there is a correlation between two variables, we can
make a prediction. If we know a groups income, we can predict their years of education.

Patterns or Directions of Correlation

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Remember that in a correlational study, the researcher is measuring conditions that already exist. She
or he is asking questions of a sample of participants, and finding out in what way pairs of variables
are related. For example, a researcher could ask about the participants yearly income and years of
education, to see if those two attributes are correlated.

Positive correlation
In a positive correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase, the values of the second
variable also increase. Likewise, as the value of one of the variables decreases, the value of the other
variable also decreases. The example above of income and education is a positive correlation. People
with higher incomes also tend to have more years of education. People with fewer years of education
tend to have lower income.
A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one is accompanied by an increase in
the other.
Here are some examples of positive correlations:
o SAT scores and college achievementamong college students, those with higher SAT scores also
have higher grades
o Happiness and helpfulnessas peoples happiness level increases, so does their helpfulness
(conversely, as peoples happiness level decreases, so does their helpfulness)

Negative correlation
In a negative correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase, the values of the second
variable decrease. Likewise, as the value of one of the variables decreases, the value of the other
variable increases.
A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one is accompanied by a decrease in the
other.
This is still a correlation. It is like an inverse correlation. The word negative is a label that shows
the direction of the correlation. There is a negative correlation between TV viewing and class
gradesstudents who spend more time watching TV tend to have lower grades (or phrased as
students with higher grades tend to spend less time watching TV).
Here are some other examples of negative correlations:
1. Education and years in jailpeople who have more years of education tend to have fewer years in
jail (or phrased as people with more years in jail tend to have fewer years of education)
2. Crying and being heldamong babies, those who are held more tend to cry less (or phrased as
babies who are held less tend to cry more)
MAGNITUDE: An indication of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
SCATTERPLOT: A figure that graphically represents the relationship between two variables.

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STRENGTH
Correlations, whether positive or negative, range in their strength from weak to strong.
Positive correlations will be reported as a number between 0 and 1. A score of 0 means that there is no
correlation (the weakest measure). A score of 1 is a perfect positive correlation, which does not really
happen in the real world. As the correlation score gets closer to 1, it is getting stronger. So, a
correlation of .8 is stronger than .6; but .6 is stronger than .3.
Negative correlations will be reported as a number between 0 and -1. Again, a 0 means no correlation
at all. A score of 1 is a perfect negative correlation, which does not really happen. As the correlation
score gets close to -1, it is getting stronger. So, a correlation of -.7 is stronger than -.5; but -.5 is
stronger than -.2.
Remember that the negative sign does not indicate anything about strength. It is a symbol to tell you
that the correlation is negative in direction. When judging the strength of a correlation, just look at the
number and ignore the sign.
Imagine reading four correlational studies with the following scores. You want to decide which study
had the strongest results:
-.3 -.8 .4 .7
In this example, -.8 is the strongest correlation. The negative sign means that its direction is negative.

ADVANTAGE
An advantage of the correlation method is that we can make predictions about things when we
know about correlations. If two variables are correlated, we can predict one based on the other.
For example, we know that SAT scores and college achievement are positively correlated. So
when college admission officials want to predict who is likely to succeed at their schools, they will
choose students with high SAT scores.
We know that years of education and years of jail time are negatively correlated. Prison officials
can predict that people who have spent more years in jail will need remedial education, not college
classes.

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DISADVANTAGE
1. The problem that most students have with the correlation method is remembering that correlation
does not measure cause. Correlation is not Causation!
2. We know that education and income are positively correlated. We do not know if one caused the
other. It might be that having more education causes a person to earn a higher income. It might be
that having a higher income allows a person to go to school more. It might also be some third
variable.
3. A correlation tells us that the two variables are related, but we cannot say anything about whether
one caused the other. This method does not allow us to come to any conclusions about cause and
effect.

6.7 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

DEFINITION
An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an
experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.
A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, to examine the
validity of a hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy of something previously untried.
The goal of experiments is to create a controlled environment in which the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable can be carefully measured and documented.
A research project in which the investigator creates initially equivalent groups, systematically
manipulates an independent variable, and compares the groups to see if the independent variable
affected the subsequent behavior.
a research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause- and-effect relationship through
manipulation of a variable and control of the situation.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid
conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the
conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted.
Experimental research involves a pre structuring or manipulation of the research environment and the
observation of peoples reaction to such manipulations. Experimental research usually is functional; it
is often quantitative and exemplifies traditional scientific research.
Process:
Following eight steps are necessary in conducting an experimental research:1.
Select the setting
2.
Select the experimental design
3.
Operationalize the Variables
4.
Decide how to manipulate the independent variable
5.
Select and assign subjects to experimental conditions
6.
Conduct a pilot study
7.
Administer the experiment
8.
Analyze and interpret the result

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Steps involved in conducting an experimental

study
1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
3. Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and relations of
the consequences.

Select sample of subjects.

Group or pair subjects.
Identify and control non experimental factors.
Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
Conduct pilot study.
Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.

4. Conduct the experiment.

5. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
6. Apply an appropriate test of significance.

Essentials of Experimental Research

Manipulation of an independent variable.
An attempt is made to hold all other variables except the dependent variable constant - control.
Effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable observation.
Control group: The group of participants who do not receive any level of the independent
variable and serve as the baseline in a study.
Experimental group: The group of participants who receive some level of the independent
variable.
Control: manipulating the independent variable in an experiment or any other extraneous
variables that could affect the results of a study.
Random assignment:
The process of assigning participants in an experiment to groups on a random basis in order to
maximize the likelihood of creating comparable groups. Assigning participants to conditions in
such a way that each has the same probability as all others of being placed in any condition.

STEPS IN DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.

Choose a topic, review the literature, and develop a research question or questions.
Clearly state your hypothesis or hypotheses and identify the key variables.
Design or develop measures of the dependent variable (pre-test and post-test).
Determine means of manipulating independent variable(s) (experimental factor or intervention).
Develop means of controlling for relevant intervening variables.
Select subjects and create experimental and control groups.
Make sure human subjects are adequately protected.
Conduct experiment.
Analyze results and draw conclusions about hypotheses.
Publish findings and conclusions.

THE LOGIC AND DESIGN OF THE CLASSICAL EXPERIMENT

Operationalization of the independent variable
Operationalizing the dependent variable. Treatment group : The group which receives the
treatment or intervention or service that is being studied/tested." Also known as experimental
group.

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Controlling for extraneous factors
EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL : Experimental control attempts to predict events that will occur in
the experimental setting by neutralizing the effects of other factors. In order to insure that any
change in the dependent variable is due to the introduction of the independent variable and not
something else, all other factors are carefully controlled.
1. Physically controlling the environment of the experiment.
2. CONTROL GROUP: A group in an experimental study, which serves as a comparison group.
The experimental treatment, procedure or program is not given to those in the control group,
leaving these participants to either receive the usual available care, or an alternative, such as
a placebo.

Validity of Experimental Design

Internal Validity asks did the experimental treatment make the difference in this specific instance
rather than other extraneous variables?
External Validity asks to what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement
variables can this observed effect be generalized?

THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENTS.

A.

B.

Internal.
i. Selection bias.
ii. History, maturation, and attrition.
iii. Testing sensitivity.
iv. Instrumentation.
v. Statistical regression.
vi. Diffusion, contamination, and imitation.
vii. Compensatory behavior, competition, and demoralization.
viii. Researcher expectations.
External.
1.
Lack of realism.
2.
Problems with generalizability.
3.
Reactivity.

Factors Jeopardizing Internal Validity

2. History - The events occurring between the first and second measurements in addition to the
experimental variable which might affect the measurement.
3. Maturation - The process of maturing which takes place in the individual during the duration of
the experiment which is not a result of specific events but of simply growing older, growing more
tired, or similar changes. Example: Subjects become tired after completing a training session, and
their responses on the Posttest are affected.
4. Pre-testing - The effect created on the second measurement by having a measurement before the
experiment. Example: Subjects take a Pretest and think about some of the items. On the Posttest
they change to answers they feel are more acceptable. Experimental group learns from the pretest.
5. Measuring Instruments - Changes in instruments, calibration of instruments, observers, or
scorers may cause changes in the measurements. Example: Interviewers are very careful with their
first two or three interviews but on the 4th, 5th, 6th become fatigued and are less careful and make
errors.
6. Statistical Regression - Groups are chosen because of extreme scores of measurements; those
scores or measurements tend to move toward the mean with repeated measurements even without
an experimental variable. Example: Managers who are performing poorly are selected for
training. Their average Posttest scores will be higher than their Pretest scores because of statistical
regression, even if no training were given.

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7. Differential Selection - Different individuals or groups would have different previous knowledge
or ability which would affect the final measurement if not taken into account. Example: A group
of subjects who have viewed a TV program is compared with a group which has not. There is no
way of knowing that the groups would have been equivalent since they were not randomly
assigned to view the TV program.
8. Experimental Mortality - The loss of subjects from comparison groups could greatly affect the
comparisons because of unique characteristics of those subjects. Groups to be compared need to
be the same after as before the experiment. Example: Over a 6 month experiment aimed to change
accounting practices, 12 accountants drop out of the experimental group and none drop out of the
control group. Not only is there differential loss in the two groups, but the 12 dropouts may be
very different from those who remained in the experimental group.
9. Interaction of Factors, such as Selection Maturation, etc. - Combinations of these factors may
interact especially in multiple group comparisons to produce erroneous measurements.

Factors Jeopardizing External Validity or Generalizability

1. Pre-Testing -Individuals who were pretested might be less or more sensitive to the experimental
variable or might have "learned" from the pre-test making them unrepresentative of the population
who had not been pre-tested. Example: Prior to viewing a film on Environmental Effects of
Chemical, a group of subjects is given a 60 item antichemical test. Taking the Pretest may increase
the effect of the film. The film may not be effective for a nonpretested group.
2. Differential Selection - The selection of the subjects determines how the findings can be
generalized. Subjects selected from a small group or one with particular characteristics would limit
generalizability. Randomly chosen subjects from the entire population could be generalized to the
entire population. Example: Researcher, requesting permission to conduct experiment, is turned
down by 11 corporations, but the 12th corporation grant permission. The 12th corporation is
obviously different then the others because they accepted. Thus subjects in the 12th corporation
may be more accepting or sensitive to the treatment.
3. Experimental Procedures - The experimental procedures and arrangements have a certain
amount of effect on the subjects in the experimental settings. Generalization to persons not in the
experimental setting may be precluded. Example: Department heads realize they are being studied,
try to guess what the experimenter wants and respond accordingly rather than respond to the
treatment.
4. Multiple Treatment Interference - If the subjects are exposed to more than one treatment then
the findings could only be generalized to individuals exposed to the same treatments in the same
order of presentation. Example: A group of CPAs is given training in working with managers
followed by training in working with comptrollers. Since training effects cannot be deleted, the
first training will affect the second.

Tools of Experimental Design Used to Control Factors Jeopardizing Validity

Pre-Test - The pre-test, or measurement before the experiment begins, can aid control for
differential selection by determining the presence or knowledge of the experimental variable
before the experiment begins. It can aid control of experimental mortality because the subjects can
be removed from the entire comparison by removing their pre-tests.
However, pre-tests cause problems by their effect on the second measurement and by causing
generalizability problems to a population not pre-tested and those with no experimental
arrangements.
Control Group -The use of a matched or similar group which is not exposed to the experimental
variable can help reduce the effect of History, Maturation, Instrumentation, and Interaction of
Factors. The control group is exposed to all conditions of the experiment except the experimental
variable.

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Randomization - Use of random selection procedures for subjects can aid in control of Statistical
Regression, Differential Selection, and the Interaction of Factors. It greatly increases
generalizability by helping make the groups representative of the populations.
Additional Groups - The effects of Pre-tests and Experimental Procedures can be partially
controlled through the use of groups which were not pre-tested or exposed to experimental
arrangements. They would have to be used in conjunction with other pre-tested groups or other
factors jeopardizing validity would be present.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTS

A. Advantages.
1. Almost all extraneous factors are controlled, so that change in the dependent variable is almost
certainly due to change in the independent variable, making time order and causality relatively
easy to demonstrate.
2. Existing measurement instruments can be used to measure the dependent variable saving time and
increasing reliability.
3. Multiple and composite measurements of the dependent variable are possible, increasing validity
and allowing the measurement of complex multidimensional dependent variables.
4. Allows behavioral outcomes to be observed and measured.
5. Data are typically easy to code and quantify for statistical analysis.
6. They are relatively safe, fairly easy to carry out, and generally time efficient.
7. They can be relatively inexpensive, depending on how elaborate the design is and whether
subjects are paid to participate.

B. Disadvantages.
1. Since experiments are usually based on small random samples, problems arise if sampling is done
incorrectly. Also, small samples make inference to larger populations more difficult.
2. Experiments generally take place in contrived settings, raising questions about their validity in the
real world.
3. Experiments require significant researcher involvement, raising questions about reactivity and
researcher effect.
4. Because experiments typically involve manipulating people and their environment, they can
present numerous ethical problems.
5. If experiments are not carefully designed or require a great deal of time between the pre- and posttests, numerous problems can occur that reduce their validity.
6. They are typically limited to data by and about individuals or small groups.

Experimental Designs
Pre-Experimental Design - loose in structure, could be biased
Aim of the
Research

Name of the
Design

Notation
Paradigm

Comments

To attempt to
explain a
consequent by an
antecedent

One-shot
experimental case
study

X O

An approach that prematurely links

antecedents and consequences. The
least reliable of all experimental
approaches.

To evaluate the
influence of a
variable

One group
pretest-posttest

OXO

An approach that provides a measure of

change but can provide no conclusive
results.

To determine the

Static group

Group 1: X

Weakness lies in no examination of pre-

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variable on one
group and not on
another

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O
Group 2: - O

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experimental equivalence of groups.

Conclusion is reached by comparing the
performance of each group to determine
the effect of a variable on one of them.

True Experimental Design - greater control and refinement, greater control

of validity
Aim of the
Research

Name of the
Design

Notation
Paradigm

Comments

To study the effect

of an influence on
a carefully
controlled sample

Pretest-posttest
control group

R--[OXO

This design has been called "the old

workhorse of traditional
experimentation." If effectively
carried out, this design controls for
eight threats of internal validity. Data
are analyzed by analysis of
covariance on posttest scores with the
pretest the covariate.

To minimize the
effect of pretesting

Solomon fourgroup design

[O-O

R--[OXO
[O-O
[- X O

This is an extension of the pretestposttest control group design and

probably the most powerful
experimental approach. Data are
analyzed by analysis of variance on
posttest scores.

[--O
To evaluate a
situation that
cannot be
pretested

Posttest only
control group

R--[ XO
[-O

An adaptation of the last two groups

in the Solomon four-group design.
Randomness is critical. Probably, the
simplest and best test for significance
in this design is the t-test.

Quasi-Experimental Design - not randomly selected

Aim of the
Research

Name of the
Design

Notation Paradigm

To investigate a
situation in which
random selection
and assignment
are not possible

Nonrandomized
control group
pretest-posttest

OXO

To determine the
influence of a

Time series
experiment

OOXOO

O-O

Comments
One of the strongest and most
widely used quasi-experimental
designs. Differs from experimental
designs because test and control
groups are not equivalent.
Comparing pretest results will
indicate degree of equivalency
between experimental and control
groups.
If substantial change follows
introduction of the variable, then

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introduced only
after a series of
initial
observations and
only where one
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the variable can be suspect as to

the cause of the change. To
increase external validity, repeat
the experiment in different places
under different conditions.

To bolster the
validity of the
above design with
the addition of a
control group

Control group
time series

To control history
in time designs
with a variant of
the above design

Equivalent
time-samples

OOXOO
OO-OO

[X1 O1] [X0

O2] [x1 O3]

A variant of the above design by

accompanying it with a parallel set
of observations without the
introduction of the experimental
variable.
An on-again, off-again design in
which the experimental variable is
sometimes present, sometimes
absent.

Correlational and Ex Post Facto Design

Aim of the Research
To seek for cause-effect
relationships between two
sets of data

Name of the
Design
Causalcomparative
correlational
studies

Notation
Paradigm

Comments

A very deceptive procedure that

requires much insight for its use.
Causality cannot be inferred merely
because a positive and close correlation
ratio exists.

Oa Ob
-

To search backward from

consequent data for
antecedent causes

7.

Ex post facto
studies

This approach is experimentation in

reverse. Seldom is proof through data
substantiation possible. Logic and
inference are the principal tools of this
design

SAMPLING AND ITS TECHNIQUES

1. WHAT IS SAMPLING
The process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make conclusions
about the whole population.
The act or process of selecting a sample for testing, analyzing, etc.
Sampling is the process of choosing participants for a research study from a population. Sampling
involves choosing a small group of participants that will represent a larger group.
It enables the researchers to estimate unknown characteristics of the population.
A process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations will be
taken from a larger population.

WHY SAMPLE? / IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING

Sampling is used because it is difficult or impractical to include all members of a group

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Saves Cost, Labor, and Time:
Quality Management/supervision: At the same time it may be easier to manage a small group
and produce quality information. Supervision, record keeping, training, and so forth would all be
more difficult in a very large study.
Accurate and Reliable Results: Another major reason for sampling is that samples, if properly
selected, are sufficiently accurate in most of the cases. If the elements of a population are quite
similar, only a small sample is necessary to accurately portray the characteristics of population.
Sampling may be the Only Way: Many research projects, especially those in quality control
testing, require the destruction of the items being tested.

SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY
Element: An element is that unit about which information is collected and which provides the
basis of analysis.
Population: A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. A
complete group of entities sharing some common set of characteristics is population. In other
words, the totality out of which sample is drawn is referred to as population.
Sample: A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger whole. The representative part of the
population is called a sample. Representative sample is a sample that is like the population.
Target Population: Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to focus
on. This may also be called a target population. Target population is the complete group of
specific population elements relevant to the research project. Target population may also be
called survey population i.e. that aggregation of elements from which the survey sample is
actually selected.
Sampling Frame: A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be
drawn. A sampling frame is also called the working population because it provides the list that
can be worked with operationally. A simple example could be listing of all college students
meeting the criteria of target population and who are enrolled on the specified date.
Sampling Frame Error: A sampling frame error occurs when certain sample elements are
excluded or when the entire population is not accurately represented in the sampling frame.
Sampling Unit: A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in
some stage of sampling. Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple stages. In a simple,
single-stage sample, the sampling units are the same as the elements. In more complex samples,
however, different levels of sampling units may be employed. For example, a researcher may
select a sample of Areas in a city, and then select a sample of households from the selected Areas,
and finally may select a sample of adults from the selected households.
Observation Unit: An observation unit, or unit of data collection, is an element or aggregation of
elements from which the information is collected.
Parameter: A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population.
Statistic: A statistic is the summary description of a given variable in a survey sample.
Sampling Error: Probability sampling methods seldom, if ever, provide statistics exactly equal
to the parameters that they are used to estimate. Probability theory, however, permits us to
estimate the error to be expected for a given sample.
N = the number of cases in the sampling frame
n = the number of cases in the sample
NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N
f = n/N = the sampling fraction

2. TYPES OR TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING

There are basically two types of sampling:
A. Probability
B. Non-probability

A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

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It is a type/ technique of sampling in which every unit of the population has an equal probability of
being selected for the sample. This remains the primary method for selecting large, representative
samples for social science and business researches.
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that
assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen.
The simple random is the best known probability sample, in which each member of the population has
an equal probability of being selected. Probability sampling designs are used when the
representativeness of the sample is of importance in the interest of wider generalisability. When time
or other factors, rather than generalisability, become critical, non-probability sampling is generally
used.
Probability samples are selected in such a way as to be representative of the population. They
provide the most valid or credible results because they reflect the characteristics of the population
from which they are selected.
Advantages of Probability Sampling:
High degree of representativeness
Less biasness
Disadvantages of Probability Sampling:
The method is expensive and time consuming.
Relatively complicated since it requires a large sample size and units selected are usually largely
scattered.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

i.

SIMPLE RANDOM PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Random means Each individual in the population of interest has an equal

likelihood of selection.

Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal chance of being
selected.
In this sampling the sampling units are selected randomly by one of the number of methods given
below:

Lottery
Picking blind folded
Tippets table method or random numbers method
By first letter
Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number generator, or a mechanical device.

Advantages:
Sampling error is less
Simplest and easiest to conduct and explain
The researcher does not need to know about the exact composition of the population.
Disadvantages:
Researchers knowledge on population is not used.
Not possible if the researcher wants to break it in different sub-groups.
Produces greater errors in results than other methods.

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STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:

When the population is divided into different strata or sub-groups and sample units are taken in a
simple random method from each group. The final sample contains sample units from all these strata.
A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the population. Before sampling, the population is
divided into characteristics of importance for the research. For example, by gender,
social class, education level, religion, etc. Then the population is randomly
sampled within each category or stratum. If 38% of the population is collegeeducated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-educated
population.
Stratified Random Sampling is dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking
a simple random sample in each subgroup. In more formal terms:
Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, Ni, such
that N1 + N2 +N3 + + Ni = N. Then do a simple random sample of f = n/N in each strata.
A stratified random sample allows us to take into account the different sub-groups of people in the
population and to guarantee that the sample accurately represents the population on specific
characteristics. We begin by dividing the population into strata or subsamples. In our example the
strata (men and women) are based on gender. We then randomly select 70% of our sample from the
female stratum and 30% of our sample from the male stratum. In this manner we ensure that the
characteristic of gender in the sample is representative of the population.
Stratified random sampling is of two types:
If the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the relative population
size of the stratum, the sample is proportionate stratified sampling. Sometime, however, a
disproportionate stratified sample will be selected to ensure an adequate number of sampling units in
every stratum.
Proportionate: When the sample units are chosen proportionate to the size of the strata.
Disproportionate: When it is not proportionate to the size of the strata.
When we use the same sampling fraction within strata we are conducting proportionate stratified
random sampling. When we use different sampling fractions in the strata, we call this disproportionate
stratified random sampling. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical
precision than simple random sampling.
Advantages of stratified sampling:

All groups of the population can be proportionately represented.

Comparison can be made among different sub-categories.
More precise than simple random sampling.
It assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key
subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups.
If you want to be able to talk about subgroups, this may be the only way to effectively assure
youll be able to.
Can show different tendencies within each category (e.g. men and women).
Disadvantages of stratified sampling:
More efforts required than simple random sampling.
The population has to be appreciably large to get statistically meaningful results.

iii.

SYSTEMATIC (INTERVAL) RANDOM SAMPLING:

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The sampling is obtained by collecting of elements by drawing every nth person from a predetermined list of persons. It is randomly selecting the first respondent and then every nth person after
that. The number n is called the sampling interval.
With this method, items are chosen from the population according to a fixed rule, e.g. every
10th house along a street. This method should yield a more representative sample than the random
sample (especially if the sample size is small).
Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a systematic random sample:

number the units in the population from 1 to N

decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between 1 to k
then take every kth unit

Lets assume that we have a population that only has N=100 people in it and that you want to take a
sample of n=20. To use systematic sampling, the population must be listed in a random order. The
sampling fraction would be f = 20/100 = 20%. in this case, the interval size, k, is equal to N/n =
100/20 = 5. Now, select a random integer from 1 to 5. In our example, imagine that you chose 4.
Now, to select the sample, start with the 4th unit in the list and take every k-th unit (every 5th,
because k=5). You would be sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on to 100 and you would wind up
with 20 units in your sample.
Advantages:
It is easy, simple to use and a rapid method.
Mistakes in drawing elements are relatively unimportant.
Can eliminate other sources of bias
Disadvantages:
It ignores all persons between two nth numbers paving the way of over/under representation of
several groups.
As each element has no chance of being selected, it is often not considered probability sampling.

iv.

CLUSTER SAMPLING:

This sampling implies dividing population into clusters and drawing random sample either from all
clusters or selected clusters.
Used when populations can be broken down into many different categories, or clusters (e.g. church
parishes). Rather than taking a sample from each cluster, a random selection of clusters is chosen to
represent the whole. Within each cluster, a random sample is taken.
Initial clusters are called primary sampling units; clusters within the secondary clusters are called
multi-stage clusters. For example, dividing one city into various wards, each ward into areas, each
area into neighborhood and each neighborhood into lanes and so on.
The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population thats disbursed
across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order
to get to each of the units you sampled. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries)
randomly sample clusters
measure all units within sampled clusters
Lets say that we have to do a survey of town governments that will require us going to the towns
personally. If we do a simple random sample state-wide well have to cover the entire state
geographically. Instead, we decide to do a cluster sampling of five counties . Once these are selected,

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we go to every town government in the five areas. Clearly this strategy will help us to economize on
our mileage. Cluster or area sampling, then, is useful in situations like this, and is done primarily for
efficiency of administration.
Advantages:

Much easier when large population or large geographical area is studied.

Less costly
Respondents can be easily replaced.
Characteristics of clusters can be estimated.
Administratively simple to handle.
Handy when it is inconvenient or unethical to randomly select individuals.
Can show "regional" variations

Disadvantages:
Each cluster may not be of equal size, so comparison would no be on equal basis.
Greater sampling error
Lacks representation

v.

MULTI-STAGE:

When we combine sampling methods, we call this multi-stage sampling.

In this method, sampling is selected in various stages but only the last sample of subjects is studied.
For example: For studying the panchayat system in villages, India is divided into zones = North,
South, East and West. One state is selected from each zone say Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Assam and
Gujrat. One district will be selected from each state. One block is selected from each district, and
three villages are selected from each block. Ultimately we will have 12 villages from all over India
from which we can take respondents for the final sample.
Advantages:
More representative
Saves cost
Complete listing of population is not necessary.

vi.

DOUBLE SAMPLING

This plan is adopted when further information is needed from a subset of the group from which some
information has already been collected for the same study. A sampling design where initially a
sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a sub-sample of
this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail, is called double sampling.

B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Mass media researchers frequently use non-probability sampling.
This is the kind of sampling where all sampling units dont have the equal chance of selection.
In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population being chosen
is unknown. The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary, as researchers rely
heavily on personal judgment. It should be noted that there are no appropriate statistical techniques
for measuring random sampling error from a non-probability sample. Thus projecting the data
beyond the sample is statistically inappropriate. Nevertheless, there are occasions when nonprobability samples are best suited for the researchers purpose.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

i.

CONVENIENCE/AVAILABLE SAMPLING:

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This is known as accidental or haphazard sampling. This is a collection of readily accessible subjects
for study.
Example: During election times, media personnel often present man-on-the-street interviews that are
presumed to reflect public opinion.
Convenience sampling is best suited for exploratory research which becomes the base for further
investigations.
Advantages:
Quick and economical
Disadvantages:
It may be biased as:
The respondents may have a vested interests to serve in co-operating with the interviewer.
Respondents may be those who are vocal or want to brag.

ii. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:

It is also known as judgmental sampling. It includes subjects or elements selected for specific
characteristics or qualities and eliminates those who fail to meet those criteria.
Example: Often used in advertising studies where researchers select the subjects who use a particular
type of product and ask them to compare it with a new product.
Disadvantages:
Not representative in nature.

iii.

QUOTA SAMPLING:

Subjects are selected to a predetermined or known percentage/quota. The defining characteristic of

a quota sample is that the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the
sample.
As with stratified samples, the population is broken down into different
categories. However, the size of the sample of each category does not reflect the
population as a whole. This can be used where an unrepresentative sample is
desirable (e.g. you might want to interview more children than adults for a survey on computer
games), or where it would be too difficult to undertake a stratified sample.
Example: A researcher interested to find out how DTH service takers are different from non-DTH
service takers in their use of TV may know that 10% of a particular population avail DTH services.
The sample the researcher selects, therefore, would be composed of 10% of DTH service takers and
90% of non-DTH service takers.
Advantages:

Less costly than other techniques.

Does not require sampling frame.
Relatively effective and can be completed in a very short time.
Sometimes a deliberately biased sample is desirable

Disadvantages:
It might not be representative.
It might have interviewers bias in selection.
Strict control of fieldwork is difficult (instead of 25 only 20 respondents may be available.)

iv.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING:

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In this technique, the researcher begins the research with a few respondents who are known and
available to him. Subsequently, the respondents give other names who meet the criteria of research,
who in turn give more names. This process is continued until adequate numbers of persons are
interviewed or until no more respondents are discovered.
Example: A research on the sexual behavior of homosexuals in a conservative society.
This method is employed when the target population is unknown or when it is difficult to approach
the respondents in any other way.
Advantages:
Reduced sample size
Reduced cost
Disadvantages:
A person known to someone has a higher probability of being similar to the first person.

v.

VOLUNTEER SAMPLING

This is a technique in which the respondents themselves finally volunteer to give information they
hold.

vi.

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

Sequential sampling is similar to purposive sampling with one difference. In purposive sampling, the
researcher tries to find as many relevant cases as possible, until time, financial resources, or his or her
energy is exhausted. The principle is to get every possible case. In sequential sampling, a researcher
continues to gather cases until the amount of new information or diversity is filled. The principle is to
gather cases until a saturation point is reached.

vii.

THEORETICAL SAMPLING

In theoretical sampling, what the researcher is sampling (e.g. people, situation, events, time periods,
etc.) is carefully selected, as the researcher develops grounded theory.

8.
1.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND ITS

TECHNIQUES
DEFINITION

A literature review is a concise summary of published research on a topic. It synthesizes/

Combines the works of others into a brief overview of all research and identifies important gaps in
the research, methodological difficulties, and debates within a field. These gaps, difficulties, and
debates become the areas of focus for current researchers.
A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular
issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical
evaluation of these works. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you
have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits into the larger field of study.
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a certain topic by accredited
scholars and researchers. Your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have
been established on the topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.

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A literature review is a critical analytical summary and synthesis of the current knowledge of a
topic.
LITERATURE REVIEW is a survey of important articles, books and other sources pertaining to
your research topic.

2.

GOALS/ PURPOSE/ IMPORTANCE

1. To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A good

review increases a readers confidence in the researchers professional competence, ability,
and background.
2. To know the path of prior research and how a current research project is linked to it. A
review outlines the direction, ability, and background of research on a question and shows the
development of knowledge. A good review places a research project in a context and
demonstrates its relevance by making connections to a body of knowledge.
3. To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A review pulls together and
synthesizes different results. A good review points out areas where prior studies agree, where
they disagree, and where major questions remain. It collects what is known to a point in time
and indicates the direction for future research. No reinventing the wheel. No wastage of effort.
4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review tells what others have found so that
a researcher can benefit from the efforts of others. A good review identifies blind alleys and
suggests hypotheses for replication. It reveals procedures, techniques, and research designs
worth copying so that a researcher can better focus hypotheses and gain new insights.
5. Identification of variables.
6. Helps in developing theoretical framework.
7. Helps in developing theoretical framework.
Analyze and criticize the existing work
Compare& contrast
Discover relationship between sources
Identify major themes& concepts
Identify critical gap and disagreements
Check the worth and validity
Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research,
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies,
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature.
This process will assist you in furthering narrowing the problem for investigation, and will
highlight any theories that may exist to support developing hypotheses.
Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates.

3.

TECHNIQUES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. TRADITIONAL OR NARRATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW

Critiques and summarizes a body of literature

Draws conclusions about the topic
Identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge
Requires a sufficiently focused research question

Weaknesses:

A large number of studies may make it difficult to draw conclusions

The process is subject to bias that supports the researcher's own work.

2.

SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW

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More rigorous/ thorough and well-defined approach
Comprehensive
Published and unpublished studies relating to a particular subject area
Details the time frame within which the literature was selected
Details the methods used to evaluate and synthesize findings of the studies in question
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the
review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect
form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

3. META-ANALYSIS

A form of systematic review (reductive)

Takes findings from several studies on the same subject and analyzes them using standardized
statistical procedures
Integrates findings from a large body of quantitative findings to enhance under-standing
Draws conclusions and detect patterns and relationships

A method for simplifying the process of drawing conclusions from a bewildering array of
inconsistent findings across different studies on the same topic is called meta-analysis. Although
the term sounds complicated, its underlying meaning is not. Meta-analysis simply involves
calculating the mean effect size across previously completed research studies on a particular topic.

4. META-SYNTHESIS

Non-statistical technique
Integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of multiple qualitative research studies
Identifies common core elements and themes
May use findings from phenomenological, grounded theory or ethnographic studies
Involves analyzing and synthesizing key elements
Goal: transform individual findings into new conceptualizations and interpretations

4.

TYPES

A. METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW
Methodological reviews point out how methodology varies by study. Researcher evaluates the
methodological strength of past studies.
A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of
analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of
theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables
researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical
documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration,
quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and
helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our
study.

B. THEORETICAL REVIEW
Theoretical reviews compare how different theories address an issue. It present different theories that
purport to explain the same thing, then evaluates how well each accounts for findings. In addition to

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examining the consistency of predictions with findings, a theoretical review may compare theories for
the soundness of their assumptions, logical consistency, and scope of explanation.
The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the mass of theory that has accumulated in regard
to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories
already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been
investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a
lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or
emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory
or framework.

C. ARGUMENTATIVE REVIEW
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute/ counter an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to
develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of
some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative
approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However,
note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of
the sort found in systematic reviews.

D. INTEGRATIVE REVIEW
Integrative review summarizes what is known at a point in time. It presents the current state of
knowledge and pulls together disparate research reports in a fast growing area of knowledge.
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a
topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The
body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done
integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and
replication.

E. HISTORICAL REVIEW
Historical review traces the development of an issue over time. It traces the development of an idea or
shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved over
time.
Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent/
pattern. Historical reviews are focused on examining
research throughout a period of time, often starting with
the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena
emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution
within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to
place research in a historical context to show familiarity
with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the
likely directions for future research.

F. CHRONOLOGICAL
G. THEMATIC
1. Stand alone literature reviews

These provide an overview and analysis of the current state of research on a topic or question.
The goal is to evaluate and compare previous research on a topic to provide an analysis of what
is currently known; also to reveal controversies, weaknesses or gaps in current work.

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2. Part of a research proposal (for a PhD dissertation, a thesis, a class project, or a

submission for a grant:

By pointing out current issues and questions concerning a topic the revi ew is crucial to
demonstrating how your proposed research will contribute to the field.
3. Part of a research report: The review should provide the context to which your work is a
contribution.
4. Self-study reviews increase the readers confidence. A review that only demonstrates familiarity
with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program.
5. Context reviews place a specific project in the big picture. One of the goals of review is creating a
link to a developing body of knowledge. This is a background or context review. It introduces the
rest of a research and establishes the significance and relevance of a research question. It tells the
reader how a project fits into the big picture and its implications for a field of knowledge. The
review can summarize how the current research continues a developing line of thought, or it can
point to a question or unresolved conflict in prior research to be addressed.

5.
I.

PROCESS

CHOOSING LITERATURE/ LITERATURE SEARCH

Finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers.* First, there are the
primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that
summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies.
Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally
that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is
often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose
relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

SOURCES OF REVIEW
Where to find the Research Literature

Computer: on line systems.

Scholarly journals.
Dissertations.
Government documents.
Policy reports and presented papers.
Bibliographic indexes.
LIBRARY RESEARCH
Journals
Abstracts
Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index
Dissertation Abstracts
Internet
Books
Encyclopedias

Considerations while selecting material

Validate
Relevant
Important
Accredited

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II. Organizing the review:

Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronological of Events
By Publication
Thematic (conceptual categories)
By topic
Problem -> solution
Cause -> effect
Another approach is to organize your review by argument and counter argument.

III. Summarize, synthesize/ Overview:

Introduction:
a brief idea of the
topic of the literature review, perhaps the central theme and the organisational pattern. An
overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the
literature review. Current Situation

Division of works under review into themes or categories (e.g. works that support of a particular
position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely). An explanation of how
each work is similar to and how it varies from the others.
A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization,
or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a
research problem.

IV. Data Evaluation: determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic.
The critical evaluation of each work should consider:

Provenance/ Attribution
Objectivity
Persuasiveness
Value

V.

Analysis and Interpretation:

discussing the findings and conclusions of

pertinent literature.

VI. Conclusion:

Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are

most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and
development of their area of research. a summary of what has emerged from the review

DOS IN WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW

Use Evidence
Be Selective
Summarize and Synthesize

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ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities.

ETHICAL PRINCIPALS IN RESEARCH

Minimize The Risk Of Harm
One of the most important issues in all of research ethics is that subjects not be harmed by your study.
To avoid physical harm is obvious, but other areas need to be avoided also. These areas are:
psychological stress, personal embarrassment, and humiliation. The dignity of the subject (be it
human or animal) needs to always be a concern of the researcher. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong justifications for
this. There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These include:

Physical harm to participants.

Psychological distress and discomfort.
Social disadvantage.
Harm to financial status.
An invasion of participants privacy and anonymity.
Avoid Social, economic, or legal harm.

Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not intentionally go out
to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to minimize.
Protect Privacy
All individuals have right to privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The privacy guarantee is
important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents. The
confidentiality of the survey answers is an important aspect of the respondents right to privacy.
A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any
question in an interview. Potential participants have a right to privacy in their own homes including
not admitting researchers and not answering telephones. To address these rights, ethical researchers
do the following:

Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the
study.
Obtain permission to interview respondents.
Schedule field and phone interviews.
Limit the time required for participation.
Restrict observation to public behavior only.
Obtain Informed consent
Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of the
proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study.
Informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part in research
and (b)what the research requires of them. Such information may include the purpose of the research,
the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands,
discomforts, inconveniences and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it not possible to know
exactly what information a potential participant would (or would not) want to know, you should aim

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not to leave out any material information; that is, information that you feel would influence whether
consent would (or would not) be granted.
Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants should be volunteers, taking
part without having been coerced and deceived.
Consent - This is the procedure by which research subjects choose whether or not they wish to
participate in a research study. Consent involves three elements: capacity, information, and
voluntariness. All three elements must be satisfied for consent to be given.
o

Capacity is defined as the ability to acquire or retain knowledge, and the authority, or legal
qualification, to perform an act. Is the subject able to decide if he wants to participate?
Does a child or a person who is mentally retarded have capacity?

Information consists of insuring the subjects are told, and they understand, the purpose of
the study and their roles as subjects.
Voluntariness means that the subject chooses to be in the study of his/her own free will
and is free to withdraw from the study at any time. There must be no element of force,
fraud, deceit, duress, hidden form of constraint or coercion to get a subject to participate.

Avoid using deceptive practices

Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons for deception: (1)
to prevent biasing the respondents before the survey or experiment and (2) to protect the
confidentiality of a third party (e.g. the sponsor). Deception should not be used in an attempt to
improve response rates.
Deception in research involves the misrepresentation of facts related to the purpose, nature, or
consequences of a research study. The omission of facts is the same as misrepresentation. Subjects
need to be fully informed in order to give consent. If any part of the study is misrepresented then the
subjects have not fully consented to the study and the researcher is morally in the wrong. He can be
successfully sued if harm comes to the subjects or if their privacy is violated.
At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all, how can participants
know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them if they are
being deceived? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive practices controversial. For this
reason, in most circumstances, research should avoid any kinds of deceptive practices. However, this
is not always the case.
Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be justified in some
cases. Covert
research reflects
research
where (a) the identity
of
the
observer and/or (b)the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases where you may
choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular
phenomenon that is being studied.

This is most likely to be the case where research involves observation, rather than direct
contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting. There are a number of obvious
instances where this may be the case:

Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work, etc.).

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Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be impossible to let
everyone known what you are doing. You may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive
practices, but clearly participants are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular phenomenon
that is being studied:
Where observations or a participants knowledge of the true purpose of the research have the
potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in, this is a major concern in terms
of the quality of your findings.
Give participants the right to withdraw from your research:
With the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let everyone that
is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always have the right to
withdraw from the research process.
Protect anonymity and confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another practical component
of research ethics. After all, participants will typically only be willing to volunteer information,
especially information of a private or sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such
information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if
the data collection methods used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that harm
can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when data is not treated confidentially,
whether in terms of the storage of data, its analysis, or during the publication process. However, this
does not mean that all data collected from research participants needs to be kept confidential or
anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and views of individuals at various stages of
the research process. Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before such confidential information
is disclosed.

Avoid violating nondisclosure agreements

Avoid misrepresenting results
Avoid deceiving people
Avoid invoicing irregularities
avoiding legal liability
Avoid Plagiarism
Avoid Research Fraud
Avoid Suppressing Findings
Mention Sponsorship
Ethical Treatment With respect to Participants :
In general the research must be designed so that a respondent does not suffer physical harm,
discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy.
There should be no conflict of interests
All research should seek to avoid harming or exploiting human subjects.
Avoid Coercion/ Force
Avoid Exploitation
Get voluntary participation.
Everybody should be the beneficial of Research and its outcome; the researcher, the scientific
community, the general public and the subjects being studied
Research ethics require personal integrity of the researcher, the project manager, and research
sponsor.
Research should avoid personal bias and prejudices
Researcher and Respondents should be truthful
Ensure the Safety

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It involves several activities following the collection of data:

Explanation of any deception.

Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study.
Post study sharing of the results.
Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.

MISCELLANEOUS
RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the observation of variation in scores earned by an individual on repeated trials of
the same measure (variation can be systematic or random)
An indication of the consistency or stability of a measuring instrument.
A definition of reliability may be "Yielding the same or compatible results in different clinical
experiments or statistical trials" (the free dictionary). Research methodology lacking reliability cannot
be trusted. Replication studies are a way to test reliability.
The degree to which the data would support the meaning in other circumstances. This asks the
question of whether the statement is always true. In quantitative research, a measurement instrument
that is reliable will provide consistent results when a given individual is measured repeatedly under
near-identical conditions.
o

The extent to which the same research technique applied again to the same object/subject will
give you the same result

Types of Reliability:

Test-Retest Reliability
Interrater Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
Instrument Reliability
Statistical Reliability
Reproducibility

VALIDITY
Validity refers to what degree the research reflects the given research problem, while Reliability refers
to how consistent a set of measurements are.
The coherence between the data and observations or conclusions drawn from them.
Validity: An indication of whether the instrument measures what it claims to measure.
Validity is the degree to which the measuring instrument actually measures the concept in question
a. validity also refers to the accuracy of the measurement
b. it is possible to measure a concept more or less accurately if you are actually measuring the
right concept but it is not possible to measure it accurately if you are not measuring it at all.

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c. The extent to which our measure reflects what we think or want them to be measuring

Types of validity:

External Validity
Population Validity
Ecological Validity
Internal Validity
Content Validity
Face Validity
Construct Validity
Convergent and Discriminant Validity
Test Validity
Criterion Validity
Concurrent Validity
Predictive Validity

SCALING
Scaling is the branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates
qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units.

SURVEY
A survey is a set of questions for research participants to answer. Survey research methods collect
self-reported data from individuals and, occasionally, small groups. They are most often used to
measure the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals, but may also be used to collect
data about small groups or larger organizations. By collecting data from large, representative samples
of individuals, surveys can even be used to draw conclusions about institutions, cities, communities,
or entire societies.
Types of surveys
Self-administering questionnaires
Interviews
Types of questions
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Closed-ended/fixed choice/forced choice questions

Open-ended questions
Contingency questions
Matrix questions

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis involves collecting and analyzing data from previously collected data sets or
previously published records and reports. It is not simply a summarizing of other records or reports,
but a fresh analysis of the previously collected data.

Content analysis

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Content analysis involves analyzing the content of existing written, audio, or visual communication in
an effort draw conclusions about the characteristics, attitudes, and occasionally, behaviors of the
individuals or groups that produced it.
Types of communication media:
1. Newspapers, magazines, and books.
2. TV programs, radio broadcasts, commercials, and movies.
3. Official documents and texts such as court records, minutes of meetings, legal codes, and policy
statements.
4. Diaries, letters, and other personal documents.
5. Photographs and art.

ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELD RESEARCH

Field research is the first hand observation of social life in its natural settings and environments. It is
sometimes called fieldwork, observational research, direct observation, participant observation, or
ethnography.

Case studies
Case studies involve in depth analysis of a single or limited number of cases in an effort to obtain
detailed data about the case or cases. The goal is to develop a valid sociological understanding of the
case or cases as illustrations or examples of broader social phenomena. In one sense, all qualitative
research involves case studies.

field notes:
Writings in which a researcher records his or her personal observations of the field. Field notes
constitute the sole data in participant observation.

Interview
An interaction that involves the researcher and the participant(s) in which questions are presented in
person, over the telephone or even electronically (email or Internet).
The goal of the quantitative survey interview is to collect data to test hypotheses using pre-defined
and operationalized concepts, typically measured via fixed-choice questions.
The goal of the qualitative interview is to develop a theoretical understanding of the subjects
social world using categories and concepts suggested by the data. Typically, open-ended
questions are used.
Types of qualitative interviews
Structured interviews of individuals
Unstructured interviews of individuals
Focus group interviews

Criteria of

Good

Research

Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken
in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules
Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.

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Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of
a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

PROPOSED PAPER FROM INTERNAL

Long Questions:
Short Questions: