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Part 1
Irrotational Flow
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1-1
Inviscid Flow
• Shearing stress in a fluid motion is related to viscosity and velocity gradient.
• All real fluids have a certain nonzero viscosity.
• But there may be regions in a flow field where change in velocity and therefore
shear stress is negligibly small.
• These regions are usually away from the solid walls (outside boundary layers).
• In these regions flow may be treated to be inviscid (frictionless).
1-2
Inviscid Flow (cont’d)
• For an inviscid flow Navier-Stokes equation reduces to Euler’s equation.
• Further it is possible to use Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline.
• However, considering a flow field to be totally inviscid may result in unrealistic
results.
• For example, a body immersed in a uniform, inviscid flow will not experience any
drag force, which contraditcs with experiments (d’Alambert’s paradox).
1-3
Inviscid Flow and Rotation
• For an inviscid flow there are no shearing forces.
• Only pressure and body forces act on a fluid element, neither of which can cause
the element to rotate.
• Although there are other ways to make a flow rotational (such as going through a
shock wave in compressible flow), viscous action is by far the most common one.
• Therefore in an inviscid flow, fluid elements originating from an irrotational region
will not posses any rotation.
Irrotational,
uniform
upstream
flow
1-4
Irrotational Flow
• In this chapter we’ll study flow fields that are irrotational everywhere.
• This automatically tells that these flow fields are also inviscid everywhere.
• Although a completely irrotational flow field is not realistic, studying irrotational
flows is useful because
• real world flows contain large irrotational regions away from solid surfaces.
• they have very simple mathematics and can be studied analytically.
• they show us the importance of boundary layers, viscous forces and related
physics.
• they provide very valuable insight such as the generation of lift force by a
wing.
1-5
Vorticity
• In ME 305 we studied vorticity to be a kinematic property of a flow field, which is
related to the angular velocity (rotationality) of fluid particles.
𝜉 = 2𝜔 = 𝛻 × 𝑉
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Cartesian : 𝜉= − 𝑖+ − 𝑗+ − 𝑘
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• For an irrotational flow angular velocity,vorticity and curl of velocity are all zero.
1-6
Vorticity (cont’d)
Exercise : In the boundary layer that develops next to a solid surface, flow
becomes rotational. Find a relation between the amount of vorticity at the wall
(𝜉𝑤 ) and the magnitude of wall shear stress (𝜏𝑤 ).
𝑦 Boundary
Edge of the layer
𝑈 boundary layer 𝑈
Uniform flow
approaching
the solid wall
𝜏𝑤 (𝑥) 𝑥
1-7
Circulation (Γ)
• Circulation is the line integral of a velocity field around a closed curve and it is
closely related to the rotationality of the flow.
𝑦 Closed
curve 𝐶 Γ= 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 [𝑚2 /𝑠]
𝐶
𝑑𝑠
𝑉 Differential vector
along the path of
Closed path of integration
integration
𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗
• For the 2D planar flow in the 𝑥𝑦
Γ= (𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦)
plane shown above 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦𝑗 𝐶
1-8
Relation Between Circulation and Vorticity
• Using Stokes’ theorem (studied in ME 210) line integral of circulation can be
transformed into a surface integral.
Γ= 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝛻 × 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜉 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴 Γ= 𝜉𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Γ= − 𝑑𝐴
𝑥 𝐴 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1-9
Circulation and Vorticity
• Important : For Stokes’ theorem to be applicable
• 𝑉 should be defined properly and should be continuously differentiable over
the area 𝐴.
• Area 𝐴 should be simply connected (should not contain any holes).
𝑉 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑖 + (0.5𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦)𝑗
(0,0) 𝑥
(1,0)
1-10
Circulation and Vorticity (cont’d)
Exercise : Consider a forced (rotational) vortex around the origin with a velocity
field of 𝑉𝜃 = 𝐾𝑟, where 𝐾 is a constant. Calculate the circulation for a circular path
of radius 𝑅 with its center at the origin using 𝑦
a) line integration 𝑉𝜃 = 𝐾𝑟
b) area integration 𝑥
Exercise : Consider a free (irrotational) vortex around the origin with a velocity
field of 𝑉𝜃 = 𝐾/𝑟. Calculate the circulation for a circular path of radius 𝑅 with its
center at the origin using 𝑦
a) line integration
𝑉𝜃 = 𝐾/𝑟
b) area integration (BE CAREFUL)
𝑥
1-11
Velocity Potential (𝜙)
• For an irrotational flow : 𝛻 × 𝑉 = 0
• As studied in ME 210, curl of the gradient of any scalar function is zero.
𝛻 × 𝛻𝜙 = 0
𝑉 = +𝛻𝜙
Some books use a minus sign so that 𝜙
decreases in the flow direction, similar to A scalar function called
temperature decreasing in the heat flow velocity potential
direction. But we use plus in this course.
• If the irrotational flow is also incompressible (In ME 306 we’ll NOT study
compressible potential flows)
Continuity Equation : 𝛻⋅𝑉 =0
𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜙 = 0
𝛻2𝜙 = 0
𝛻 2 : Laplace’s operator
1-13
Velocity Potential (cont’d)
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙
In the 𝑥𝑦 plane : + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
• 𝛻2𝜙 = 0
1 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕2 𝜙
In the 𝑟𝜃 plane : 𝑟 + =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
Streamfunction
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= 𝑣= 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝜃 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= 𝑣=− 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
1-14
Potential Flow Exercises
Exercise : Using Cauchy Riemann equations show that streamfunction also satisfies
the Laplace’s equation for incompressible, potential flows.
Exercise :Draw constant velocity potential lines of the following flow fields for which
streamlines are shown. Constant velocity potential lines and streamlines drawn
together form a flow net.
1-15
Bernoulli’s Equation for Incompressible Potential Flow
Incompressible and Potential Flow
Exercise : Show that for an incompressible potential flow BE is valid between any
two points of the flow field, not necessarily two point on the same streamline
1 2 𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
1 and 2 : + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
3
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝3 𝑉32
1 and 3 : + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧3
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
1-16
Superposition of Elementary Potential Flows
• Laplace’s equation is a linear PDE.
• Superposition can be applied to both velocity potential and streamfunction.
+ =
• 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 = 𝜙3 , 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 = 𝜓3 , 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑑𝑓
𝑣= → 0= → =0 → 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦
𝑥
𝜓 = 𝜓1
𝜓 = 𝜓0
𝜙 = 𝜙0
𝜙 = 𝜙1
Exercise : Find the equations for 𝜙 and 𝜓 for uniform flow in a direction making an
angle of 𝛽 with the +𝑥 axis.
1-19
2. Line Source at the Origin
• Consider the 2D flow emerging at the origin of the 𝑥𝑦 plane and going radially
outward in all directions with a total flow rate per depth of 𝑞.
𝑦
Streamlines
𝑞 : Source strength
Constant
𝜙 lines
• Velocity components are
𝑞
𝑉𝑟 = , 𝑉𝜃 = 0
2𝜋𝑟
1 𝜕𝜙 1 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
𝑉𝜃 = → 0= → =0 → 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Exercise : For a line source calculate the vorticity for a circular path around the
origin with radius 𝑅 and also for a square path with one side being equal to 𝐿.
1-21
2. Line Source (cont’d)
• Consider a line source that is located NOT at the origin, but at a point A as shown
below
• Equations for 𝜙 and 𝜓 change slightly as
𝑞 𝑦
𝜙= ln 𝑟1
2𝜋
𝑟1
𝑞
𝜓= 𝜃
2𝜋 1 Source 𝜃1
𝑏 A
or equivalently using 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates
𝑞 𝑥
𝑎
𝜙= ln 𝑥−𝑎 2+ 𝑦−𝑏 2
2𝜋
𝑞 𝑦−𝑏
𝜓= arctan
2𝜋 𝑥−𝑎
• To study a line sink for which the flow is radially inward towards a point, we
simply use a negative 𝑞 value.
1-22
3. Irrotational Vortex
• For an irrotational vortex located at the origin of the 𝑥𝑦 plane, origin is a singular
point.
• The flow field is irrotational except the origin. Circulation around any path that
does not enclose the origin is zero.
• We consider that all the circulation is squeezed into the origin.
• Velocity components are
𝐾
𝑉𝜃 = , 𝑉𝑟 = 0
𝑟
• In slide 1-11 we showed that for a path enclosing the origin, circulation is
Γ = 2𝜋𝐾
𝑦
Streamlines
𝑥
Constant
𝜙 lines
1-24
Exercises for Elementary Potential Flows
Exercise : Elementary components of a potential flow of water (𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
is shown below. Find the velocity at point A and find the pressure at A if the
pressure at infinity is 100 kPa.
𝑦
𝑞 = 7.54 𝑚2 𝑠
𝛼 𝑈∞
𝑎 = 0.8 𝑚
A 𝑏 = 0.6 𝑚
𝑎 𝑏 𝑈∞ = 3 𝑚 𝑠
𝑥 𝛼 = 36.81°
Source (𝑞) Sink (−𝑞)
Exercise : For the previous problem determine the equations of velocity potential
and streamfunction by superimposing elementary flows. Find the velocity at point
A by differentiating both 𝜙 and 𝜓 equation.
1-25
Superposition of a Source and Uniform Flow
(Flow Past a Half Body)
• Consider a source of strength 𝑞 at the origin and a uniform flow in +𝑥 direction.
𝑞 𝑞
𝑦 2𝜋𝑟 𝑈𝑖 + cos(𝜃)𝑖 +sin(𝜃)𝑗
𝑈 2𝜋𝑟
𝑈
𝜃 𝑥
𝑞
𝑞
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑈𝑥 + ln(𝑟)
2𝜋
where
𝑞
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 𝑟= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜃 = arctan
𝑦
2𝜋 𝑥
𝑞 or
• 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑖 + cos(𝜃)𝑖
+sin(𝜃)𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
𝑞 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos(𝜃) , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin(𝜃)
= 𝑈+ cos(𝜃) 𝑖 + sin(𝜃)𝑗
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
1-26
Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
• We expect to have a stagnation point with zero velocity on the negative part of
the 𝑥 axis.
𝑈 𝑦
1-27
Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
• Streamline passing through point 𝑆 is called the stagnation streamline.
• Value of the streamfunction of this stagnation streamline is
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝜓𝑆 = 𝑈𝑦𝑆 + 𝜃𝑆 = 0 + 𝜋 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 2
From slide 1-25
𝑞 𝑞
• Equation of the stagnation streamline is 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 =
2𝜋 2
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃 = arctan
𝑥
𝑦
𝑈
Stagnation
𝑥
𝑆 𝑞 streamline
1-28
Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
𝑦
𝑈 Movie
Flow Over Half Body
𝑥
𝑆 𝑞
• Flow outside the stagnation streamline resembles a flow over an body with a
blunt nose.
• Equation of the half body is given by the equation of the stagnation streamline.
1-29
Flow Past a Half Body (cont’d)
Exercise : For the flow of water (𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) with 𝑈 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 and
𝑞 = 10 𝑚2 𝑠
a) Determine the equation of the upper part of the half body and plot it.
b) Find the thickness of the body at 𝑥 = 0. Find the maximum thickness of the
half body as 𝑥 → ∞.
c) Calculate the pressure distribution on the body for 𝜋/4 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 and plot
𝑝 vs 𝜃. Take the pressure away from the origin to be 𝑝∞ = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
d) Calculate the fluid speed on the body for 𝜋/4 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 and plot 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 vs 𝜃.
1-30
A Source and a Sink in Uniform Flow
(Flow Past a Rankine oval)
• Superposition of 𝑦
𝑈
• a source of strength 𝑞 at 𝑥 = −𝑐,
• a sink of strength −𝑞 at 𝑥 = 𝑐 and
𝑥
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈
in +𝑥 direction.
𝑐 𝑐
𝑞 𝑞
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑠𝑜𝑢 + 𝜙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 𝑈𝑥 + ln 𝑟1 − ln(𝑟2 ) 𝑦
2𝜋 2𝜋
A
𝑞 𝑞
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢 + 𝜓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 𝑈𝑦 + 𝜃 − 𝜃 𝑟1
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 2 𝑟2
𝜃1
𝜃2
𝑞 𝑞
𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 𝑐
2𝜋𝑟1 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑟
1-31
Flow Past a Rankine oval (cont’d)
𝑦
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥
𝑞 −𝑞
𝑈 𝑈
1-33
Doublet
• Superposition of
• a source of strength 𝑞 at the orgin (moved from – 𝑥 axis to the origin),
• a sink of strength −𝑞 at the origin (moved from +𝑥 axis to the origin) ,
• Consider the limiting case of the source and sink of Slide 1-31 approaching to the
origin. Skipping the details we can get
𝑑 𝑑
𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = cos 𝜃 , 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 =− sin 𝜃
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝜕𝜙 𝑑 Constant 𝜙 lines
𝑉𝑟 = =− cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑥
1 𝜕𝜙 𝑑
𝑉𝜃 = =− sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 2
1-34
A Doublet in Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Cylinder)
• Superposition of
• a doublet of strength 𝑑 at the origin with its axis aligned with the 𝑥 axis.
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈 in +𝑥 direction.
𝑦
𝑈
𝑥
𝑑
𝑑
• 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑈𝑥 + cos(𝜃)
2𝜋𝑟
𝑑
• 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑈𝑦 − sin(𝜃)
2𝜋𝑟
1-35
Flow Past a Cylinder (cont’d)
Exercise : For the superposition of a doublet and uniform flow
• Find the location of the stagnation points.
• Determine the equation of the stagnation streamlines.
• Find the pressure distribution over the cylinder.
• Calculate the lift and drag forces due to pressure.
• As seen from the above exercise potential flow theory predicts ZERO DRAG
FORCE on the cylinder.
• Actually this is the case for any closed body, irrespective of its shape.
• This result is not physical and it is known as d’Alembert paradox (1752).
• In a real viscous flow, shear stresses inside the boundary layer will cause a
frictional drag force. Also viscous action will cause separation & full pressure
recovery ould NOT be possible.
1-36
Flow Past a Rotating Cylinder
• Superposition of
• a doublet of strength 𝑑 at the origin
• CCW rotating irrotational vortex of strength Γ at the origin
• uniform flow of magnitude 𝑈
𝑑 Γ
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑈𝑥 + cos 𝜃 + 𝜃
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
𝑑 Γ
𝜓 = 𝜓𝑢𝑛𝑖 + 𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝜓𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑈𝑦 − sin 𝜃 − ln 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
1-37
Flow Past a Rotating Cylinder (cont’d)
𝑦
𝑈
𝑑
𝑥
Γ
Exercise : For the flow shown above, obtain the velocity components in the
cylindrical coordinate system. Show that pressure distribution over a rotating
cyliner of radius 𝑅 is
2
𝜌𝑈 2 2
2Γ Γ
𝑝 = 𝑝∞ + 1 − 4 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 −
2 𝜋𝑈𝑅 2𝜋𝑈𝑅
𝐹𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = −𝜌Γ𝑈 𝑗
1-38
Magnus Effect (Kutta-Joukowski Theorem)
• A rotating cylinder in a uniform flow will have a net lift force on it.
• Direction of the lift force depends on the direction of 𝑈 and Γ.
TOP
Low velocity
𝜌Γ𝑈
High pressure
𝑈 𝑈
Γ Γ
BOTTOM
High velocity
𝜌Γ𝑈
Low pressure
𝜌Γ𝑈
𝑈 Γ
𝑈
Γ
𝜌Γ𝑈
1-39
Magnus Effect (cont’d)
Exercise : Anton Flettner built a series of rotor ships in 1920s that are propelled
by rotating cylinders driven by electric motors. Consider a version of Flettner’s
ship a single cylinder of height 10 m and diameter of 2 m, rotating at 600 rpm.
The ship is sailing with a speed of 5 km/h as shown below.
Wind speed is 20 km/h. Considering 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
and 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 calculate
a) the thrust on the ship (component of the lift force
in the direction of sailing)
b) velocity and pressure at point A.
A 𝑉𝑠 = 5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑉𝑤 = 20 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
http://www.wikipedia.org
• Reference: www.rexresearch.com/flettner/flettner.htm
1-40
Magnus Effect (cont’d)
Exercise : Magnus effect acts not only on cylinders but also on other rotating bodies
such as spheres. It can be used to explain how a spinning ball moves in a curved
trajectory. A football player wants to make a penalty kick as sketched below. Will a
CW or a CCW spin do the trick? Explian using slide 1-39.
1-41
Kutta Condition (Lift on an Airfoil)
• Magnus effect applies not only to cylinders but any closed shape.
• Consider the flow over a slender body with a sharp trailing edge, such as an
airfoil.
• An airfoil is designed to generate high lift force.
𝑠1
𝑠2
• If we add the correct amount of CW vortex to this flow field we can bring point 𝑠2
down to the trailing edge and obtain the correct streamline pattern of the
previous slide.
+ Γ
=
• The amount of vortex necessary (Γ) can be used to calculate the lift force
generated on the airfoil.
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜌 Γ 𝑈
1-43