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Problems and
Services
Strategiesin
Marketing
This articlecompares problems and strategies cited in the services marketingliteraturewith those reported by actual service suppliers in a study conducted by the authors. Discussion centers on several
broad themes that emerge from this comparison and on guidelines for future work in services marketing.
Valarie
A.Zeithaml
is Assistant
Professor
of Marketing,
A.Parasuraman
is Associate
Professor
of Marketing,
andLeonard
L.Berryis Professor
of Marketing,
TexasA&MUniversity.
Theauthorsgratefully
acknowlmadeby Gregory
edgethe contributions
Upahandfouranonymous
reviewers.
Journal of Marketing
Vol. 49 (Spring 1985), 33-46.
comparethe problems and strategies cited in the literaturewith those reportedby managers of services
firms; and (4) to offer recommendationsfor the developmentof services marketingthought.
Problems
andStrategies
in Services
Marketing
/ 33
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FIGURE1
References Listing Unique Characteristics of Services'
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'Several authors have disputed the need for a separate treatment of services in marketing. These authors include Bonoma and
Mills (1979), Enis and Roering (1981), and Wyckham, Fitzroy,and Mandry (1975).
consistency that you can count on and try to communicate to the consumer is not a certain thing"
(Knisely 1979a, p. 58).
Perishabilitymeans that services cannot be saved
(Bessom and Jackson 1975, Thomas 1978). Motel
rooms not occupied, airline seats not purchased,and
telephoneline capacity not used cannotbe reclaimed.
Because services are performances that cannot be
stored, service businesses frequentlyfind it difficult
to synchronize supply and demand. Sometimes too
much demand exists (a popularrestauranton a Saturday night) and sometimes too little demand exists
(an income tax service in the summer).
The literaturesuggests that each unique characteristicof services leads to specific problemsfor service marketersand necessitates special strategies for
dealingwith them. Figure2 summarizesthe problems
which frequentlystem from each of the four service
characteristics.Figure 3 lists the marketingstrategies
suggested in the literatureto overcome these problems.
34 / Journalof Marketing,
Spring1985
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FIGURE2
Unique Service Features and Resulting IMarketing Problems
Unique Service Feature;s
Intangibility
Inseparability
Heterogeneity
Perishability
FIGURE3
Suggested Marketing Strategies for Problems Stemming from Unique Service Features
Unique Service Features
Intangibility
Inseparability
Heterogeneity
1. Industrializeservice.a
2. Customize service.
The Study
The literaturereview (Figures 2 and 3) provideda basis for developing the questionnaireused in a mail
survey of 1,000 service firms. This survey was conductedto determine(1) the extent to which problems
reportedto be associated with services actually presentedproblemsfor the sample firms, and (2) the degree to which sample firms used the suggested marketing strategiesto overcome the problems.
The Sample
A randomsample of 1,000 service firms was selected
from Dun and Bradstreet's Million Dollar Directory
(Dun and Bradstreet1982). A questionnaireand cover
letter were mailed to the president of each firm. A
follow-up letterand second questionnairewere mailed
to nonrespondentsthree weeks later. Of the original
1,000 questionnaires,323 (32.3%) were returnedand
usable. Table 1 shows the results of chi-squareanalyses performedto determinewhether significant differences existed between respondentand nonrespondent firms in terms of distributionof SIC codes, sales
revenue, and number of employees. The tests revealed no significant differences between the two
groupson any of the threedimensions, suggestingthat
nonresponsebias was negligible.
Almost 70% of the respondents filling out the
questionnaireheld top managementpositions such as
CEO, President, and Vice President, while the rest
held titles such as MarketingManager,MarketingDirector, and General Manager.
The Questionnaire
The questionnairecontained three sections. The first
section included items classifying service businesses:
geographic scope of operations, primary customer
group, need for customer's physical presence (Lovelock 1980), and durationof benefits (Lovelock 1980).
The second section listed eight items capturingthe essence of what the literaturesuggests are difficulties
unique to services (shown in Figure 2): (1) services
cannot be stored; (2) services cannot be transported;
(3) services cannot be mass produced; (4) services
cannot be protectedby patents; (5) service quality is
difficult to control; (6) service costs are difficult to
calculate;(7) demand for services fluctuates;and (8)
consumersthemselves are involved duringthe service
productionprocess. In this section, respondentswere
asked to indicate on a scale of 1 (no problem at all)
to 5 (majorproblem)the extent to which they believed
each item createddifficulties in their firms. Partthree
listed statements concerning business practices and
strategies(see Figure 3) which are frequentlycited in
the literatureas solutions to service relatedproblems.
Respondentsindicatedthe extent to which each state-
Results
For the sample as a whole, mean scores (on a 1 to 5
scale) were calculatedfor each problemarea, business
practice,and strategy.'In addition,mean scores across
categoriesundereach of the four service classification
variables(e.g., geographicscope of operations)were
examinedusing a one-way ANOVA model. The general linear model (GLM) procedureof the SAS statistical packagewas employed for this purpose(SAS Institute1983). SignificantANOVA resultswere further
investigated using Duncan's multiple range test to
identify the categories of firms that differed significantly in terms of their mean scores.
Problem Areas
Table 2 reportsthe means of the respondents'perceptions concerningthe extent to which service characteristics presentedproblems in their firms. The table
also isolates significant differences in perceptions of
problemareasamong differenttypes of service firms.
Judgingfrom the average responses of all firms, service suppliersdid not consider the eight problems to
be of majorconcern to them. Only one problem area
("Thedemandfor servicesfluctuates")receiveda mean
scoreexceedingthe midpointon the 5-pointscale. Two
problemareas ("Services cannot be stored"and "Services cannot be protected by patents") received extremely low average responses, indicating that most
managersfelt them to be of little or no problem in
theirfirms. The remainingproblemareasreceived average scores below the midpoint of the scales. The
low averagescores were furthersupportedby low percentages of respondentsreporting that the problems
apply to their firms (indicatedby respondents'checking a 4 or 5 on the problemitems). While 47% of the
respondentsviewed demandfluctuationas a problem,
less than one-quarterperceived any of the remaining
seven problems as relevant to their firms (see final
columnof Table 2). One possible explanationfor low
scoreson these problemareasis that servicefirms may
be dealing with them effectively and thereforedo not
perceive them to be troublesome.
A few significant differences in perceptions of
problem areas surfaced among the types of service
firms. However, only some of these differences oc'All of these scales were anchored at their end points (i.e., 1 and
5) with the descriptive phrases mentioned earlier. Other points along
the scales were not labeled. Subjects were simply instructed to circle
the number along the continuum on each scale that came closest to
their perception of the statement's relevance to their firm.
36 / Journalof Marketing,
Spring1985
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TABLE 1
Profile of Respondents and Nonrespondents
Percentage of
Number of Employees:
Fewer than 25
25-49
50-99
100-199
200-499
500 and over
Not available
X2=
Respondents
18
14
15
13
13
20
7
100
(base = 323)
10.96; df = 6. No significant difference between respondents and nonrespondents.
Nonrespondents
27
13
17
12
12
13
6
100
(base = 677)
Percentage of
Annual Sales Revenue:
Less than $1 million
$1 million-less than $5 million
$5 million-less than $10 million
$10 million-less than $50 million
$50 million and over
not available
X2=
Respondents
9
13
10
23
11
34
100
(base = 323)
9.81; df = 5. No significant difference between respondents and nonrespondents.
Nonrespondents
14
17
9
15
9
36
100
(base = 677)
Percentage of
Respondents
Nonrespondents
Construction
6
8
5
Transportation
5
Utilities
4
4
16
Banking: State banks
13
7
Banking: National banks
6
4
Savings and loans
3
Nonbank credit agencies
3
3
9
Brokerage firms
15
Hotels & lodging places
8
8
Personal services
3
1
Business services
17
16
5
Repair services
4
Recreation
6
9
7
5
100
100
(base = 323)
(base = 677)
X2= 15.38; df = 13. No significant difference between respondents and nonrespondents.
"Categoriesshown in the table are collapsedcategoriesto ensure adequatecell sizes for the chi-squareanalysis. However,to
providemore specificity,industriesfrom which at least two firms respondedare furtherdetailed below: Contractors:general
contractors,heavy construction;Transportation:
motorfreight,air transport;Utilities:telephone, electric,gas; BrokerageFirms:
securitiesbrokers,holding& investmentcompanies,realestate agencies, insurancecarriers;
PersonalServices:power laundries,
linensupply& cleaningservices, beautysalons & barbershops, photographicservices; Business Services:
advertising'agencies,
credit
&
SIC Groupings':
15, 16, 17
42, 44, 45
48, 49
60
60
61
61
62, 65, 67
70
72
73
75, 76
78, 79
miscellaneous
reporting services, janitorial cleaning services, computer programming/data processing services, equipment rental & leasing services, consulting firms, photofinishing laboratories; Recreation: amusement parks, public golf courses, audio/video entertainment, membership sports and recreation clubs.
TABLE
2
Significant Differences in Perceptions of Problem Areas among Types of Service Firmsa
Percentage o
Firms
Duration of Benefits
PrimaryCustomer Group
Geographic Spread
CheckIndividual Institutional
StatewideImme- Short- LongMeAll ing a 4
Customers Customers Both Local Regional Natl. Intl.
diate term term High dium Low Firms or 5
2.15b 1.55c 1.85bC
1.87
16
(1.36)
9
1.65
(1.17)
2.22b
2.92c 2.53b,c
2.60c
2.52
20
(1.07)
2.41C
1.83b
2.01b
2.13
19
(1.32)
Need for
Customer's
Presence
Problem Areas
Services cannot be
stored.
Services cannot be
transported.
Qualityof services
difficultto control
Services cannot be
"mass produced."
Services cannot be
protected by patents.
Costs of providing
services are difficult to calculate.
Customers themselves are involved during the
production of
services.
The demand for
services fluctuates.
Sample Size
1.64b
2.09C
2.08bc 1.78
1.66
2.07b 2.27C
2.33b 2.44b'c 2.76c
1.89
(1.35)
16
2.59
(1.25)
23
2.13
(1.15)
12
3.27
(1.29)
125
129
52
100
76
74
49
87
47
173
73
125
114
47
323
aNumbersare mean values on a 5-point scale, on which the higher the value, the more a characteristicapplies to a firm; numbers within parentheses in the second last
column are standard deviations; numbers in the last column are percentages.
with the same superscripts are not significantlydifferent. Means with differentsuperscripts are significantlydifferent.
b'CMeans
Practices/Strategies
Table 3 summarizesthe extent to which various business practices and strategies are used to overcome
problemsassociatedwith services across all firms and
in differenttypes of firms. These practices and strategies have been cited in the services marketingliteratureas particularlyappropriatefor service firms.
Pricing. Average responses across all firms show
thatcost-orientedpricingstrategiesare used more than
competition-and demand-orientedpricing strategies.
Basing prices on what it costs to provide the service
had a higher mean (3.78) than either basing prices on
what competitioncharges (mean of 2.99) or on what
the marketis willing to pay (mean of 2.90). Consistent with these averages are the percentages of respondentschecking a 4 or 5 on the scales (indicating
thatthe strategyappliesto theirfirm):63% base prices
on costs whereas a much lower percentagebase price
38 / Journal
of Marketing,
Spring1985
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TABLE3
Significant Differences in Usage of Business Strategies
PrimaryCustomer Group
Geographic Spread
Individual Institutional
StatewideBusiness Practices Customers Customers Both Local Regional Natl.
Intl.
Pricing
Base prices on
what it costs
us
Base prices on
what competition charges
Base prices on
what market is
willing to pay
Use a cost ac3.02b
3.65c
3.19bc
3.48b'c
counting system
Advertisingand
Word of Mouth
3.55b
2.69c
3.59b
Advertising is an
importantpart
of marketing
program
Television adver-
1.90b
1.42c
1.59b,c
3.57b
63
2.99
36
3.02c
3.08bc
3.66b
3.29b
2.60c
2.90
(1.37)
36
3.28
(1.49)
51
3.20
45
(1.45)
1.95b
1.59b
1.48c
1.88b
1.74b
1.38c
1.65
12
(1.20)
3.23b
1.75c
3.20b
3.31
2.47c
2.05c
2.02c
3.07b
2.69bc
2.31
3.01b 2.84b
3.99b
4.00b
2.06c
2.60c
2.61
(1.57)
35
2.82
(1.43)
34
3.86
(1.30)
68
3.84
(1.44)
67
2.81b
3.93
3.17b
2.72b
3.38c
3.81c,d
4.32d
3.35
(1.45)
50
3.98b
4.31c
3.89b
3.94b
4.06b
4.12b
4.52c
4.11
(1.01)
76
4.08
(1.03)
73
3.78
(1.29)
67
3.24
50
personnel who
interactwith
consumers
Train personnel
to interactwell
InstitutionalImage
Much of marketing geared to
projecting specific company
image
Have customer
contact employees
dressed in a
certain way to
achieve image
3.53b
3.23b'c
2.98c
(1.46)
Design facilities
3.63b
3.01
3.64b
3.78b
3.04C
3.15c
3.29C
Formal system
3.34b
3.80C
3.37b
3.17a
3.57b
3.88b
Regularly collect
3.23b
3.97c
3.36b
3.20b
3.70C
3.72
3.78
(1.27)
(1.22)
Percentage of
Firms
Chec
CheckAll ing a 4
Low Firms or 5
Need for
Customer's
Presence
3.66b
3.02C
3.30bc
3.74b 3.49b
2.98C 3.37
(1.44)
53
3.87b
3.54
(1.25)
55
4.21d
3.60
(1.28)
59
Problems
andStrategies
inServices
/ 39
Marketing
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TABLE
3 (continued)
PrimaryCustomer Group
Geographic Spread
Individual Institutional
StatewideBusiness Practices Customers Customers Both Local Regional Natl.
Intl.
Marketingactivities are based
on knowledge
about customers
Firmactivities are
coordinated to
ensure customer satisfaction
Chief marketing
executive participates in top
management
decisions
Willingto produce customerdesigned services for clients
When a customer
is dissatisfied,
redo service
Sample size
3.45b
3.89c
3.36b 3.32b
3.70b
3.23b
125
4.01c
129
3.40b 3.29
52
103
Percente
ageof
Firms
Duration of Benefits
CheckImme- Short- LongMeAll ing a 4
diate term term High dium Low Firms or 5
Need for
Customer's
Presence
3.70C
3.83c
3.88c
3.75b 3.38c
3.84b 3.62
(1.19)
59
4.22C
4.09c
4.23c
72
4.34
(1.05)
84
3.59
(1.47)
60
2.70
(1.50)
31
3.49b'c
76
3.93c
74
3.84c
49
87
47
173
73
125
114
323
aNumbersare mean values on a 5-point scale on which the higher the value, the more a characteristicapplies to a firm; numbers within parentheses in the second last
column are standard deviations; numbers in the last column are percentages.
with same superscripts are not significantlydifferent. Means with different superscripts are significantly different.
b'c'dMeans
service delivery reportthat advertisingis more appropriate (and use both television and newspaperadvertising more) than those where the customer can initiate or terminatethe service transactionat a distance.
Firms marketingservices where benefits are immediate (hotels) use television and newspaperadvertising morethanthose wherebenefitsendurefor a long
time (landscapingfirms). A possible explanation for
this finding is that services with enduringbenefits (a
college education)are moreexpensiveandrequiremore
involvementby the buyer. In these cases, advertising
in the newspaper and on television is less likely to
trigger a purchasethan with lower priced, lower involvementpurchaseswhere benefits are immediate(a
restaurantmeal).
For the sample as a whole, direct mail and newspaperappearto be more importantadvertisingmedia
than television. While 35% of the respondentsindicate thatnewspaperis importantand 34% indicatethat
direct mail is important,only 12% claim that television is an importantpart of their marketingprograms
(see final column of Table 3). Television's advertising
strengths-which include demonstrationas well as
sight, sound, and motion benefits-may be less appropriatefor services because of their intangibility.
Unless a service is associated with relevant tangibles
(the equipmentin a healthclub), the service firm may
have little to demonstrate. Television, generally the
most expensive medium, may also not be feasible for
many service firms.
40 / Journal
of Marketing,
1985
Spring
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Problems
andStrategies
inServices
Marketing
/ 41
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TABLE4
Significant Differences in Usage of Strategies
PrimaryCustomer Group
Geographic Spread
trti to Cope
C
Strategies
with Fluctuating Individual Institutional
StatewideDemand
Intl.
Customers Customers Both Local Regional Natl.
Periods of High
Demand
Hireextra full-time
3.12c
2.62b,c 2.16b
3.37C
2.96c
3.23C
employees
Hireextra part-time
employees
Use differential
3.20c
3.75b 3.40b'C 3.73c
3.90c
3.05b
scheduling of existing employees
during peak
times
Have employees
4.00C
3.24b
2.97b
3.26b
3.66C
4.05c
4.10C
work overtime
Subcontractwork
to others
Let work fall behind
Take care of regu1.47b
1.47b
1.99C
1.92C
1.53b
1.85c
1.65b,c
lar customers
and allow others
to wait
Turn away business
1.48b
1.39b 1.33b
2.00
1.85C
1.92C 1.88c
Cross-trainemployees to perform
other tasks
Educate customers
to use service
during nonpeak
times
Offer incentives to
customers using
service during
nonpeak times
3.84b
1.99C
3.75b
3.90
Need ~Need
for
Customer's
Duration of Benefits
Presence
MeImme- Short- Longdiate term term High dium Low
3.13b
3.96b
4.35b
3.42c
4.00b
3.09C
4.11b
4.03b
2.00b
2.50C
3.33c
1.47C
2.85b,c
3.43c
1.70b'c
3.22C
Percentage of
Fom
CheckAll ing a 4
Firms or 5
2.79
(1.61)
3.72
(1.44)
3.55
(1.52)
37
3.54
(1.38)
1.95
(1.41)
1.62
(0.93)
1.68
(1.09)
55
1.68
(1.17)
3.73
(1.26)
11
2.38
2.78b
63
60
18
6
9
60
22
(1.37)
Periods of Low
Demand
Lay off employees
2.96c
2.04b
1.88
2.97c
3.08c
3.14c
Use differential
scheduling of existing employees
during slow
2.75b
1.69c
1.62c
3.00b
2.88b'
2.35c
3.72b
3.88b
2.77C
2.69b
1.61c
3.69b 3.03c
1.81c
3.18C
1.97
(1.38)
18
2.60
(1.56)
32
3.22
50
(1.51)
times
Use employees to
perform nonvital
tasks during slow
times
Offer price reductions
Increase advertising
Try to increase
business by calling on customers
Seek subcontract
work during slow
times
Offer different services to use resources during
slow periods
Sample size
1.50b
2.05C
2.47C
2.05c
2.27b
1.80c
1.59c
2.66b
1.72C
1.68c
1.99b
2.46c
2.58C
2.28b,c
2.61b
2.10
2.15c
2.75b
2.12c
2.09c
2.99
(1.38)
39
1.94
(1.40)
2.70
(1.34)
3.47
(1.52)
17
20
4.13c
3.35b
2.96b
3.63C
4.00C
3.72C
2.07
1.48b
1.35b
1.90c,d
1.73b,d
2.33c
1.72
(1.20)
14
1.94b
2.38c
1.75b
1.74b
1.97b,
2.42c,d
2.60d
2.08
(1.37)
19
125
129
52
100
76
74
49
3.34b,C 3.27b
87
47
173
73
125
3.79
114
57
323
'Numbers are mean values on a 5-point scale, on which the higher the value the more a characteristicapplies to a firm. Numbers within parentheses in the second last
column are standard deviations; numbers in the last column are percentages.
with the same superscriptare not significantlydifferent. Means with differentsuperscripts are significantly different.
b'c'dMeans
42 / Journalof Marketing,
Spring1985
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chronize supply and demand. These findings are perhaps as one would expect them to be-the need to
match supply with demand is more urgent when customersare at the service site, waiting to be served (in
a bank or restaurant)than when the customers' physical presence is not critical and the service benefits
endureover a longer period (architecturalservices).
Discussion
This article presented a conceptual framework of
problemsand strategiesin services marketingthat derive from four unique characteristicsof services: intangibility, inseparability,heterogeneity, and perishability. The frameworkis based on a review of the
growing body of literaturein services marketing.The
article also reportedfindings from a national survey
of service firms concerning problems they face and
strategiesthey use. Presentingthe literaturereview and
survey data in one article affords the opportunityto
compare points of emphasis in the literature-much
of which is nonempirical at this stage in its development-with the input of a cross-section of service
companies.
Services MarketingProblems
Anotherconclusion to be drawn from the researchis
thatthe services marketingliteraturecorrespondsmore
closely with the practicesand strategiesused by sample firms than with the problemsthey face. Eight operations or marketingproblems associated with the
characteristicsof services were identified from the
services marketingliterature. Only one of the eight
problemareas ("The demandfor services fluctuates")
received an average score above the midpointon the
scale. Four of the eight items were just below or just
above the 2.0 mark, indicatingthatthey were not perceived to be troublesome.
A discrepancyexists between what the literature
suggests would be the case and what respondentsto
the present study claim is the case. One explanation
for this discrepancyis that service firms have internalizedthese problemsand are dealing with them successfully by using the very strategiessuggested in the
literatureto be appropriate.That there were, by and
large, higher overall scores for the business practice
and strategyitems than for the problem items on the
questionnairelends credenceto this explanation.If this
explanationis valid, many of the problems cited in
the literaturecouldbe less criticalthanotherareaswhich
were not investigated (e.g., difficulty in developing
new services, difficulty in evaluating profitability,
difficultyin motivatingpublic contactpersonnel,etc.).
It is also possible that service managersmay not have
fully graspedthe significanceof what they were being
asked in one or more of the problemstatements(e.g.,
managersmay not think in terms of protectionin the
formof patentsbut still may be concernedaboutcompetitorscopying their services). The services marketing literaturemay need to recognize and analyze additional problem areas that may be particularly
troublesome to service firms. Researchers testing
managerialperceptionsmay also need to translatethe
conceptual problem statements into language more
appropriateto service managers.
ProblemsandStrategiesin ServicesMarketing
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Implicationsfor FurtherResearch
Numerous implications for researchersinterested in
services marketingarise from the findings reportedin
this article. Some of the more intriguingimplications
are as follows:
1. The services marketing literaturetends to be
characterizedby empiricalresearchwithin certain service industries (for example, banking
andhealthcare) andby conceptualwork across
service industries. It is perhapsthis combination that has contributedto the glossing over
in the literatureof many differences between
types of service firms found in our study. A
researchpriority in services marketingis empirical study that transcendsspecific industries
and tests service marketingconcepts.
2. For reasonssuggestedearlier,this researchstudy
did not for the most part uncover the critical
problemsfacing most service businesses today.
Whatare these problems?How are they changing due to environmental,competitive,andother
conditions?How do they differfor varioustypes
of service firms? The services marketing literature needs to focus on the most critical
problems facing service firms if it is to be of
maximumvalue.
3. Of the eight problem areas investigated, fluctuation in demand was considered to be most
troublesomeby the sample. This would seem
to be a fertile area for additionalresearch.The
datapresentedin Table 4 reveal thatthe sample
companies used some but not all of the listed
strategiesfor coping with demandfluctuations.
Why are some strategiesmore useful than others? How does their effectiveness vary among
different types of services? Are other useful
strategiesoverlooked in the literature?
4. The literature suggests that word-of-mouth
communications are critical because services
are intangibleand heterogeneousin nature.The
data indicate that sample firms make specific
efforts to encourage word-of-mouth communications. What strategiesare available to service finns attemptingto increaseword-of-mouth
communications?What guidelines and advice
can be offered in connectionwith these various
strategies?Are certain strategies more appropriate for certain types of service businesses?
Additionalresearchinto these and relatedquestions would be helpful.
5. Also suggested in the literature(Kotler 1973,
Lovelocket al. 1981)-and corroborated
by this
study-is the importanceof institutionalimage
and the use of tangiblecues like physical facilities and personnel appearanceto enhance it.
Conclusion
Services marketingis becoming a recognized and accepted subset of the marketingdiscipline. Given the
growthof the service sector in economies throughout
the world, and the almost universalbelief by scholars
workingin this area that services marketingis in certain key respects differentfrom goods marketing,the
rapidgrowth of service marketingliteraturein recent
years is not surprising.An accelerationof academic
interestand researchactivity in services marketingin
the years immediatelyahead is to be expected and is
necessarybecausefar morequestionsthananswersexist
at this time. Implied by the set of research implications reviewed above is the need for researchersto
thinkbroadlyaboutresearchableissues and to be willing to work in areas not normallyclassified as "marketing" (e.g., human resources managementand facilities design). A need exists for services marketing
researchto enter a new phase of empirical work that
integratesvarious disciplines and various service industries.
44 / Journalof Marketing,
Spring1985
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Problems
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46 / Journalof Marketing,Spring1985
This content downloaded from 79.123.191.64 on Wed, 10 Jun 2015 10:33:40 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions