Holtar, E., and A. W.

Forsberg, 2000, Postrift development of the Walvis Basin,

Namibia: results from the exploration campaign in Quadrant 1911, in M. R.
Mello and B. J. Katz, eds., Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins: AAPG
Memoir 73, p. 429446.

Chapter 29

Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin,

Namibia: Results from the Exploration
Campaign in Quadrant 1911
Erik Holtar

Arne Willy Forsberg

Norsk Hydro Exploration and Production International

Oslo, Norway

Norsk Hydro Canada Oil & Gas Inc.

Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Abstract
The exploration campaign in offshore Namibia gained new momentum in 1992 when new licenses
were awarded in the independent Namibia. Seismic and well data from Quadrant 1911 has brought new
insight to the stratigraphy of the vast Namibian shelf.
A stratigraphic breakdown of the northern Namibian offshore area is proposed. The post-breakup
succession is divided into seven major stratigraphic units or groups, from W1 (oldest) to W7 (where W
denotes the Walvis Basin). Each group is described in terms of geometry, with examples from seismic
expression and structural maps, and lithofacies as seen in well data.
The W1 Group consists of volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks, succeeded by the W2 Group shallowmarine carbonates. After a tectonic event causing block faulting, the W3 Group consisting of siltstones and
claystones with limestone stringers was deposited. The W4 Group consists of claystones and
siltstonesandstones, including claystones with very good hydrocarbon source rock potential. In
Quadrant 1911, the W4 Group also includes a large volcanic center. The W5 Group consists of mudstones
with interbeds of sandstones and thin limestones. Following the CretaceousTertiary boundary, the W6
Group mudstones, claystones, and marls were deposited, followed by claystones of the W7 Group.
The sedimentary succession of Quadrant 1911 postdates the Neocomian Etendeka plateau basalts
found in onshore Namibia. After onset of the drift phase in late Hauterivian time, the Walvis Basin
subsided and a marine transgression eventually took place. Shallow-marine platform carbonates
prevailed until an Albian tectonic event resulted in complex block faulting and the formation of several
subbasins. Subsequent volcanic activity created a series of volcanic centers localized near the Walvis Ridge
bathymetric feature. The southern African craton was uplifted, leading to the formation of large-scale
westward-prograding wedges. Later sedimentation largely followed the evolution of a passive continental margin, responding to relative sea level changes and paleoclimate.

drilled, and a total of four wells have now been drilled in

the Walvis Basin.
The seismic grid varies from 2 2 km on the basin
flank areas to 2 4 km in the basin areas and on the eastern platform. A high-resolution aeromagnetic survey
covers all of Quadrant 1911. In addition, regional lines of
good quality were used to establish a framework for the
area. These include the ECL-89 and ECL-91 surveys and
the Nopec/Namcor regional survey N2R-93 which
covers areas to the north, south, and east of the quadrant. In the latter survey, regional line N2R-93-229,
recorded to 14 sec two-way traveltime, has been particularly useful.

INTRODUCTION
In 1992, Quadrant 1911 was awarded as exploration
license 001 to a group consisting of Norsk Hydro (operator), Saga Petroleum, and Statoil. Since then, a total of
8000 km of seismic lines has been acquired by the
NH9206 and NH9404 surveys, covering the 11,619-km2
quadrant situated in the Walvis Basin, Namibia. This
basin was undrilled until the 1911/15-1 well was finished
in early 1994. Prior to this well, the nearest offshore exploration wells to the north were the Block 9 wells of the
Angolan Kwanza Basin and, to the south, the Kudu wells
of the Orange Basin. In mid-1995, the 1911/10-1 well was
429

430

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 1Location map showing the structural elements of Quadrant 1911 in Walvis Basin, offshore Namibia, southern
Africa.

There are several structural elements in Quadrant 1911

(Figure 1). To the east lies the relatively stable Elephant
Platform, where the main passive marine shelf developed. The central part of the quadrant is dominated by a
complex rift graben system called the Dolphin Basin. To
the west are a few highs that have a thinner cover of
postrift sedimentary rocks; these are collectively called
the Outer Highs. To the north, the outstanding feature is
a large volcanic center named the Phoenix High.
The stratigraphic breakdown is based on seismic
mapping of geometrically confined depositional units
(Figure 2). Data from wells 1911/15-1 and 1911/10-1 were
used to further describe and interpret these units. We
propose that the post-breakup succession be divided into
seven major units, suggested here to be ranked as stratigraphic groups, ranging from W1 (oldest) to W7
(youngest), where W denotes the Walvis Basin. The
described part of the stratigraphic section broadly corresponds to the transitional and thermal sag tectono-stratigraphic sequences of Light et al. (1993).
The transitions between the individual groups represent significant changes in gross depositional patterns
reflected in lithologic breaks or major changes in geometry (thickness distribution). Each of the seven major units
consists of one to six subunits that are ranked as formations (Figure 3). Most of these are regarded as classic

transgressive, highstand to lowstand tract sequence

cycles related to relative sea level changes. Some units,
especially in the Earlymiddle Cretaceous succession, are
confined by lithologic changes that are interpreted to be
related more to local tectonic events.

BASEMENT ROCKS
Onshore Namibia, the youngest predrift rocks are the
Etendeka Group, as described by Milner et al. (1995),
which are interbedded basalts, quartz latites, and minor
latites. This group overlies the Paleozoic Karoo Sequence,
and at its base, the volcanics are overlying and interbedded with eolian sandstones of the Etjo Formation. Ages
(40Ar/39Ar) from stratigraphically equivalent units in the
South American Paran Basin (Renne et al., 1992) date the
volcanics at 133 1 Ma (Valanginian), which is supported
by similar studies of the Etendeka Group in Namibia.
Light et al. (1993) proposed a subdivision of the
Namibian shelf into five main tectono-stratigraphic
sequences: basin and range, synrift I, synrift II, transitional, and thermal sag. In the Walvis Basin, the synrift II
sequence is a very thick northward- and westward-thickening trough believed to be contemporaneous with the
Etendeka volcanics. The transitional sequence represents

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

431

Figure 2Seismic section across Quadrant 1911 (westeast) in the area of the 1911/15-1 well showing the suggested stratigraphic subdivision into the W1 through W7 Groups.

the Hauterivianmiddle Aptian interval, and eolian sandstones and volcanics in wells on the Kudu gas discovery
far to the south on the Namibian shelf mark the onset of
thermal sag following the end of rifting. The thermal sag
sequence comprises the middle AptianHolocene section
which mainly represents a passive margin.
A strong seismic event in the eastern part of Quadrant
1911 is interpreted to be the top of Paleozoic or older basement. The event horizon dips steeply to the west, and
disappears below 7 sec two-way traveltime before reaching the well locations. Eastward, the event approaches the
surface before reaching the coast. The event is intersected
by a few northsouth trending normal faults with throw
down to the east. A reliable correlation from this platform
area into the basin and further onto the outer highs has
not been established. Generally, the reflectors describe
wedge-shaped packages that thicken to the southwest.
The uppermost of these events has been labeled w100.

W1 GROUP
We have used the w100 reflector to define the base of
the lithocolumn as described in this chapter. In the
1911/15-1 well location, the reflector ties in just below the

total depth of the well and represents the shallowest

possible base of the basaltic beds that constitute the W1
Group. Vertical seismic profile data from the well
suggests that there is a marked increase in velocity (i.e.,
density) at this depth. The interval between reflectors
w100 and w201 thins toward the northeast. The latter
reflector ties into the well at 3947 m at the top of the
youngest basalt. To the southwest, the interval between
w100 and w201 thickens abruptly and displays a pattern
of strongly divergent seaward-dipping wedges (Figure
4). Regional mapping based on a relatively open seismic
grid shows a decrease in thickness from 3 sec two-way
traveltime in Quadrant 2010 to 0 sec along a NNWSSE
trend that crosses the Elephant Platform and the northeastern corner of Quadrant 1911. The inferred continentocean boundary is situated just southwest of
Quadrant 1911 (Figure 5).
Interpretation and 2-D modeling of aeromagnetic data
indicate a gradual eastward decrease in thickness over
the area of Quadrant 1911 from >1000 m in the west to a
few hundred meters in the east. In the extreme northeastern comer of the quadrant, a strong linear magnetic
anomaly indicates the termination of the entire lava
wedge. The w100 and w201 reflectors accordingly
converge in this area. The thickness and distribution of

432

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 3Summary electric log from well 1911/15-1 shown with the stratigraphic column for this part of the Walvis Basin
and the suggested stratigraphic division into the W1 through W7 Groups. DTCO is the sonic velocity log.

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

433

Figure 4Seismic section through the Outer Highs (westeast) showing seaward-dipping reflectors within the W1 Group.

the basalt flows indicate that their origins are connected

to the breakup of the Atlantic Ocean. The westwarddipping reflectors represent stacked subaerial flood
basalts that flowed to the east from the spreading axis.
The South Atlantic volcanic margin is described in more
detail by Gladczenko et al. (1997).
In the 1911/15-1 well, Group W1 consists of a series of
basaltic lava flows separated by tuffaceous layers and
occasionally very thin beds of siliciclastic strata. The base
of this unit was not reached when the total depth of the
well was set at 4586 m. The top of the >563-m-thick
continuous flow series is at 4023 m. The electric logs show
that individual lava flows range in thickness from less
than 1 m to about 20 m (Figure 6). One core (at 43404352
m) incorporates the base and top of two thick flows and
the interstitial sequence. On the basis of different lithologic and textural characteristics, the cored section can be
divided into four intervals:

Interval 1 (43404343.1 m) comprises the lower

part of one lava flow. Above 4342.25 m, the flow
unit is massive with rare amygdules. Below this
depth, the rock is slightly reddened and amygdules are abundant. Also, feldspar crystals change
to a more acicular morphology. This interval probably represents the base of the flow.
Interval 2 (4343.14345.4 m) comprises a composite
flow unit produced by repeated surging of lava.
Thin, nonamygdaloidal layers are glassy and probably represent freezing at the very base of each
surge, all of which are thin enough to be amygdaloidal throughout.
Interval 3 (4345.44347.25 m) is a unit containing
several interbeds of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.
The base is marked by a distinctive reddened and
silicified argillaceous siltstone. This is interpreted
as a pedogenically modified lacustrine horizon

434

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 5Structural map (in time units) of the top of the

W2 Group, Walvis Basin, Namibia. Note the onshore
outline of the Etendeka Group volcanics. Also note the
dashed line marking the eastern limit of basalts from the
spreading center. The dashed line on the west marks the
onset of the seaward-dipping wedges. Contour interval is
500 msec two-way traveltime.

truncating the underlying lava flow. It is overlain

by a thin, reddened amygdaloidal lava flow.
Throughout this flow unit are thin, irregular siltstone layers that are thought to have been washed
into fractures and open hollows within the flow.
Thin-section investigations of the siltstones reveal
that the mineralogic composition differs from
what would be expected if they were derived
solely from erosion of the surrounding lavas. They
do contain plagioclase feldspar of volcanic origin,
but they also contain common monocrystalline
quartz and micas. This indicates a major contribution from a nonvolcanic basement source. The
common presence of highly unstable aegerine
augite or hornblende grains also suggests that the
source was very proximal to the site of deposition.
Interval 4 (4347.254352 m) comprises the top of a
single thick lava flow unit. It is characterized by an

Figure 6Wireline logs of the W1 Group volcanics from

well 1911/15-1.

upward increase in modal size, size range, and

abundance of amygdules. Local reddening and
significant mineralized fractures mark the top of
the flow. Flow banding structures become visible
as amygdule abundance decreases downward.
Attempts to date the lavas radiometrically have thus
far not yielded a conclusive age. The occurrence of two
lava surges interbedded with the lower part of the overlying carbonate sequence suggests that there is no significant gap in time between the W1 and W2 Groups.
Barremian marine microfossils recorded in cuttings from
the WI Group are probably caved from the W2-1
Formation, the lower unit of the W2 Group (see Figure 3).
In the Kudu gas field, southwest of Luedertiz, continental deposits consisting of a mixture of clastic and
volcanoclastic strata of Barremian and older age are
encountered in the reservoir sequence. These deposits
include the main reservoir in the Kudu 9A-3 well and
possibly also in the 9A-2 well. This reservoir, named the
lower gas sand by Wickens and McLachlan (1990),
comprises a medium-grained anhydritic sandstone

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

435

interbedded with subaerial basalts and volcanoclastics.

The depositional environment of the sandstones is interpreted as eolian, possibly a coastal dune complex
(Wickens and McLachlan, 1990). Based on these observations, it seems reasonable to assign an age not younger
than Barremian to the lavas.

W2 GROUP
Seismic and Stratigraphic Characterization
The pattern of seaward-dipping reflectors typical of
the W1 Group terminates at the w201 reflector. The depositional geometry between the w201 and w202 reflectors
is represented by a parallel band of strong reflectors. The
w202 reflector ties in near the top of the W2 Group
carbonates in wells 1911/15-1 and 1911/10-1.
The main depositional trend of the w201w202 interval seems to be parallel to the present-day coastline
(Figure 7). To the south of Quadrant 1911, a westward
thinning of the interval is observed. This may reflect a
depositional thinning onto an outer paleohigh, or it may
be the effect of more compactable argillaceous facies. No
trace of erosion is observed in this area. On the crests of
the Outer Highs, significant postdepositional erosion has
reduced the thickness of the w201w202 interval and
partially removed it (see Figure 4). To the northeast, this
interval also thins, probably by onlap onto a landward
rise. Generally, the w201w202 interval thickens considerably in the northwestern corner of Quadrant 1911,
where it shows apparent onlap from the west. It is unclear
whether the interval in this area represents the W2 Group
as seen in wells, a basinward equivalent of the W2 Group,
or a series of late-stage lava flows possibly belonging to
the W1 Group.
In the 1911/15-1 well, the carbonate deposits of the W2
Group rest directly on volcanics at 4023 m. The boundary
between W1 Group volcanics and W2 Group carbonates
is represented by a distinct increase in logged gamma-ray
response (see Figure 6) which coincides with a decrease in
neutron density. The top of the carbonates is at 3652 m,
giving a total thickness of 371 m for the carbonates.

Subdivision of the W2 Group

We suggest a division into two stratigraphic units (or
formations, in this case) for the W2 Group. The lower part
of the lower W2-1 Formation is comprised of 41 m of
muddy limestones, marls, and glauconitic claystones.
High, spiky gamma-ray readings (up to 100 API) in this
part of the formation are due to uranium enrichment and
could indicate stagnant environments during deposition.
Analysis of sidewall cores from this interval does not
show elevated total organic carbon (TOC) contents
(<0.15%). These deposits are separated from the W2-2
Formation by a 35-m-thick basaltic package consisting of
two major flows (see Figure 6). The w201 reflector ties in

Figure 7Subregional interval thickness (time) map of the

W2 Group, Walvis Basin, offshore Namibia. Contour interval is 50 msec two-way traveltime.

with the top of the youngest flow at 3947 m in the well.

Including the basalts, the thickness of the W2-1 Formation is 76 m.
There is a sharp upward decrease on the neutron
density log at the transition between the upper basaltic
bed of the W2-1 Formation and the basal limestones of
the W2-2 Formation. The 295-m-thick W2-2 Formation is
mainly composed of micritic mudstones with a substantial amount of algally bound pelloidal grainstones and
packstones. Oolites are frequently described in cuttings
from the uppermost 5060 m.
One core was cut in the upper part of the W2-2
Formation (37243742.5 m). It reveals algalpelletal grainstone and packstone facies that are interbedded with
subordinate pelletalforaminiferal packstones and grainstones, as well as lime mudstones. These deposits contain
very little siliciclastics and no evaporites. The few quartz
grains that are seen in thin-sections are very fine sand to
silt size and are all well rounded.
Bulk cuttings from this group invariably yielded TOC
contents less than 1%. Picked shale lithologies typically
have TOC contents in the 12% range with hydrogen

436

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 8Schematic stratigraphic column showing depositional transgressive facies development over time and
space in the W2 Group carbonates. Also shown (on the
left) are the wireline logs from well 1911/15-1, Walvis
Basin.

indices (HI) in the range of 100200 mg HC/g TOC (type

III kerogen). Based on these screening data, the carbonates can be regarded only as potential source rocks if there
are significant lateral facies changes.
Well-preserved diagnostic microflora and microfauna
are scarce in the lower interval of the W2 Group.
Barremian marine microfossils recorded in cuttings from
the volcanics of the W1 Group are probably caved from
the W2-1 Formation. The maximum age of the W2-1
Formation is thus most probably Barremian. The most
probable age range for the W2-2 Formation is late
Aptianmiddle Albian. The W2 Group is thus assigned a
Barremianmiddle Albian age. This implies that the basal
carbonate deposits are somewhat older than the massive
salt deposits and overlying Pinda Group carbonates and
evaporites of the Kwanza Basin in Angola (Abilio, 1986).
The succession of various depositional facies represented in the W2 Group is summarized in Figure 8. The
return of lava flows in the lower part of the group indicates a reemergence of the area after the initial marine
transgression. The coarser grained zones encountered in
the core are interpreted as middle platform shoal
deposits, while the thicker oolithic zones in the uppermost part of the W2-2 Formation are considered to be
platform margin grainstones. The development from

Figure 9Plot of porosity and oil saturation versus depth

for the W2 Group carbonates in well 1911/15-1. (RKB is rig
kelly bushing, the reference for wireline log depths.)

restricted lagoonal environments to more high-energy

(barrier island) environments, as evidenced by the
upward increasing proportion of grainstones containing
ooides, indicates a landward shift of facies during a
general marine transgression.

W2 Group Reservoir
The main reservoir target in well 1911/15-1, drilled
into the top of rotated prerift blocks, turned out to be shallow-marine carbonate deposits of AptianAlbian age.
Prior to drilling, this interval was regarded as the most
prospective within the license area, mainly because of its
high number of large structural closures as defined by the
w202 reflector. The lateral distribution of the different
carbonate facies is difficult to predict, especially the distribution of its reservoir properties.

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

437

Figure 10Plot of residual oil saturation versus porosity

from retort analysis for the W2 Group carbonates in well
1911/15-1.

Figure 11Plot of phytane/n-C18 ratios versus pristane/

n-C17 ratios for rock extracts from various formations in
well 1911/15-1.

The cored part of the carbonates revealed zones with

very good reservoir properties. Porosities of 1525% were
measured within the algalpelletal grainstone and packstone facies (Figure 9). A high proportion (7095%) of this
porosity occurs in macropores. These intervals have
permeabilities ranging from 10 to 500 md and seem to
correlate well with low-velocity intervals distinguished
on the sonic velocity log (see the DTCO log in Figure 3).
According to the logs (sonic velocity and gamma), such
high-porosity zones are especially found in the upper
one-third (about 100 m) of the W2 Group limestone. The
net to gross ratio in this interval (36503750 m) is estimated to about 35%, with an average porosity of 20%.
Enhanced oil saturation (1540%) was recorded in
samples from low-porosity zones of the carbonates in the
core (Figure 9). The porosity versus oil saturation plot in
Figure 10 shows an inverse relationship between the two
parameters. Such a relationship is generally found in
depleted reservoirs. Saturated fraction gas chromatograms (C15+ GC) from core extracts have a lighter
end-biased appearance. They also show low isoprenoid/n-alkane ratios and carbon preference indexes near
1.0, indicating a mature source (Tissot and Welte, 1984).
Figure 11 shows the phytane/n-C18 versus pristane/n-C17 ratios for the saturated fraction of the core
extracts plotted together with those derived from other
parts of the W2 Group. The difference in isoprenoid/nalkane ratios between the core samples and the samples

from other parts of the sequence is striking. While ratios

from all other samples indicate that the host rocks have
not yet reached the main hydrocarbon-generating zone,
the ratios for the core extracts indicate a very mature
source rock. The ratios from the core extracts are in fact
about the same as or even lower than ratios found in
many condensates.
The source of these hydrocarbons has not yet been
established. However, based on our observations, we
believe that the traces of residual oil encountered in the
W2-2 Formation core extracts may represent remnants of
hydrocarbons that have migrated from a mature source
kitchen, either in fluid phase as a light oil or in a gaseous
phase as a condensate.

W3 GROUP
Seismic and Stratigraphic Characterization
In the 1911/15-1 well, the base of the W3 Group is
characterized by a significant downward drop in gammaray (Figure 8) and transit-time log responses at 3652 m,
coinciding with a marked neutron density increase. The
top is at 3479 m, where the w401 reflector ties into the
well. Its total thickness is 173 m in the well. On structural
highs, the W3 Group is thin to absent.

438

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 12Structural depth map for the base of the W3

Group, Quadrant 1911, Walvis Basin, Namibia. Contour
interval is 1000 m (below mean sea level).

In contrast to the parallel band of strong reflectors seen

below, the seismic data exhibit a transparent and divergent pattern above reflector w202, which defines the base
of the W3 Group (Figure 2). The divergent pattern shows
that the area experienced a period of differential subsidence and tilting of individual fault blocks. The organization of faults on the structural depth map in Figure 12
reveals that a three-pronged graben feature was formed
as a consequence of this major tectonic restructuring of
Quadrant 1911. Farther south, the relief dies out, and the
surface becomes a more smooth westward-dipping slope
(see Figure 5).
The top of the W3 Group is defined at the prominent
w401 reflector, which is very continuous but exhibits
some degree of deterioration to the east. Within the W3
Group, the w301 reflector defines the top of the major
sedimentary wedges that thin onto the crest of most
rotated fault blocks, including the drilled 1911/15 structure (Figure 2). Onlap onto the w202 reflector occurs in
most areas. The transparent pattern below the w301
reflector may in certain areas be continuous over the
highs and cover several fault blocks. In other areas, this
pattern appears to be limited to the structurally lower
part of the individual blocks.
The interval above the w301 reflector shows rather
strong, continuous, and generally more widely distrib-

uted parallel reflectors. At its lower boundary, the interval

seems to exhibit some degree of onlap or downlap.
Above underlying faults or flexures, the parallel internal
pattern may change abruptly and become chaotic and
open with a mounded character. These features terminate
upward at the w302 reflector, where the pattern becomes
significantly more concordant over the entire basin area.
Although the thickness of the interval between the
w202 and w401 reflectors may reach up to 800 msec twoway traveltime in some of the half-grabens in Quadrant
1911, it is still rather thin on a regional scale. In a depocenter in Quadrant 2112 to the southeast, the interval reaches
thicknesses up to 1200 msec.
Within Quadrant 1911, the W3 Group has significantly
higher interval velocities derived from seismic stacking
velocities than seen in the wells. The interval velocities
increase with increasing thickness of the group, reaching
values of more than 5000 m/sec. The high interval velocities are clearly not compatible with shales or porous
sandstones and instead may suggest that the lithologies
of the W3 Group are more calcareous in the rift basins
compared to what is observed in the well. The transition
from the carbonate environments of Group W2 to the siliciclastics of Group W3 may be regarded as overall transgressive and is apparently related to a tectonic phase that
occurred in the middle Albian.
Bulk cuttings from the W3 group yielded TOC
contents from 0.3 to 2% with HI values generally in the
range of 50250 mg HC/g TOC. The richer samples are
found scattered throughout the group. As the group
thickens dramatically into local graben areas, the organic
facies may improve downflank into more basinal
settings. Vitrinite reflectance values of about 0.5% Ro and
high pristane/n-C17 and phytane/n-C18 ratios (Figure 11)
in the saturated hydrocarbon fraction of the extracts indicate low or moderate maturity.

Subdivision of W3 Group
Based on seismic mapping and log response, a threefold division of the W3 Group is proposed. The W3-1
Formation is easily distinguishable on well logs by its
high, spiky gamma-ray signature (36523637 m) (Figure
8) that contrasts with both the underlying carbonates of
the W2 Group and the overlying claystones of the W3-2
Formation. Lithologically, this unit is dominated by glauconitic siltstones grading upward to claystones with limestone stringers. The top of the W3-1 Formation is at 3637
m, giving it a thickness of only 15 m. Although this is
actually below seismic resolution at the well, by defining
the w301 reflector as the top of the formation, its thickness
increases to more than 1000 m in graben areas.
The W3-1 Formation was deposited during or just
after the main period of differential subsidence. This unit
is of middle Albian age and it is very condensed in the
well. As the W3-1 Formation thickens dramatically into
graben areas, the lithologies probably become more
varied. The recorded high gamma log and low sonic
velocity log signatures indicate that the unit may be a

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

potential source rock for hydrocarbons, especially downflank from highs, such as the one drilled by the 1911/151 well. Maturation modeling (using the PetroMod 2D software package) suggest that the thick, downflank deposits
of the W3-1 Formation reached maturities well into the
condensategas zone as early as TuronianSantonian
time. Although a direct correlation between these potential petroleum source rocks and the residual hydrocarbons encountered in one of the cores has not been established, they may very well have been parts of the same
paleopetroleum system.
On well logs, the W3-2 Formation can be distinguished
from the W3-1 Formation by a sharp upward decrease in
gamma log response, coinciding with a moderate
increase in neutron density. The W3-2 Formation consists
of 68 m of light gray claystones, occasionally grading
upward to silty claystones. The top is at 3569 m where the
w302 reflector ties in. Although the thickness is not as
great as for some parts of the underlying W3-1
Formation, it reaches more than 800 m in the central parts
of graben areas. Lithologic facies changes within this unit
can be expected in the chaotic mounded sections which
may be composed of carbonate buildups or sandy
deposits.
The W3-2 Formation was deposited during a mainly
passive, intermediate stage of sedimentary fill into
middle Albian age grabens. Faulting seems to have been
restricted to the main basin-bounding faults in the west
and east and occurred with little or no tilting of the
minor fault blocks. The observed change from silty
lithologies in the W3-1 to more argillaceous lithologies
in the W3-2 suggests deposition in deeper and/or
calmer waters. The chaotic mounded sections seen on
the crests of tilted fault blocks are interpreted either as
buildups of biogenic carbonates or as siliciclastic sand
ridges created by wave and current action. Low-angle
accretionary clinoforms observed on the eastern platform suggest that sediment input from the Namibian
mainland caused a westward progradation of a coastline which may have reached into the Quadrant 1911
area at the time. The age of the unit is late Albian, possibly stretching into the early Cenomanian.
The upper part of the W3 Group is assigned to the
W3-3 Formation. In well 1911/15-1, it consists of silty
claystones grading upward into siltstones. The main
criteria for identifying the transition between units W3-3
and W3-2 on well logs are moderate upward decreasing
gamma-ray responses coinciding with decreasing sonic
velocity and neutron density responses. The w401 reflector ties into the top of the W3-3 Formation in the well at
3479 m (3122 msec). W3-3 thickness is 90 m, but it
increases to close to 400 m in a depocenter southwest of
the well.
The W3-3 Formation is interpreted to represent a latestage passive infill into the Albian topography. Thickness
variations in the basin can mostly be attributed to accommodation space created by differential compaction of
underlying W3 Group strata. Its history of deposition
spans most of the Cenomanian.

439

W4 GROUP
Seismic and Stratigraphic Characterization
The base of the W4 Group corresponds to the w401
reflector, which ties in at 3479 m to the 1911/15-1 well.
This reflection is attributed to a positive impedance
contrast between the higher velocity silty deposits of the
W3-3 Formation and the low-velocity, high gamma-ray
shales at the base of the W4-1 Formation. The reflector is
very strong and continuous, only deteriorating to the east
where a reduction in the impedance contrast probably
reflects a facies change. A shallower reflector, the w501,
seismically defines the top of the W4 Group. This ties in
at 3163 m to the well. The total thickness of the W4 group
is thus 316 m.
Age dating based on palynology indicates that the
depositional history of this group started in the latest
Cenomanian, continued through the Turonian and
Coniacian, and ended sometime in the late Santonian.
This gives the W4 Group a depositional time span of 68
m.y. and makes it roughly time equivalent to the clastic
Cabo Ledo, Itombe, and NGolome Formations in the
Kwanza Basin of Angola (Abilio, 1986).
The age of the W4-2 Formation ranges from
earlymiddle Turonian to late Santonian. Based on the
seismic observations described above, this is the most
probable time of growth of the Phoenix High volcano and
some of the other bathymetric features that have been
linked to the Walvis Ridge in this area.
In large parts of the graben area, the internal seismic
pattern of the W4 Group changes upward from parallel
with an onlapping lower boundary to oblique reflectors
that generally dip eastward (Figure 13). The bounding
surface between these two different internal patterns
coincides with the base of a second high gamma-ray
shale package at 3366 m in the 1911/15-1 well (top of the
W2-1 Formation; see Figure 3). Based on these log and
seismic features, we have divided the W4 Group into
two formations.
Although the W4-1 Formation is only 72 msec (113 m)
thick at the well location, its sedimentary sequence attains
a thickness of as much as 150 msec in the deeper part of
the basin. The entire W4 Group thins eastward onto the
Elephant Platform, where the two formations become
seismically inseparable. This eastward thinning is in
contrast to the drastic thickening of the overlying W5-1
Formation observed toward the east.
In the northern part of Quadrant 1911, a volcanic
center, the Phoenix High, is distinguished by seismic data
(Figure 14) and high-resolution magnetic data. By following the various reflectors that define the external and
internal geometry of this feature to where they converge
and interfinger with the interpreted sedimentary packages, its relationship to the W4 Group becomes evident.
The growth of the Phoenix High volcano is thus interpreted to have been contemporaneous with the deposition of sediments in the W4 Group (probably the W4-2

440

Holtar and Forsberg

Figure 13(a) Seismic section (westeast) showing the internal seismic pattern of the W4 Group. (b) Slump model for the
W4 Group interpreted from the above seismic section.

Formation). Internal seismic patterns also indicate that

the growth of the volcanic complex may have triggered
soft sediment rearrangement during deposition of the
W4-2 Formation (Figure 13b).
The seismic profile (Figure 14) beneath this volcanic
sequence is difficult to interpret. It is probable that the
main fault separating the platform to the east from the
graben to the west continues approximately northsouth
and that the volcanics now straddle these two tectonic
elements. At least two more volcanic centers are identified, one as a northward continuation of the Phoenix
High and one just to the northwest of Quadrant 1911
(Figure 5). Based on mapped reflectors that lap onto these
other volcanic features, they seem to have been contemporaneous with the Phoenix High, or possibly slightly
younger. The outlines of the Phoenix High and the other
volcanic features are also detectable on detailed bathymetric maps of the area and have been related to the
Walvis Ridge bathymetric feature by previous authors
(Light et al., 1993).

W4 Group Source Rock

In the 1911/15-1 well, the most characteristic log
features of the W4 Group are the two distinct high
gamma-ray carbonaceous claystone intervals that occur
at the base of each subunit. The main lithology of the W41 Formation is greenish gray claystone with minor
interbeds of siltstone. The formation totals 113 m in thickness, and the lower 22 m is comprised of dark yellowbrown argillaceous and calcareous siltstones with fairly
large amounts of carbonaceous material. Log signatures
and weak shows on cuttings and sidewall cores gave
early indications of source rock type deposits. Further
analysis proved that, within this interval, the TOC
content varies from 5% to >10%. Rock-Eval pyrolysis
(Figure 15a) indicates very good type II kerogen, with HI
values reaching 600 mg HC/g TOC. The rest of the W4-1
claystones also exhibit source rock quality, with typical
TOC values in the range of 16% and HI values generally
ranging from 200 to 400 mg HC/g TOC.

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

441

Figure 14Seismic section across the Phoenix High, Walvis Basin. This is a composite section, running WSW-ENE (on the
left) and NNW-SSE (on the right).

Figure 15Geochemical data from sidewall cores (SWC) and cuttings of the W4 Group, well 1911/15-1. (a) Plot of HI versus
TOC. (b) Plot of HI versus Tmax.

442

Holtar and Forsberg

The W4-2 Formation is comprised of dusky yellowbrown claystones and siltstones. The latter sometimes
grade into very fine sandstones. Carbonaceous material is
common throughout, and the TOC content is generally
25% with HI values typically at 350500 mg HC/g TOC.
As indicated by Tmax data (Figure 15b) and by the weak
shows recorded while drilling, these sedimentary rocks
have reached maturities only in the very upper part of the
oil-generating zone in the location of the 1911/15-1 well.
The high content and quality of the organic matter in
these sediments and the high uranium content in the
lower part indicates an initially anoxic paleoenvironment
followed by dysoxic conditions. Bottom water circulation
was probably poor or absent.

W5 GROUP
Seismic and Stratigraphic Characterization
In the 1911/15-1 well, the W5 Group consists of dark
gray to olive gray mudstones with interbeds of sandstones and thin limestones. Thin beds of very fine grained
sandstone are found in the upper part of some of the
formations (Figure 3). The base of the group is at 3163 m
and the top at 2463 m. This total thickness of 700 m
increases to more than 1200 m on the Elephant Platform
to the east. Palynologic age dating indicates that the
depositional history of the W5 Group lasted from late
Santonian to late Maastrichtian time.
The base of the W5 Group marks the end of a tectonically active period that involved volcanism and erosion of
footwall blocks. As a response to significant differential
subsidence between the exposed African continent and
the offshore area, large sedimentary clinoforms began to
reach the Quadrant 1911 area at this time and a typical
passive margin shelf was established. The depositional
geometry of the W5 Group is hence dominated by large
prograding wedges that accumulated in the northeastern
part of Quadrant 1911, whereas parallel laminated beds
of moderate thicknesses are typical for the western area.

Subdivision of W5 Group
We suggest subdividing the W5 Group into six stratigraphic units. Each of these is interpreted to represent a
genetic sequence with a transgressive system tract at the
base followed by a highstand and eventually a lowstand
system tract. Basin floor fans are occasionally recognized
basinward of highstand or lowstand clinoforms.
The W5-1 Formation is well developed on the
Elephant Platform, with thicknesses reaching more than
1000 m. On seismic lines, four systems tracts can be recognized within this formation (Helland-Hansen, 1995). The
initial transgressive systems tract is generally thin in this
area and not readily recognized. As can be seen in Figure
16, a major highstand event created a clear shelf edge
clinoform followed by a forced regression wedge and a
lowstand wedge. The forced regression wedge shows

steep foreset beds that accumulated entirely in front of the

previous shelf. The lowstand wedge has less steep foreset
beds, and its strata partially accumulated on the shelf.
During highstand, the shelf developed along a northwestsoutheast trend. Deposition shifted basinward
during the subsequent lowstand, mainly on the previous
slope. On the seismic profile (Figure 16), we have interpreted high-density submarine fan and turbidite deposits
in the Dolphin Basin that are correlated to the highstand
part of the W5-1 Formation. In well 1911/15-1, the 210-mthick W5-1 Formation is defined between 31632953 m.
The age of this formation is late Santonianearly
Campanian.
Along the southern edge of the Phoenix High, a large
erosional channel cuts deeply into the W4 Group. Seismic
tie to the well indicates that this feature was created
during the lowstand period of W5-1 deposition and was
filled during the subsequent transgression, as evidenced
by the base of the W5-2 Formation. In well 1911/15-1, the
total thickness of the W5-2 Formation is 117 m (29532836
m); its age is early Campanian. The overlying W5-3
Formation is defined at 28362738 m, with a thickness of
98 m, and its age is Campanian.
The w504 reflector near the top of the W5-4 Formation
defines the top of a massive mounded fan system in the
southeastern part of Quadrant 1911. It corresponds to the
upper lowstand part of this formation. The fan system,
which we would expect to contain coarse clastics, extends
farther south, but it thins completely out downflank
before reaching the site of well 1911/15-1. In the well, the
W5-4 Formation is defined at 27382652 m. This unit was
deposited mainly during the late Campanian.
The W5-5 Formation is defined at 26522522 m with a
thickness of 130 m. It is dated as Maastrichtian. At the top
of the formation, there is a sandstone interval
(25222572.5 m) consisting of fine- to medium-grained
(but occasionally coarse-grained) quartz with kaolinite as
a secondary mineral. In the upper 1215 m, it is tightly
cemented with silica, but judging from wireline logs, the
porosity in the rest of the sandstone varies between 25
and 30%. No hydrocarbon shows have been recorded in
these sandstones. They are not readily detectable on seismic lines as a geometric feature, but they are assumed to
be present where the seismic character appears discontinuous. The tightly silica-cemented upper part of the sandstone interval should give a pronounced reflector, but the
event is not clear and continuous on the seismic. This may
be caused by slumps or channeling at the well location.
The sandstones are thought to represent a basin floor
sheet sand shed into the basin during the lowstand part
of the W5-5 Formation.
In the eastern part of the Elephant Platform, the internal reflectors of the W5-6 Formation dip to the west as the
thickness of the unit increases (Figure 17). In map view,
the feature is elongated northwestsoutheast along the
shelf edge and has a seemingly hard and irregular upper
surface. Combined with observations from the overlying
W6 Group, it is interpreted to be a set of carbonate
mounds or reefs. This interval is not penetrated by wells
in offshore Namibia.

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

443

Figure 16Seismic section from the west (left) toward Elephant Platform to the east (right) with the sequence stratigraphic
nomenclature superimposed on formations of the W5 Group.

Figure 17Seismic section from the west (left) toward Elephant Platform to the east (right) showing the reef-like features in
the upper part of the W5 Group and lower part of the W6 Group.

444

Holtar and Forsberg

A marly claystone interval in the W5-6 Formation in

well 1911/15-1 is interpreted to represent a basinal
restricted onlapping wedge associated with the mounded
features near the shelf edge. In well 1911/15-1, the W5-6
Formation is defined between 25222463 m (59 m thick).
The unit yielded Maastrichtian age microfossils.

W6 GROUP
Seismic and Stratigraphic Characterization
In well 1911/15-1, the base of the W6 Group is at 2463
m and the top at 922 m, with a resulting thickness of 1541
m. The recorded age of the W6 Group ranges from the
late early Paleocene to middle Miocene. Maastrichtian
foraminifera and dinocysts recorded in the basal part of
the group in the well are believed to reflect Paleocene
erosion and resedimentation of latest Cretaceous strata
from the shelf. The base of the W6 Group is an nonconformity because the early Paleocene record is missing.
At the time of deposition of the basal W6 Group, a
pronounced shelf edge was already established on the
Elephant Platform. This edge reached out to, but did not
cover, the Phoenix High. The main part of the W6 Group
in the 1911/15-1 well is dominated by pelagic mudstones,
claystones, and marls. In its lower part however, one
distinct sandstone interval is recognized in the well,
unconformably overlying the W5 Group. The presence of
kaolinite as a major secondary mineral in these sandstones
also indicates substantial weathering of micas and
feldspars onshore.
On the paleoshelf edge, northwestsoutheast trending
large reef-like features were established in the lowermost
part of the group, superimposing on the mounded features
of the uppermost part of the W5 Group (Figure 17). These
features remain undrilled to date, but can be regarded as
leads for future hydrocarbon exploration in the area.

Subdivision of the W6 Group

The W6 Group is subdivided in six formations (Figure
3); this division is based on the same principles as for the
W5 Group. The sequence stratigraphic relationships,
however, are not as clear for the W6 Group.
In well 1911/15-1, the W6-1 Formation is defined at
24632353 m, giving a thickness of 110 m. Biostratigraphic studies indicate a maximum age of late early
Paleocene for the interval. The formation comprises one
major coarsening-upward unit underlain by the distal
heterolithic part of a basin floor fan.
The basal W6-1 sandstone interval (23972463 m)
consists of irregularly interbedded sandstones, siltstones,
and claystones. The grain size of the quartz sand varies
from fine to very coarse. Measured helium porosities
from two cores in the sandstones were 2631%, with
permeabilities in the range of 150590 md. The irregular
topography of this sandstone interval makes it readily

identifiable on seismic sections. The sandstones are interpreted to represent a channelized basin floor fan complex
and can be traced updip to a point source east of the
southeastern corner of Quadrant 1911. Deposition was
restricted to the eastern slope and the southern Dolphin
Basin, not reaching the Outer Highs.
In Quadrant 1911, two laterally distinct reef-like
features are identified at the base of the W6-1 Formation.
Both are characterized by a gentle talus slope to the east
and a very steep slope to the east (Figure 17). Interpretation of seismic lines along strike strongly suggests that
the southern feature predates the northern. If these
features are reefs or large bioherms, their presence indicates a period of stable depositional conditions and sediment starvation in basinal areas in earliest Paleocene
time.
In the W6-2 Formation, the interpreted carbonate
features shift updip relative to the W6-1 Formation
(Figure 17). These map out as long, continuous barrier
reefs and are the youngest of such features observed in
this area. The main part of the W6-2 Formation in well
1911/15-1 is interpreted to represent the basinal restricted
onlapping wedge associated with the reefal features. The
formation is defined from 2353 to 2197 m (156 m thick)
and is late Paleocene in age.
In well 1911/15-1, the W6-3 Formation is defined at
21972025 m. The 172-m-thick formation is also assigned
a late Paleocene age. The lower half of the formation
represents a pronounced transgression, presumed to
have drowned the shelf edge reef structures. During the
following highstand, major sedimentary slumps apparently moved downslope from the Phoenix High and
about 30 km along the shelf to the south.
Before the deposition of the W6-4 Formation, the main
depocenter shifted northward. In the northern part of
Quadrant 1911, the thick highstand and lowstand tracts
of this formation prograded across the top of the Phoenix
High, thus moving the shelf edge significantly westward.
In well 1911/15-1, the 422-m-thick (20251603 m) marls,
siltstones, and claystones of the W6-4 Formation are
Eoceneearliest Oligocene in age. In the upper part of the
W6-4 Formation is a large undrilled basin floor fan
located centrally in the Dolphin Basin.
In well 1911/15-1, the W6-5 Formation is defined from
1603 to 1173 m. The 430-m-thick claystones of this formation were deposited in early Oligocenemiddle Miocene
time. The northward shift in deposition along the shelf
seems to have continued, and the W6-5 Formation has its
main depocenter on the Phoenix High itself. Several
channels appear at the base of the formation, running
normal to and down the shelf slope.
We define the W6-6 Formation from 1173 to 922 m,
giving a thickness of 251 m. This unit is inferred to have
been deposited during the middle Miocene, but only the
lower part of the interval is represented by cuttings from
wells in Quadrant 1911. The deposition is characterized
by an increased thickness basinward of the previous shelf
edge, bringing the shelf edge westward. The thickest
deposits are to the immediate west of the Phoenix High.

Chapter 29Postrift Development of the Walvis Basin, Namibia

W7 GROUP
In well 1911/15-1, the W7 Group is defined from 922 to
522 m, for a total thickness of 400 m. The top of this unit
is the present sea floor. The group is interpreted to consist
primarily of claystones and is believed to be middle
MioceneHolocene in age.
The transition between the W7 Group and the W6
Group is thought to be related to a dramatic eustatic sea
level drop that occurred in middlelate Miocene time.
Based on evidence of a paleocoastline on the present-day
sea floor, we estimate that sea level then was about 150 m
lower than it is today. The reflector w701 ties into the base
of the W7 Group in the 1911/15-1 well, above the level
where well cuttings were obtained. The reflector can be
traced westward to the site of the DSDP 362 well (Figure
5), where it ties to this well at about 1776 m (below mean
sea level), corresponding to the middlelate Miocene
transition according to Bolli et al. (1978).
Near the base of the W7 Group, the shelf totally
covered the Phoenix High. Reflector w701 displays elongated channels normal to and down the slope, as well as
very large northsouth trending channels on the Outer
Highs. The seismic data shows no lithologic contrast
between the channel fill and the surrounding strata
consisting of claystones. The channels are interpreted to
be of a nonerosional character. They may have served as
feeder channels running down the shelf slope, accumulating sediments at approximately the same rate as the
surroundings. Individual channels are seen to be migrating northward. Features like these seemed to have been
common along a large part the west African offshore area
in MiocenePliocene time. Their sequence stratigraphic
significance in offshore Gabon has been discussed in
detail by Rasmussen (1994).
Toward the top of the W7 Group, deposition shifted
farther basinward. The shelf edge was established about
where it is today (Figure 1).

CONCLUSIONS
Exploration activity in offshore Namibia in the northern Walvis Basin has revealed important information
about the sedimentary succession that postdates the
Neocomian Etendeka plateau basalts found in onshore
Nantibia. The proposed stratigraphic subdivision divides
the post-breakup succession into seven major lithologically and geometrically confined depositional groups
W1 to W7.
After the onset of the drift phase in late Hauterivian
time, the Walvis Basin received subaerial basalt flows
from a spreading center to the west. Following subsidence as the spreading center moved farther westward, a
marine transgression eventually took place as the embryonic South Atlantic Ocean advanced northward. Shallow
marine platform carbonates then prevailed in the area of
Quadrant 1911 from the latter Barremian to middle
Albian time. In Albian time, a local tectonic event resulted

445

in complex block faulting and the formation of several

subbasins and highs. This marked the termination of the
carbonate platform and the transition into a clastic-dominated depositional system. In CenomanianTuronian
time, a series of volcanic centers localized near the Walvis
Ridge bathymetric feature emerged. This tectonic episode
was followed by the formation of large-scale westwardprograding wedges sourced from the elevated southern
African craton. Later sedimentation largely followed the
evolution of a passive continental margin, responding to
relative sea level changes and paleoclimate. The basal
Tertiary unconformity marks a period of very limited
deposition, possibly with the formation of reefal structures on the shelf.
The two wildcat wells drilled in Quadrant 1911 found
good porous reservoir carbonates of Early Cretaceous age
in well-defined structural closures. Compositional analysis of residual hydrocarbons, found in relatively high
concentrations in less porous zones, indicate that these
are not indigenous and hence point to a paleopetroleum
system. The source rock for these hydrocarbons has not
been identified. Most likely it is to be found within the
strata that were deposited in local grabens created as the
carbonate platform broke up in middle Albian time. The
time of breaching (failure of seal) of this reservoir is not
known, and play types in younger potential reservoirs
updip have not been tested. A rich source rock containing
marine type II kerogen was deposited in the late
CenomanianSantonian succession, contemporaneous
with the growth of a large volcanic center in the northern
part of Quadrant 1911. Within this part of the Walvis
Basin, this source rock has barely reached the top of the
oil window maturity where it was penetrated.

AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thank our partners in

license 001, Statoil and Saga Petroleum, for giving us the
permission to publish these data. The statements in this chapter
represent the opinions of the authors and not necessarily the
conclusions of the whole license group. We would also like to
thank our colleagues in Norsk Hydro, Jan Robert Eide and Arne
Rasmussen, for constructive cooperation and fruitful discussions. Bob Martin has had a good hand with the figures.

REFERENCES CITED
Abilio, M. S., 1986, The geology and hydrocarbon potential of
Angola, in SADC Energy Sector, Technical and
Administrative Unit, eds., Oil and gas exploration in the
SADC region: Proceedings from SADC Energy Sector
Seminar, Arusha, Tanzania.
Bolli, H. M., W. B. F. Ryan, et al., 1978, Initial Reports of the
Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., Government
Printing Office, v. 40.
Gladczenko, T. P., K. Hinz, O. Eldholm, H. Meyer, S. Neben,
and J. Skogseid, 1997, South Atlantic volcanic margins:
Journal of Geological Society of London, v. 154,
p. 465470.

446

Holtar and Forsberg

Helland-Hansen, W., 1995, Sequence stratigraphy theory:

remarks and recommendations, in R. J. Steel, V. L. Felt,
E. P. Johannessen, and C. Mathieu, eds., Sequence stratigraphy on the north west European margin: Amsterdam,
Elsevier, Norwegian Petroleum Society Special Publication
5, p. 1321.
Light, M. P. R., M. P. Maslanyj, R. J. Greenwood, and N. L.
Banks, 1993, Seismic sequence stratigraphy and tectonics
offshore Namibia, in G. D. Williams and A. Dobb, eds.,
Tectonics and sequence stratigraphy: Geological Society of
London Special Publication 71, p. 163191.
Milner, S. C., A. R. Duncan, A. Ewart, and J. S. Marsh, 1995,
Promotion of the Etendeka Formation to group status: a
new integrated stratigraphy: Communs Geological
Survey, Namibia, v. 9, p. 512.

Rasmussen, E. S., 1994, The relationship between submarine

canyon fill and sea-level change: an example from middle
Miocene offshore Gabon, west Africa: Sedimentary
Geology, v. 90, p. 6175.
Renne, P. R., M. Ernesto, I. G. Pacca, R. S. Coe, J. M. Glen, M.
Prvot, and M. Perrin, 1992, The age of Paran flood
volcanism, rifting of Gondwanaland, and the
JurassicCretaceous boundary: Science, v. 258, p. 975979.
Tissot, B. P., and D. H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum formation and
occurrence (2nd ed.): Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 699 p.
Wickens, H. de V., and I. R. McLachland, 1990, The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the reservoir interval of the
Kudu 9A-1 and Kudu 9A-3 boreholes, in The Kudu
offshore drilling project: Communications of the
Geological Survey of Namibia, Ministry of Mines and
Energy, v. 6.