ENG

GLIISH
HGRA
AMM
MA
AR

ArrateBlanccoCareaga
Mayo2015

INDICE
ADJECTIVEORADVERB(Adjetivooadverbio)........................................................................................................................3
ADJECTIVESCOMPARISON(Comparacindelosadjetivos)..................................................................................................4
COMPARISONOFSUPERIORITY(Comparacindesuperioridad)......................................................................................4
IRREGULARCOMPARISON(Comparativosirregulares).....................................................................................................5
COMPARISONOFEQUALITY(Comparacindeigualdad).................................................................................................5
COMPARISONOFINFERIORITY(Comparacindeinferioridad)........................................................................................6
COMBINEDCOMPARISON(Comparacincorrelativa)......................................................................................................6
PROGRESSIVECOMPARISON(Comparacinprogresiva)..................................................................................................6
less/fewer(menos)..........................................................................................................................................................7
LIKE/AS(como)................................................................................................................................................................7
ADJECTIVESORDER:OSiAShCOMPRULE(Ordendelosadjetivos:lareglaOSiAShCOMP)....................................................8
ALREADYYETANYMORE/ANYMOREANYLONGER(ya)................................................................................................9
STILLYET(todava).............................................................................................................................................................10
COMPOSITIONWRITING:themainstages..........................................................................................................................11
CONNECTORSANDLINKERS(Losconectores).................................................................................................................12
COMPOSITIONSTRUCTURE.............................................................................................................................................16
COORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS(Conjuncionescoordinantes)..........................................................................................17
CORRELATIVECONJUNCTIONS(Conjuncionescorrelativas)................................................................................................19
SUBORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS(Conjuncionessubordinantes).......................................................................................20
CLAUSESOFCAUSE(Oracionessubordinadascausales).................................................................................................20
CLAUSESOFCOMPARISON(Oracionessubordinadascomparativas).............................................................................20
CLAUSESOFCONTRAST(Oracionessubordinadasconcesivas).......................................................................................21
CONDITIONALCLAUSES(Oracionessubordinadasconditionales)..................................................................................24
CLAUSESOFRESULT(Oracionessubordinadasconsecutivas).........................................................................................26
SOSUCH(tan/tal)........................................................................................................................................................27
CLAUSESOFPLACE(Oracionessubordinadasdelugar)..................................................................................................28
CLAUSESOFMANNER(Oracionessubordinadasdemodo)............................................................................................28
CLAUSESOFTIME(Oracionessubordinadasdetiempo)................................................................................................29
CLAUSESOFPURPOSE(Oracionessubordinadasadverbialesfinales)............................................................................30
INVERSION(Inversin).........................................................................................................................................................32
MAKE(Hacer).......................................................................................................................................................................35
DO(Hacer)...........................................................................................................................................................................38
COUNTABLEandUNCOUNTABLENOUNS(Sustantivoscontablesynocontables).............................................................40
COUNTABLENOUNS(Lossustantivoscontables)............................................................................................................40
UNCOUNTABLENOUNS(1)(Sustantivosnocontables)..................................................................................................42
MAKINGUNCOUNTABLENOUNSCOUNTABLE(Convertirlossustantivosnocontablesencontables).........................43
MAKINGUNCOUNTABLENOUNSCOUNTABLE(2)(Convertirlossustantivosnocontablesencontables)....................44
QUESTIONTAGS(Preguntas"coletilla")..............................................................................................................................46
Pgina | 1

RELATIVECLAUSES(Oracionessubordinadasadjetivasoderelativo).................................................................................47
RELATIVECLAUSES:FORMATION(Oracionesderelativo:formacin)............................................................................47
RELATIVEPRONOUNS(Lospronombresrelativos).........................................................................................................47
RELATIVEPRONOUNS:subject,object(Pronombresrelativos:sujeto,complemento)..................................................48
RELATIVEADVERBS(Adverbiosrelativos).......................................................................................................................49
RELATIVEPRONOUNSWITH"EVER"SUFFIX(Pronombresrelativosconelsufijo"ever")............................................49
DEFININGRELATIVECLAUSE(Oracinderelativoespecificativa)...................................................................................50
NONDEFININGRELATIVECLAUSES(Oracinderelativoexplicativa).............................................................................50
REPORTEDSPEECH(Estiloindirecto)....................................................................................................................................52
REPORTEDSPEECH:CHANGESINTENSES(Estiloindirecto:cambiosdetiemposverbales)...........................................52
REPORTEDSPEECH:CHANGESINWORDS(Estiloindirecto:cambiosenexpresiones)...................................................53
REPORTEDSPEECH:REPORTEDQUESTIONS(Estiloindirecto:oracionesinterrogativasindirectas)..............................54
Yes/Noquestions............................................................................................................................................................55
Whquestions.................................................................................................................................................................55
REPORTEDSPEECH:REPORTEDCOMMANDS(Estiloindirecto:rdenesindirectas)......................................................56
REPORTEDSPEECH:REPORTINGVERBS(Estiloindirecto:verbosintroductores)...........................................................56
SUBJUNCTIVE(Elsubjuntivo)...............................................................................................................................................60
SUBJUNCTIVE:object+infinitive(que+sujeto+subjuntivo).........................................................................................60
SUBJUNCTIVE:thatclauses(que+subjuntivo)...............................................................................................................61
SUBJUNCTIVE:It+be+adjective+thatclauses(Es+adjetivo+que+subjuntivo).......................................................62
SUBJUNCTIVE:be+adjective+thatclauses(expresindesentimiento+que+subjuntivo)........................................64
SUBJUNCTIVE:let(Que+subjuntivo!)...........................................................................................................................64
SUBJUNCTIVE:possessive/object+ing(gustar,odiar...+que+subjuntivo)...............................................................65
SUBJUNCTIVE:CLAUSESOFTIMEANDCONDITION(Subjuntivo:subordinadastemporalesycondicionales)...............65
SUBJUNCTIVE:IT'STIME(Yaeshoradeque+subjuntivo).............................................................................................66
may,might(puedeque,pudieraserque+subjuntivo).................................................................................................66
Iwish/Ifonly(Ojal)......................................................................................................................................................67
WOULDRATHERWOULDPREFER(preferira)...............................................................................................................68
MOSTCOMMONENGLISHIRREGULARVERBS(Losverbosirregularesinglesesmsutilizados).........................................69
IRREGULARVERBS:ADVANCEDLEVEL(Verbosirrregulares:nivelavanzado).....................................................................72

Pgina | 2

ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB (ADJETIVO O ADVERBIO)

ADJETIVOS
modifican al sustantivo:

He is a clever boy. / This boy is clever.

ADVERBIOS
modifican un verbo:

They sang loudly.

modifican un adjetivo:
They were marvelously nice .
modifican otro adverbio :
They fought incredibly bravely.
modifican una oracin:
Unfortunately, they couldn't come.
Algunos adjetivos tienen dos adverbios con diferente significado:
ADJETIVO

ADVERBIO 1

ADVERBIO 2

Deep (profundo)

Deep (hondo)

Deeply (profundamente - sentimientos)

Direct (directo)

Direct (directamente)

Directly (inmediatamente, pronto)

Hard (duro)

Hard (fuerte)

hardly (apenas)

High (alto)

High (a gran altura)

Highly (muy)

Late (tardo)

Late (tarde)

Lately (ltimamente)

Most (la mayora de)

Most (ms)

Mostly (en general, casi todo)

Near (cercano)

Near (cerca)

nearly (casi)

pretty (bonito)

prettily (de manera bonita)

pretty (bastante)

Short (corto, bajo)

Short (bruscamente)

Shortly (dentro de poco)

Pgina | 3

ADJECTIVES COMPARISON (COMPARACIN DE LOS ADJETIVOS)

Los COMPARATIVOS se utilizan para COMPARAR dos o ms personas o cosas entre ellas.
Los SUPERLATIVOS para DESTACAR una o ms personas o cosas de UN GRUPO.

COMPARISON OF SUPERIORITY (COMPARACIN DE SUPERIORIDAD)

CUIDADO con las slabas del adjetivo.
Adjetivo

Comparativo: ms ... (que)

Superlativo: ms ... (de)

1 slaba

+ -er (+ than)

+ -est (+ in)

small

smaller (than)

smallest (in)

fast

faster (than)

fastest (in)

Adjetivo de 1 slaba acabado en consonante + 1 vocal + consonante: duplica la consonante final:

big

bigger (than)

biggest (in)

hot

hotter (than)

hottest (in)

Adjetivo

Comparativo: ms ... (que)

Superlativo: ms ... (de)

2 slabas

+ -er / more + adj (+ than)

+ -est / most + adj (+ in)

acabados en: -y,-ly, -ow

acabados en: -le, -er, -ure
algunos adjetivos: handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet
happy

happier / more happy (than)

happiest / most happy (in)

hollow

hollower / more hollow (than)

hollowest / most hollow (in)

simple

simpler / more simple (than)

simplest / most simple (in)

tender

tenderer / more tender (than)

tenderest / most tender (in)

si no ests seguro: utiliza MORE / MOST

Adjetivo

Comparativo: ms ... (que)

Superlativo: ms ... (de)

3 slabas o ms

more + adj (+ than)

most + adj (+ in)

important

more important (than)

most important (in)

expensive

more expensive (than)

most expensive (in)

Pgina | 4

IRREGULAR COMPARISON (COMPARATIVOS IRREGULARES)

ADJETIVO

COMPARATIVO

SUPERLATIVO

good

better (than)

best (in)

bueno(s) - mejor(es)

bad / ill

worse (than)

worst (in)

malo(s) - peor(es)

less (than)

least (in)

poco - menos

smaller (than)

smallest (in)

pequeo(s) - ms pequeo(s)

more (than)

most (in)

mucho / muchos - ms

farther (than)

farthest (in)

further (than)

furthest (in)

later (than)

latest (in)

latter (than)

lattest (in)

older (than)

oldest (in)

elder (than)

eldest (in)

little
much / many
far

late

old

lejos

tarde

viejo(s)

(distancia)- ms lejos
adicional - ms adelante
ms tarde
reciente
antiguo, mayor
mayor (familia)

My friends are good at maths.

My friends aren't better at maths (than him / he is).
Are my friends the best at maths (in all the class)?
Jim is the oldest (of my brothers).
Jim is my elder brother.

COMPARISON OF EQUALITY (COMPARACIN DE IGUALDAD)

No importa el nmero de slabas del adjetivo.
Adjetivo

comparativo: tan ... (como)

comparativo: no tan ... (como)

as + adj (+ as)

not as / so + adj (+ as)

big

as big (as)

not as / so big (as)

confortable

as confortable (as)

not as / so confortable (as)

Is Harry as fast as her? / Is Harry as fast as she is?

This armchair is not as / so high as that sofa.
Theyre nearly as competitive as us. / Theyre nearly as competitive as we are.
Cuando combinamos el adjetivo con un sustantivo:
as + adjective + a + noun singular + as / as + adjective + noun plural + as
It wasn't as bad a result as we expected.
They are as boring lectures as we feared.

Pgina | 5

COMPARISON OF INFERIORITY (COMPARACIN DE INFERIORIDAD)

No importa el nmero de slabas del adjetivo.
Adjetivo

Comparativo: menos ... (que)

Superlativo: menos ... (de)

less + adj (+than)

least + adj (+ in)

thin

less thin (than)

least thin (in)

interesting

less interesting (than)

least interesting (in)

I am less thin (than my sister).

Those sentences are the least interesting (in the exercise.)
Is English less difficult (than Chinese)?
This medicine is the least bad for your health.

COMBINED COMPARISON (COMPARACIN CORRELATIVA)

Cuando queremos describir cmo un cambio en algo causa otro cambio en otra cosa:
cuanto ms / menos + adjetivo, ms / menos + adjetivo
The + comparative of superiority / inferiority , the + comparative of superiority /inferiority
The shorter the report, the less boring it will be.
The less luggage we take, the faster well travel.
The more expensive the product, the better it must be.
The fewer people they were, the less time they waste.
The more you eat, the more uncomfortable you'll feel.
No olvides la "coma" (,) entre las dos oraciones.

PROGRESSIVE COMPARISON (COMPARACIN PROGRESIVA)

Cuando queremos resaltar que algo va aumentando o disminuyendo:
cada vez ms / menos + adjetivo
comparative of superiority / inferiority and comparative of superiority / inferiority
The weather is hotter and hotter.
This programme is more and more entertaining.
Will exams be less and less easy?
The result isn't less and less important.

Pgina | 6

LESS / FEWER (MENOS)

Tenemos dos formas de decir "menos" en ingls:
less + sustantivos no-contables / fewer + sustantivos contables
I have less work now than last year.
Are there fewer boys playing now?
He has less money and fewer friends.

LIKE / AS (COMO)
Tenemos dos formas de decir "como" en ingls:
like + sustantivo / pronombre = como, igual que, similar a (comparando)
This coat is like yours.
He is like his brother.
She sings like an angel.
You should do it like him.
as + sustantivo = como, en calidad de (funcin)
as + oracin subordinada / locucin = como
I worked as a trainer.
Lawrence Olivier as Hamlet is wonderful.
Call her as your mother told you.
Do it as I showed you.
Now, as during the course, he's taking the bus at 7.
Sherlock Holmes, as in any of his adventures, exposes the murderer.
He plays like a professional. (no es profesional)
He plays as a professional. (es profesional)
I'm talking to you like your mother. (no soy tu madre)
I'm talking to you as your mother. (soy tu madre)

Pgina | 7

ADJECTIVES ORDER: OSIASHCOMP RULE (ORDEN DE LOS ADJETIVOS: LA

REGLA OSIASHCOMP)
En ingls hablado no se suele utilizar ms de 2 adjetivos seguidos.
En ingls escrito no se utilizan ms de 3 adjetivos seguidos.
Este orden es el ms generalizado aunque puede tener pequeas variaciones segn en qu queramos
poner nfasis.

ADJETIVO
(del grado ms subjetivo ....................................................................... al grado ms objetivo)

Determinante
Opinion

nice

the
that
three

Size

Age

Colour

young
huge

lovely

Shape

Origin

Spanish
round

big

English

NOUN

boy
glass

blue
ancient

Material

Purpose
(noun
used as
adjective)

vase
travel

bag

poetry

books

USO DE LA COMA CON LOS ADJETIVOS

Cuando dos o ms adjetivos se encuentran en funcin de subordinacin (es decir que son de
diferente categora), NO se pone COMA:
A new steel steak knife
That big red plastic bag.
Cuando dos o ms adjetivos se encuentran en funcin de coordinacin (es decir que son de la
misma categora), S se pone COMA:
A distinguished, friendly, beautiful woman.
Two beautiful, soft, confortable cushions.

Pgina | 8

ALREADY - YET - ANY MORE /ANYMORE - ANY LONGER (YA)

COLOCACIN de ALREADY - NO LONGER - NO MORE:
DETRS de be si va solo, y de cualquier auxiliar
DELANTE de cualquier verbo.
COLOCACIN de YET - ANY MORE/ANYMORE (US) - ANY LONGER:
al FINAL de la oracin.
Oraciones afirmativas
Oraciones interrogativas

already
yet
already
any more / anymore

Oraciones negativas

any longer
no longer / no more

si no sabemos la respuesta
si pensamos que conocemos la respuesta
con verbo en forma negativa
con verbo en forma afirmativa

NO MORE - NO LONGER se usan sobre todo en respuestas cortas:

Does Bill still sing in that band?
No longer. / No more.
Aunque una respuesta muy corriente tambin es:
Not any longer. / Not anymore. / Not any more.
He is already at home.
She already has that car.
She has already got that car.
Bob is already working.
Oraciones interrogativas

yet
already

si no sabemos la respuesta
si pensamos que conocemos la respuesta

Is he at home yet? no lo sabemos y pedimos informacin

Is he already at home? sabemos que s y esperamos confirmacin
Does she have that car yet?
Has she got that car yet?
Does she already have that car?
Has she already got that car?
Is Bob working yet?
Is Bob already working?
any more/anymore
Oraciones negativas

any longer
no more / no longer

con verbo en forma negativa

con verbo en forma afirmativa

He isn't at home any more / anymore / any longer. / He is no longer / no more at home.
She doesn't have that car any longer / any more / anymore. / She has no longer / no more that car.
She hasn't got that car any more / anymore / any longer. / She has no longer / no more got that car.

Pgina | 9

STILL - YET (TODAVA)

COLOCACIN de STILL:
DETRS de be si va solo, y de cualquier auxiliar
DELANTE de cualquier verbo.
COLOCACIN de YET:
al FINAL de la oracin.
Oracin afirmativa

still

Oracin interrogativa

still

Oracin negativa

yet
still

con valor enftico y se coloca detrs del sujeto .

He is still at home
She still has that car.
She has still got that car.
Bob is still working.
Jim still plays football for that team.
Is he still at home?
Has he still got that car?
Does she still have that car?
He isn't at home yet.
He still isn't at home.

Pgina | 10

COMPOSITION WRITING: THE MAIN STAGES

ANALYSING THE COMPOSITION QUESTION:
Read the question several times.
Underline the words that tell you what approach to take. (e.g. discuss, assess, compare).
Highlight key words relating to the subject matter.
Note any terms that you need to define.
Write the question out in your own words.
In your introduction say how you interpret the question (e.g. by rephrasing in your own words).
In your conclusion, refer back to the question; show the reader that you are still answering the set
question.

KEY WORDS IN COMPOSITION TITLES:

You might find that the title you have been given does not contain any of these key words. You will have
to look carefully at the way the question is phrased, along with any accompanying guidance as to what
is expected, to establish what sort of approach is required.
Account for: Give reasons for; explain why something happens
Analyse: Break up into parts; investigate
Comment on: Identify and write about the main issues; give your reactions based on what youve
read/heard in lectures. Avoid just personal opinion.
Compare: Look for the similarities/differences between two things. Show the relevance or
consequences of these similarities. Perhaps conclude which is preferable.
Contrast: Bring out the differences between two items or arguments. Show whether the differences
are significant. Perhaps give reasons why one is preferable.
Critically evaluate: Weigh arguments for and against something, assessing the strength of the
evidence on both sides. Use criteria to guide your assessment of which opinions, theories, models or
items are preferable.
Define: Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show you understand how the definition may be
problematic.
Describe: Give the main characteristics or features of something, or outline the main events.
Discuss: Investigate or examine by argument; sift and debate; give reasons for and against; examine
the implications.
Distinguish between: Bring out the differences between.
Evaluate: Assess and give your judgement about the merit, importance or usefulness of something.
Back your judgement with evidence.
Examine: Look closely into something.
Explain: Make clear why something happens, or is the way it is; interpret and account for; give
reasons for.
Explore: Examine thoroughly; consider from a variety of viewpoints.
Illustrate: Make something clear and explicit, giving examples of evidence.
Interpret: Show the meaning and relevance of data or other material presented.
Justify: Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a decision or conclusions
were made; answer the main objections which might be made.
Narrate: Outline what happened.
Outline: Give the main points/features/general principles; show the main structure and
interrelations; omit details and examples.
Relate: Show similarities and connections between
State: Give the main features briefly and clearly.
Summarise: Draw out the main points only; omit details and examples.
To what extent: Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a final outcome. Consider
also ways in which it is not true.
Trace: Follow the development or history of an event or process.
Pgina | 11

TIPS FOR PLANNING YOUR COMPOSITION

MAKE AN OUTLINE PLAN:
Keep the question in sight.

DRAFTING:
Start with the "middle".
Take each main topic, idea, and write a paragraph about it.
Do not worry about style or spelling at this stage: let the ideas flow.
Each paragraph needs a "topic sentence" that makes it clear what that paragraph is about. The rest
of the paragraph will include information and evidence related to that "topic".
Write the conclusion: it should sum up the content of the "middle" and relate back to the title.
Write the introduction: it is easier to say what your composition sets out to do once youve done
it.

CONNECTORS AND LINKERS (LOS CONECTORES)

Son expresiones que sirven para unir las diferentes partes del texto y captar el encadenamiento
cronolgico y lgico de las ideas.
ESTRUCTURAR LA REDACCIN
a) Introduccin
b) Primer prrafo
At first sight,

A primera vista

First,

En primer lugar

First of all,

Antes que nada

In the first place,

En primer lugar

To start with,

Para empezar
c) Segundo prrafo

In the second place,

En segundo lugar,

Second,

Segundo,

Secondly,

En segundo lugar,

Third,

Tercero,

Thirdly,

En tercer lugar,
d) Conclusin

Finally,

Por ltimo,

In conclusion,

Para concluir,

Lastly,

Por ltimo,

Pgina | 12

And eventually,

Y finalmente,
AADIR INFORMACIN

apart from

Aparte de

in addition

Adems

in addition to

Adems de

Whats more

Adems; lo que es ms

moreover

Adems

on top of that

Adems

besides

Adems

On the one hand

Por una parte

On the other hand

Por otra parte

and eventually

Y finalmente
ESTABLECER UN CONTRASTE

all the same

a pesar de todo

however

sin embargo

instead of

en vez de

in spite of / despite

a pesar de

nevertheless

no obstante

on the contrary

por el contrario

whereas / while

mientras

though / although

aunque
EXPLICAR CAUSAS

because of + noun

a causa de + sustantivo

due to + noun

debido a + sustantivo

due to the fact that + sentence

debido a que + oracin

for this / that reason

por esta / esa razn

owing to + noun

debido a + sustantivo

owing to the fact that + sentence

debido a que + oracin

EXPLICAR RESULTADOS

as a result

como resultado

because of

a causa de

consequently

en consecuencia,

so

por lo tanto

that's why

por eso, por esa razn...

Pgina | 13

therefore

Por lo tanto
EXPRESAR ALGO DE OTRA MANERA

that is (to say)

es decir

in other words

en otras palabras

in short

en resumen
EXPRESAR HECHOS

actually

en realidad

as a matter of fact,

de hecho

in fact,

de hecho

really

en realidad
EXPRESAR UNA OPININ PERSONAL

as far as I am concerned

por lo que a m respecta

from my point of view

desde mi punto de vista

I agree

estoy de acuerdo

I disagree

no estoy de acuerdo

in my opinion

en mi opinin

in my view

segn lo veo

I think that

creo que

it is true that

es verdad que

personally

personalmente

to be honest,

para ser honesto

to tell the truth,

a decir verdad
MODIFICAR LO QUE SE EST DICIENDO

above all

sobre todo

all in all

en general

at least

al menos

basically

bsicamente, fundamentalmente

especially

especialmente, sobre todo

essentially

esencialmente

in general

en general

in particular

en particular

more or less

ms o menos

on the whole

en general

to a certain extent

hasta cierto punto

Pgina | 14

PONER EJEMPLOS
, and so on.

, etctera.

for example,

por ejemplo,

for instance,

por ejemplo,

such as

tal(es)como
RESUMIR LO QUE SE HA DICHO

all in all

en suma

in brief

en resumen

in conclusion

Para concluir

in short

en resumen

on the whole

en general

to sum up

Para resumir
SECUENCIAR LA NARRACIN;

after that

despus de eso

all of a sudden

de repente

Finally

Finalmente

First of all

En primer lugar

in the end

al final

in the meantime

mientras tanto

meanwhile

mientras tanto

next

luego

suddenly

de repente

then

entonces, despus

while

mientras

Pgina | 15

COMPOSITION STRUCTURE
A good composition structure:

Is made easier by prior planning.

Makes it clear how you are going to address the question, where you are going and why.
Sets out your main ideas clearly.
Makes it clear how the main ideas relate to each other.
Takes the reader through your answer in a logical, progressive way.
Organises groups of related information in paragraphs.
Uses connecting words and phrases to relate each point/idea to earlier and later points.

INTRODUCTION:

Arouse the readers interest.

Set the scene.
Explain how you interpret the question set.
Define or explain key terms if necessary.
Identify the issues that you are going to explore.
Give a brief outline of how you will deal with each issue, and in which order.

ARGUMENT/MAIN BODY:

Contains the points outlined in your introduction, divided into paragraphs:

Paragraph 1:
Covers the first thing you said you would address.
The first sentence (the topic sentence) introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
Other sentences develop the topic.
Include relevant examples, details, evidence, quotations, references.

Paragraph 2 and other paragraphs:

The first sentence links the paragraph to the previous paragraph then introduces the main
idea of the paragraph.
CONCLUSION:

Draw everything together.

Summarise the main themes.
State your general conclusions.
Make it clear why those conclusions are important or significant.
Do not introduce new material.
In the last sentence, sum up your argument very briefly, linking it to the title.
Suggest further questions of your own.

Pgina | 16

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (CONJUNCIONES COORDINANTES)

Las conjunciones coordinantes siempre unen dos palabras, frases u oraciones con el mismo valor
sintctico (sujeto + sujeto / verbo + verbo / oracin + oracin)

CONJUNCIONES
COPULATIVAS
and

and ... as well.

y...
tambin.

as well as

adems de

CONJUNCTS

DISYUNTIVAS
or

ADVERSATIVAS
but

pero

CONJUNCTS
or else

o si no

all the same

a pesar de todo

otherwise

de lo contrario

(and) yet /still

(y) sin embargo

sin embargo

furthermore

adems

however

moreover

adems

notwithstanding no obstante, a pesar de

besides

adems

nevertheless

no obstante

in addition

adems

nonetheless

a pesar de todo, an as

Cuando se usa una conjuncin para unir dos oraciones, hay que poner una coma (,) antes de la
conjuncin.
COORDINANTES COPULATIVAS (copulative conjunctions)
Enlazan palabras, frases u oraciones aadiendo un concepto al anterior.
I took her home, and I went back at once.
She is beautiful as well as sensible.
I don't like the play, furthermore / moreover / besides / in addition I'm tired.
La diferencia entre estos ltimos es tan sutil que mucho anglosajones los utilizan indistintamente.
Digamos que vamos del ms literario o formal (furthermore) al ms comn (in addition).
COORDINANTES DISYUNTIVAS (Disjunctive conjunctions)
Enlazan palabras, frases u oraciones sealando una eleccin entre los dos trminos.
He can come or he can call.
Wait for a while, or else you won't see him.
I'm interested, otherwise I wouldn't call.
I'm interested, I wouldn't call otherwise.

Pgina | 17

 COORDINANTES ADVERSATIVAS (Adversative conjunctions)

Enlazan palabras, frases u oraciones indicando una oposicin entre los dos trminos.
Tom is coming on Tuesday, but we're seeing him on Thursday.
She has already seen the film, however / yet / still she's coming with us.
He is angry, however / nevertheless / nonetheless / all the same I don't think he will tell you.

Pgina | 18

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS (CONJUNCIONES CORRELATIVAS)

Lo mismo que las conjunciones coordinantes, unen elementos similares pero estn compuestas por
dos trminos.

both... and

no slo ... sino tambin; tanto ... como

not only... but ... also ... - not only... but ... too. / as
well.

no slo ... sino tambin ... - no slo ... sino ... tambin.

either... or

o ... o

neither... nor

ni ... ni

We visited both London and New York.

We visited not only London but also New York.
We visited not only London but New York too/as well.
He both loves and respects her.
He not only loves her, but also respects her.
Not only does he love her, but also respects her.
He not only loves her, but respects her too / as well.
Not only does he love her, but respects her too / as well.
Observa que cuando NOT ONLY va delante, se produce una inversin en el orden de la oracin:
Not only does he love her, but also respects her.
Not only does he love her, but respects her too / as well.
Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.
We could either fly or go by train.
She is neither friendly nor co-operative.
They will neither confirm nor deny the news.
Cuando se unen dos sujetos, el verbo lleva la persona del sujeto que tiene ms cerca:
Neither he nor his friend is ready.
Neither his friends nor he is ready.
Neither he nor his friends are ready.

Pgina | 19

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (CONJUNCIONES SUBORDINANTES)

Unen dos oraciones en una oracin compleja, subordinando una a otra.
Las oraciones subordinadas (introducidas por el conjuncin) no tienen autonoma propia. Cuando
desempean la funcin de adverbio o locucin adverbial, pueden ser:

CLAUSES OF CAUSE (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS CAUSALES)

Las subordinadas adverbiales causales (Adverbial clauses of reason) expresan el motivo de la accin
principal.

because

porque

para contestar directamente preguntas con Why

as

como

posicin inicial

since

puesto que, ya que

posicin inicial

for

puesto que, porque, por

formal (lenguaje escrito sobre todo)

He was angry because we had lost our keys.

As it was a sunny day, we went out for a walk.
Since you ask me, I'll tell you what happened.
I called him at work, for I had to tell him something important.

CLAUSES OF COMPARISON (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS

COMPARATIVAS)
Las subordinadas adverbiales comparativas (Adverbial clauses of comparison) expresan el segundo
trmino de una comparacin que se inicia en la proposicin principal.

as + adjective / adverb + as

tan + adjetivo / adverbio + como

not as / so + adjective / adverb + as

no tan + adjetivo / adverbio + como

as much + uncountable noun + as

tanto / tanta + sustantivo no contable + como

as many + countable noun + as

tantos / tantas + sustantivo contable + como

the same + noun + as

el/lo/la/los/las mismo/a/os/as + sustantivo + que

more + adjective / adverb / noun + than

adjective / adverb + -er than
less + adjective / adverb / uncountable noun + than

ms + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo + que

menos + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo no contable + que

Pgina | 20

fewer + adjective / adverb / countable noun + than

menos + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo contable + que

as + adjective / adverb + as

tan + adjetivo / adverbio + como

not as / so + adjective / adverb + as

no tan + adjetivo / adverbio + como

She is as intelligent as her sister.

She is as wise as her brother is foolish.
He doesn't run as / so fast as the other players.
as much + singular noun / uncountable noun + as

tanto / tanta + sustantivo singular / no contable + como

as many + plural noun / countable noun + as

tantos / tantas + sustantivo plural / contable + como

He always spends as much money as he earns.

We didn't invite as many friends as (we did) at our last party.
el / lo / la / los / las mismo/a/os/as + sustantivo + que

the same + noun + as

He hasn't the same temper as his brother.

He gave us the same old excuses as he always did.
more + adjective / adverb / noun + than
adjective / adverb + -er than

ms + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo + que

He isn't younger than I (am) / me (colloquial).

We'll travel more comfortably than we expected.
They had to buy more expensive tickets than they intended.
Dentro de las subordinadas comparativas cabe destacar las construcciones correlativas.
The more he heard, the angrier he got.
The more you explain it to him, the less he'll understand it.
less + adjective / adverb / no contable noun ... than

menos + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo no contable + que

fewer + adjective / adverb / contable noun ... than

menos + adjetivo / adverbio / sustantivo contable + que

We had less time than we had asked.

If he had worked less slowly than he did, he would have finished the report.
He had fewer reliable friends than he thought.
The less funny his jokes were, the fewer people laughed.

CLAUSES OF CONTRAST (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS CONCESIVAS)

Las subordinadas adverbiales concesivas (Adverbial clauses of reason) expresan una objecin o
dificultad para el cumplimiento de lo dicho en la oracin principal, sin impedir ese cumplimiento.

Pgina | 21

although / though

aunque

even if / even though

aunque / an cuando

for all (that)

a pesar de

in spite of / despite

a pesar de

however + adj. / adv.

por muy...

much as

por mucho

no matter how, when, where...

no importa cmo, cuando, donde, ...

whatever

cualquiera que sea

whether ... or not

(tanto) si ... como si no

whereas

mientras (que)

while / whilst

mientras (que)

although

aunque

slo al principio de la oracin

though

aunque

en cualquier posicin y sobre todo al final de la oracin.

Although (/ though) Jim smiled, he was upset.

I won't be able to go, though (/ although) I have the ticket, .
It was an enjoyable show, I won't see it again, though (although).
It was an enjoyable show, though I won't want to repeat it.
After this experience I'm wiser though (although) poorer.
even if + indicative

aunque + subjuntivo

caso hipottico

even though + indicative

aunque, an cuando + indicativo

un hecho cierto

Even if I am tired, I'll go out with you.

Even though I am tired, I'll go out with you.
Even if I have enough money, I won't buy that computer.
Even though I have enough money, I won't buy that computer.
a pesar de (que) + subjuntivo

for all (that) + indicative

expresa duda, posibilidad

For all the work you've done, your project may be turned down.
She won't convince her for all that you keep on trying.
in spite of + verb with -ing / noun

a pesar de + verbo en infinitivo / sustantivo

in spite of the fact that + sentence

a pesar de que + oracin

despite + verb with -ing / noun

a pesar de + verbo en infinitivo / sustantivo

despite the fact that + sentence

a pesar de que + oracin

La nica diferencia entre ambos no es de matiz, sino el OF:

in spite of + sustantivo / verbo en -ing
despite + sustantivo / verbo en ing

Pgina | 22

En realidad ambos son preposiciones y slo se pueden utilizar como conjunciones aadindoles "the
fact that":
in spite of the fact that + oracin
despite the fact that + oracin
In spite of / Despite our lack of time, we listened to them.
In spite of / Despite lacking time, we listened to them.

In spite of / Despite the fact that we lacked time, we listened to them.

por muy + adjetivo / adverbio

however + adjective / adverb

The Lakers won't call you however tall you are.

However friendly it looks, this dog bites.
However fast you run, I'll catch you.
However carefully you think your answer, you may be wrong.
a pesar de lo mucho que, por mucho que

much as

She won't listen to you much as you insist.

Much as you have done for them, you can't ask them for that favour.
no matter + how + adjetive
no matter + where, when, whose...

no importa + lo + adjetivo
no importa + dnde, cundo, de quin...

No matter how tired you feel, keep on walking.

Call me before coming, no matter how many friends you'll take home, .
No matter what you do, don't touch this switch.
He always did what he wanted no matter where he was.
whatever

cualquiera que sea que , sea cual sea que...

Tell me the truth whatever it is.

Whatever they said, I didn't pay attention to them.
whether... or not

(tanto) si ... como si no

You'll have to meet Tom whether you like it or not.

Whether you tell it to her or not, she'll know it.
I'm not sure whether I feel like going or not.
whereas

mientras (que) (formal)

while

mientras (que)

whilst

mientras (que) - forma antigua. Se usa sobre todo en UK.

I love skiing while / whilst / whereas my wife doesn't like it at all.

She's got a lot of friends, while / whilst / whereas her brother doesn't.
I won't borrow you any money while / whilst / whereas you don't pay me back what you owe me.

Pgina | 23

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS CONDITIONALES)

Las subordinadas adverbiales condicionales (Conditional clauses ) expresan una condicin para el
cumplimiento de lo dicho en la oracin principal. Las hay de TIPO I, TIPO II, TIPO III

if

si

unless

a menos que
condiciones necesarias (= only if)

provided (that)

con tal que

providing (that)

con tal que

as / so long as

siempre que

on (the) condition (that)

a condicin de que

but for + noun

de no ser por
condiciones imaginarias

assuming (that)

suponiendo que

in case

por si

supposing (that)

suponiendo que

Si la oracin principal va delante, se separa la subordinada con una "coma".

No se pone coma si la principal va despus de la subordinada.

(Igual que en espaol, como puedes observar.)

Hay tres tipos principales de oraciones condicionales:

TIPO 1
Es posible, probable o seguro que se cumpla la condicin.
If + present

future (will + infinitivo sin to), imperative, present

Si + presente

futuro, imperativo, presente

If you call your brother, I'll call mine.

I won't tell anybody if there is no trouble.
If you can come to the party, don't tell Peter.
TIPO 2
Es posible pero improbable que se cumpla la condicin.
If + past

conditional (would / could / might / should + bare infinitive)

Si + pretrito imperfecto de subjuntivo

condicional

If she won the lottery, would she travel around the world?
If dogs could talk, they could tell us a lot of secrets.
Bob would be ready if we needed him.

Pgina | 24

 Podemos expresar la posibilidad remota con:

("Haber de") if + were + to + verbo , o if + should + verbo
If she were to see them, she could ask them.
She could ask them if she should see them.
Con estas expresiones se puede quitar el "if" recurriendo a la "inversin"
Were she to see them, she could ask them.
should she see them, she could ask them.
Para los consejos se prefiere la expresin If I were ... aunque de forma coloquial se pueda or If I was ...
If I were your mother, I wouldn't let you go.
TIPO 3
Es imposible que se cumpla la condicin porque ya est en el pasado.
If + past perfect (had + Past Participle)

perfect conditional
(would have / could have / might have / should have + Past
Participle)

Si + pretrito pluscuamperfecto de
subjuntivo

condicional compuesto

If I had had the money, I wouldn't have sold my car.

If he had paid more attention, could he have avoided the accident?
We might have won the match if we had played a little better.
UNLESS + oracin afirmativa = IF + oracin negativa
You'll fail unless you start studying.
You will fail if you don't start studying.
Unless he was very upset, he would call.
If he wasn't very upset, he would call.
We would have gone unless he had arrived late.
We would have gone if he hadn't arrived late.
En las oraciones negativas e interrogativas se prefiere la construccin "if + not" a "unless":
You'd be happier unless you lived in a cottage.
You'd be happier if you didn't live in a cottage.
What shall we do unless he comes?
What shall we do if he doesn't come?
CONDICIONES NECESARIAS (= only if)
provided (that)

con tal que

providing (that)

con tal que

as / so long as

siempre que

on (the) condition (that)

a condicin de que

but for + noun (preposition)

de no ser por

The program will work provided (that) you follow the instructions.
Providing (that) you had been in time, you could have joined us.
He could come as long as he kept quiet.
I'd have lent you the money on (the) condition (that) you had paid it back by the next month.
Para expresar la condicin necesaria para algo que ocurri en el pasado (Tipo 3) en negativo se usa:
Pgina | 25

if it hadn't been for + noun

if there hadn't been + noun
if there had been no + noun

but for + noun =

He could have got hurt but for his fast reflexes.

He could have got hurt if it hadn't been for his fast reflexes.
I would have been home on time but for the traffic jam.
I would have been home in time if there had been no traffic jam.
CONDICIONES IMAGINARIAS
assuming (that)

suponiendo que

in case

por si

supposing (that)

suponiendo que

Assuming (that) you had met him, you should have talked to him.
She gave me her phone number in case I needed it.
Supposing (that) he asked you to do it, would you agree?

CLAUSES OF RESULT (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS CONSECUTIVAS)

Las subordinadas adverbiales consecutivas (Adverbial clauses of result ) expresan el resultado de la
accin de la oracin principal.

so + adjective / adverb + that

tan + adjetivo / adverbio + que

so much ... that

tanto, tanta ... que

so many ... that

tantos, tantas ... que

such a + adjective + singular noun + that

sustantivo singular + tan + adjetivo+ que

such + adjective + plural noun / uncountable noun + that

sustantivo plural / no contable + tan + adjetivo + que

so + adjective / adverb + that

tan + adjetivo / adverbio + que

The ice cream was so good that we had another (one).

She spoke so fast that I can't understand her.
He works so much that we hardly see him.
There are so many people that we should leave.
They were paying so little attention that their father told them off.
There were so few chairs that we kept on standing up.
such a / an + adjective + singular noun + that

sustantivo singular + tan + adjetivo + que

She's such a nice girl that she's got a lot of friends.

It's such an amazing record that I can't believe it.
Does he walk at such a fast pace that nobody can follow him?
Pgina | 26

En el lenguaje literario la construccin,

such a(n) + adjective + noun
se puede sustituir por:
so + adjective +a(n)+ noun
He is such a good man that anybody takes advantange of him.
He is so good a man that anybody takes advantange of him.
such + adjective + plural noun / uncountable noun +
that

sustantivo plural / no contable + tan + adjetivo + que

There were such loud noises that he shut the window.

He is in such bad mood that I daren't talk to him.
such a lot of + uncountable noun / plural noun + that

tanto(s), tanta(s) + sustantivo no contable / sustantivo

plural

The boy was seeing such a lot of toys that he couldn't choose one.
There's such a lot of smoke that I must leave.
Aunque esta forma es gramaticalmente correcta, se prefiere la construccin con so much / so many en
estos casos:
The boy was seeing so many toys that he couldn't choose one.
There's so much smoke that I must leave.

SO - SUCH (TAN / TAL)

so / such en las oraciones subordinadas consecutivas (so /such inClauses of result)
SO + adjectivo / adverbio
The ice cream was so good.
She spoke so fast.
He works so much.
There are so many people that we should leave.
They were paying so little attention.
There were so few chairs.
SUCH A / AN + adjectivo + sustantivo singular / no contable
She's such a nice girl.
It's such an amazing record.
SUCH + adjectivo + sustantivo plural / sustantivo no contable
There were such loud noises.
He was in such bad mood.
Pgina | 27

SUCH A LOT OF + sustantivo plural / sustantivo no contable

The boy was seeing such a lot of toys.
There's such a lot of smoke.
Aunque esta ltima expresin, aunque gramaticalmente correcta, no se usa con frecuencia.

CLAUSES OF PLACE (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS DE LUGAR)

Las subordinadas adverbiales de lugar (Adverbial clauses of place ) indican el lugar donde se realiza la
accin de la oracin principal.

where

donde,dnde

wherever

donde quiera que

Jenny always forgets where she leaves her keys.

Do you know where he's gone?
Wherever I go, I see them.
He could go wherever he felt like when he was working there.

CLAUSES OF MANNER (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS DE MODO)

Las subordinadas adverbiales de modo (Adverbial clauses of manner ) indican el modo en que se
realiza la accin de la oracin principal.

as

como, lo mismo que

as if

como si

as though

como si

like (US)

como si (en EE.UU.) (informal)

He prepared the dish as I told him.

He hasn't called as he promised.
No hay ninguna diferencia entre as if y as though
as if / as though + indicative (except past)

como si + subjuntivo

para decir lo que algo nos parece y puede ser REAL

she looks as if / as though she has had an argument. y probablemente la ha tenido

It sounds as if / as though someone is crying. Y probablemente alguien est llorando
He was tired as if / as though he hadn't gone on holiday. y probablemente s ha ido

Pgina | 28

En estilo informal, norteamericano sobre todo, estas mismas frases se pueden hacer con "like":
she looks like she has had an argument.
It sounds like someone is crying.
He is / was tired like he hasn't gone on holiday.
as if / as though + past

como si + subjuntivo

para decir lo que algo nos parece y puede ser

IRREAL

En este caso el verbo be ser "WERE" a todas las personas.

She talks / talked to us as if / as though she were angry with us. Pero no lo est / estaba o creemos
que no lo est / estaba
He is talking / was talking as if / as though he knew everything. Pero no es / era as
He wastes / wasted his money as if / as though he were as rich as Croesus. Pero no es / era tan rico
OBSERVA:
El tiempo de la oracin principal NO INFLUYE en el tiempo de la subordinada.
Tanto as como as if / as though pueden introducir oraciones abreviadas en -ing o participio pasado
He hasn't called as promised.
she looks / looked as if / as though having had an argument.
He is talking / was talking as if / as though knowing everything.

CLAUSES OF TIME (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS DE TIEMPO)

Las subordinadas adverbiales de tiempo (Adverbial clauses of time ) indican el momento en que se
realiza la accin de la oracin principal.

after

despus que

as

cuando (simultaneidad)

as soon as

tan pronto como, en cuanto

before

antes que

now that

ahora que

once

una vez que

since

desde que

till / until

hasta que

when

cuando

whenever

siempre que

while / whilst (UK)

mientras que

Bill phoned after / before you called.

He told it to me as soon as he knew it.
Now that we have finished, let's have a coffee.
Pgina | 29

I'll tell you once I have done it.

I haven't seen him since we graduated.
I'll wait till / until you help me.
I'll come whenever you call me.
Don't disturb me while (whilst) I am working.
NO se utiliza el futuro detrs de una conjuncin de tiempo.
Cuando queremos referirnos al futuro utilizamos una oracin en presente detrs de la conjuncin.
Well send you a postcard when we arrive in Italy.
As soon as you finish, well leave.
Cuando nos referimos al pasado, utilizamos una oracin en pasado simple detrs de la conjuncin.
We opened all the windows when we saw the smoke.
Podemos emplear el pretrito perfecto (have + participio pasado) o pluscuamperfecto (had +
participio pasado) con after, as soon as, till / until y when para enfatizar que la accin temporal
estar totalmente acabada antes de que empiece la otra accin.
Dont leave you desk until you have done your homework completely.
He prepared dinner when he had finished talking on the phone.

Con before estos tiempos (pretrito perfecto o pluscuamperfecto) indican que la accin NO est
concluida antes de que empiece la otra accin.
She closed the door before he had talked to her.
He met this girl before he had finished university.
as

cuando

indica que la accin de la oracin principal ocurre simultneamente a la de la subordinada

when

cuando

indica el momento en que ocurre la accin de la oracin principal; accin acabada

She left the room as I entered. al mismo tiempo que yo entraba, simultaneidad
She left the room when I entered. en el momento; accin acabada

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS ADVERBIALES

FINALES)
Las subordinadas adverbiales finales (Adverbial clauses of purpose ) indican el propsito, la finalidad
de la accin de la oracin principal.

to + verb in infinitive

para + verbo en infinitivo (SOLO en oraciones AFIRMATIVAS e

INTERROGATIVAS)

in order (not) to + verb in infinitive

para (no) + verbo en infinitivo

so as (not) to + verb in infinitive

para (no) + verbo en infinitivo

in order that + sentence

para que + oracin

so (that) + sentence

para que + oracin

so + adjective / adverb + that + sentence

tan + adjetivo / adverbio ... que + oracin

lest + sentence (old fashioned)

por miedo a que + oracin (anticuado)

for fear of + verb with -ing / noun

por miedo a + verbo / sustantivo

for fear that + sentence

por miedo a que + oracin

Pgina | 30

He called to / in order to / so as to remind me our meeting.

Will he lend you any money to / in order to / so as to buy the tickets?
He shut the window in order not to / so as not to hear the noise of the street.
Da igual utilizar cualquiera de las formas en afirmativa o interrogativa (aunque in order to y so as to
son ms formales); sin embargo, en la forma negativa SLO se puede utilizar in order not to / so as
not to:
He came in quietly in order not to / so as not to wake the child.
He is leaving the room in order not to / so as not to have a row.
for someone to do something

para que alguien haga algo

I've bought this watch for your father to fix it up.

Did she bring her results for us to finish the report?
Aunque es igual que decir:
I've bought this watch so that / in order that your father will / can fix it up.
Did she bring her results so that / in order that we could finish the report?
so that / in order that + sentence with "will / would / can /
could"

para que + oracin en subjuntivo

I light / am lighting / have lit / will light the fire so that / in order that the house won't be cold.
I am giving / have given / will give her a key so that / in order that she can get into the flat at any time.
I left the note on the pillow so that / in order that he would (could) find it.
so + adjective / adverb + (that) + sentence

tan + adjetivo / adverbio + que + oracin

The bus was so fast (that) we were tewnty minutes early.

He drove so fast (that) we were tewnty minutes early.
lest + should + bare infinitive

por miedo a + oracin

lest + bare infinitive

por miedo a + oracin

Es una forma anticuada que se utiliza en lenguaje literario. Se puede utilizar indistintamente cualquiera de las dos
formas.

I don't / didn't let him climb trees lest he (should) get injured.
He doesn't / didn't come lest he (should) meet her.
for fear of + verb with -ing / noun

por miedo a + verbo / sustantivo

for fear (that)+ sentence

por miedo a que + oracin

He didn't ask the results for fear of having failed.

Did he not report them for fear of reprisals?
For fear that I forgot it, I wrote it down.
for fear that
se utiliza obligatoriamente cuando el sujeto de las dos oraciones es el mismo:
For fear he forgot, Jim wrote it down.
Pero:
Lest I forgot, remind it to me.
In case I forgot, remind it to me.
Pgina | 31

INVERSION (INVERSIN)
En ingls la inversin es obligatoria en preguntas directas:
auxiliar + sujeto + verbo
Are you coming tomorrow?
Does she start early?
Can the boy be here?
Con may para expresar deseos
May you have good luck!
May they be happy!
Con "tampoco" (neither) , "ni" (nor) y "tambin" (so) respectivamente:
neither / nor / so + auxiliar afirmativo + sujeto
She's angry and I am too.
She's angry and so am I.
They won't tell you and Bob won't either.
They won't tell you and neither will Bob.
Beth can't come and her sister can't either.
Beth can't come nor can her sister.
La inversin tambin se utiliza para dar nfasis o ser retrico en situaciones formales, discursos, en
las noticias y en literatura sobre todo.
En oraciones encabezadas por adverbios o locuciones adverbiales de lugar seguidos por "be" o un
verbo de movimiento:
HERE / THERE / IN / UP... + be, come , go... + sujeto
Here's Bob, he is early.
There comes your friend.
On the doorstep was the homeless sleeping!
Down fell three of them.
Cuando el sujeto es PRONOMBRE, NO hay inversin:
Up they are.
Back he went again.
Detrs de expresiones adverbiales negativas o restrictivas :

Pgina | 32

locucin adverbial + auxiliar AFIRMATIVO + sujeto + verbo

at no time

en ningn momento

by no means

de ninguna manera

in / under no circumstances

bajo ningn concepto

neither ... nor

ni ... ni

nowhere

en ningn sitio

not till / not until

hasta que no

on no account

de ningn modo

They can't accept this situation under any circunstances.

Under no circumstances can they accept this situation.
We can't be held responsible in any way.
In no way can we be held responsible.
Bob hadn't seen anywhere a larger house.
Nowhere had Bob seen a larger house.
He didn't realize that he had lost his keys until / till he got home.
Not till / Not until he got home did he realize that he had lost his keys.
A la hora de "re-escribir" la oracin ("rephrasing") observa que la oracin principal est en forma
negativa pero el "rephrasing" tiene que llevar el verbo afirmativo al ser ya el adverbionegativo:
You can't use my computer at any time.
At no time can you use my computer.
En comparaciones detrs de:
little

poco, poca

never

nunca

rarely

raramente, raras veces

seldom

rara vez

so

tan

such

tal

She little knew that he was a compulsive gambler.

Little did she know that he was a compulsive gambler.
I have never been offered such a present
Never have I been offered such a present.
He rarely buys a round.
Rarely does he buy a round.
We had seldom seen him looking so happy.
Seldom had we seen him looking so happy.
The soap opera is so exciting that I forget all my aches.
So exciting is the soap opera that I forget all my aches.
The popularity of the film will be so great that everybody will want to see it.
Such will the popularity of the film be that everybody will want to see it.

Pgina | 33

Oraciones correlativas (cuando una accin ocurre inmediatamente detrs de otra)

hardly ... when

apenas ... cuando

scarcely ... when

apenas ... cuando

no sooner ... than

No hacer nada ms que ... cuando

He hardly falls asleep when his neighbour begins playing loud music.
Hardly does he fall asleep when his neighbour begins playing loud music.
They had scarcely got into bed when the doorbell rang.
Scarcely had they got into bed when the doorbell rang.
I will no sooner arrive, they will all start to argue.
No sooner will I arrive than they all will start to argue.
Detrs de expresiones adverbiales que empiecen por "only
He could make himself see only by jumping.
Only by jumping could he make himself see.
I remembered his name only after he left.
Only after he left did I remember his name.
She will know what happened only then.
Only then will she know what happened.
En las oraciones condicionales con were, should o had
es posible la inversin omitiendo if:
If I were in his shoes, I wouldn't do that.
Were I in his shoes, I wouldn't do that. .
If you should see her, give her this envelope.
Should you see her, give her this envelope.
If they had come earlier, they would have seen him.
Had they come earlir, they would have seen him.

Pgina | 34

MAKE (HACER)
Utilizamos MAKE:
. Cuando hacer significa construir, elaborar, crear o fabricar.
Opel cars are made in Zaragoza.
. En las siguientes expresiones fijas:
MAKE...
an accusation (against)

hacer una acusacin (contra)

an agreement (with, about)

hacer un acuerdo (con, sobre)

an announcement (to)

hacer un comunicado (a)

an appointment / a date (with)

concertar una cita formal / informal (con)

arrangements / plans (for)

hacer preparativos / planes (para)

an attempt (to + infinitive))

hacer un intento (de + infinitivo)

the bed

hacer la cama

believe (that)

hacer creer, fingir (que)

breakfast, dinner, a sandwich, ...

hacer el desayuno, la comida, un sandwich, ...

a change (in)

hacer un cambio (en)

a clean copy

pasar a limpio

something clear (to)

dejar algo claro (a)

a comment (about)

hacer un comentario (sobre)

a complaint (about)

presentar una queja (acerca de, sobre)

a deal (with) [US]

hacer un trato, negociar (con)

a decision (about)

decidir, tomar una decisin (acerca de , sobre)

a difference (to)

haber diferencia con)

a down payment

dar de entrada, dar una seal

an effort (to)

hacer un esfuerzo (para)

an estimate (of)

hacer una estimacin, clculo (de)

an excuse (for)

poner una excusa(para)

a fool of oneself

hacer el tonto

friends

hacer amigos

friends (with)

hacer amistad (con)

fun of

hacer burla de , ridicularizar

a fuss (about, over something)

armar jaleo (por algo)

a fuss (over someone)

mimar, consentir (a alguien)

gestures / faces (at)

hacer muecas (a)

a good/bad impression (on)

causar buena / mala impresin (a / en)

Pgina | 35

a guess (at) [UK]

intentar adivinar

some inquiries (into)

pedir informacin, informarse (sobre)

an investment (in)

invertir, hacer una inversin (en)

an interview (to)

hacer una entrevista (a)

a journey, a trip, a voyage

un viaje, un viaje corto, un viaje por mar

a list (of )

hacer una lista de

a living (with / doing)

ganarse la vida (con /haciendo)

love (to)

hacer el amor (con)

mistakes (in)

cometer errores

money / a fortune

ganar dinero / hacer una fortuna

a movement

hacer un movimiento

noise / a sound

hacer ruido / un ruido

an offer (for)

hacer una oferta (por)

oneself at home

ponerse cmodo

a payment (for /of)

hacer un pago (por / de)

a phone call (to)

hacer una llamada (a / para)

a profit (on / out of)

obtener una ganancia, unos beneficios (de)

progress (in)

hacer progresos (en)

a promise (to)

hacer una promesa

public

hacer pblico

a recommendation (to)

hacer una recomendacin, sugerencia

a remark (about someone / on something))

hacer un comentario, una observacin (sobre, acerca de alguien /algo)

a request (for)

pedir algo

a reservation (for)

hacer una reserva

a resolution

tomar una decisin

room (for)

hacer sitio (para)

a scene

hacer una escena

sense (to)

tener sentido(para)

a speech (to)

hacer un discurso (para)

a statement (to)

hacer una declaracin (a)

sure (about)

asegurarse

trouble

crear problemas

up a story, an excuse

inventarse una historia, una excusa

up one's mind

decidirse

war

hacer la guerra

way

abrirse camino, progresar

a wish

pedir un deseo

Pgina | 36

make someone + adjetivo

hacer / poner a alguien + adjetivo

make someone + verb (in infinitive)

hacer + verbo (en infinitivo) a alguien

It makes me happy that you come with us.

Your failure at the exams made us sad.
cuando MAKE tiene el sentido de "obligar" o "causar" (make someone + verbo), ese verbo va en
infinitivo sin "to" (bare infinitive):
He made me run / laugh / work.
Excepto si la expresin va EN PASIVA, entonces se pone infinitivo con "to":
I was made to run / to laugh / to work.
Recordemos que en ingls:
take an exam (of) / sit for an exam

hacer un examen (de)

take a photo(graphy) (of)

hacer una foto(grafa)(de)

perform an operation (if you are a surgeon)

hacer una opracin (si eres cirujano)

perform a play

hacer una obra de teatro

Pgina | 37

DO (HACER)
Utilizamos DO:
Cuando hablamos de "hacer" en sentido general.
En este caso, suele ir acompaado de palabras como thing, something, anything, nothing, everything.
What are you doing now?
I usually do nothing on Sunday mornings.
Cuando hablamos de una accin, algo que se lleva a cabo.
Im doing some jobs in my new house.
Jim always does his homework after school.
Para las tareas de la casa: DO + the + -ing
the cleaning

hacer limpieza

the cooking

cocinar

the gardening

arreglar el jardn

(my, your, his...) homework

hacer los deberes, tareas

the housework

hacer las tareas de la casa

the ironing

planchar

the silver

limpiar la plata

the shopping

hacer las compras

the washing [UK]/ the laundry [US]

poner la lavadora

the washing-up [UK]/ the dishes [US]

fregar

Cuando el determinante es "some", "much" o un "adjetivo posesivo": DO + determinante + -ing.

Ill do some reading before I go to bed.
En las siguientes expresiones fijas:
do...
(possessive) best (to)

hacer todo lo que (sujeto) puede (para)

business (with)

hacer negocios con)

a course (in - on)

hacer un curso (de)

some damage / harm (to)

hacer dao, perjudicar (a)

a deal (with) [UK]

hacer un trato (con)

a degree (in) [university]

hacer una carrera [universitaria] (en)

some dictation

hacer un dictado

drugs

tomar drogas

a drawing, a portrait, a sketch

hacer un dibujo, un retrato, un boceto

(possessive) duty

cumplir con (posesivo) obligacin

an exercise

hacer un ejercicio

an experiment

hacer un experimento

Pgina | 38

someone a favour (for)

hacer un favor a alguien

good / evil

hacer (el) bien / (el) mal

(possessive) hair / teeth / nails...

arreglarse el pelo / lavarse los dientes / hacerse las uas...

a good / bad job

hacer un buen trabajo

an outline, a diagram

hacer un esquema, diagrama

an operation (sum, multiplication, division...)

hacer una operacin (suma, multiplicacin, divisin...)

something over again

volver a hacer algo

overtime

hacer horas extra

a problem / a puzzle

hacer un problema / puzzle

a project

hacer un proyecto

research (on)

hacer investigaciones (sobre)

the right thing

hacer lo correcto

sport

hacer deporte

+ studies (Italian, maths...)

hacer + estudios (italiano, mates...)

someone (for)

multar a alguien (por)

a translation (into)

hacer una traduccin, traducir (al)

something well / badly

hacer algo bien / mal

some work

hacer un trabajo (una tarea)

that will do it

esto vale

to be done

estar acabado (algo) / ser engaado (alguien)

to have nothing to do with ...

no tener nada que ver con ...

Es evidente que hay muchas ms expresiones por lo que un buen diccionario es la mejor ayuda.

Pgina | 39

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (SUSTANTIVOS CONTABLES Y

NO CONTABLES)
Los sustantivos contables
. Sustantivos siempre plurales
Los sustantivos no contables:
. Sustantivos no contables en ingls que son contables en espaol
. Convertir los sustantivos no contables en contables:
. a piece of
. por la medida
. por la forma
. por el envase
. Sustantivos no contables que pueden ser contables

COUNTABLE NOUNS (LOS SUSTANTIVOS CONTABLES)

son los que designan personas, animales o cosas que se pueden contar.
tienen singular y plural (aunque algunos son siempre plurales)
van acompaados de:
en SINGULAR:
a - an

un, una

my , your, his , her, its, our, your,

their

mi, tu su (de l), su (de ella), su (de ello), nuestro, vuestro, su (de ellos, ellas)

the

el, la

this / that

este, esta / ese, esa, aquel, aquella

en PLURAL:

few

pocos, pocas

many , a lot of

muchos, muchas

some

unos, unas, algunos, algunas

the

los, las

these / those

estos, estas / esos, esas, aquellos, aquellas

my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

mis, tus, sus (de l), sus (de ella), sus (de ello), nuestros, vuestros, sus (de ellos,
ellas)

We've got two children, a dog, this house and our books.
Cuando el sustantivo va en plural y hablamos en general, no lleva determinante :
Cars are very expensive.
I don't like apples.
Los sustantivos que designan objetos compuestos de dos piezas simtricas slo se usan en plural (y,
por lo tanto el artculo, el demostrativo, el posesivo as como el verbo que se refiera a esta palabra ir
en plural
Pgina | 40

clothes

la ropa

jeans

pantalones vaqueros

knickers (UK) = panties (US)

bragas

pants (UK) = briefs (US)

ropa interior

trainers (UK) = sneakers (US)

zapatillas de deporte

trousers (UK) = pants (US)

pantalones

tools

herramientas

pliers

alicates

scissors

tijeras

shears

cizallas

tongs

tenazas

glasses / spectacles

gafas

binoculars

prismticos

scales

balanza, bscula

Si queremos contar estos sustantivos tenemos que utilizar el partitivo:

a pair of + noun

unos, unas, un par de

a pair of glasses (unas gafas / un par de gafas)

a pair of trousers (unos pantalones / un par de pantalones)
CUIDADO!

ALWAYS PLURAL

aunque en espaol sea SINGULAR

contents

ndice

customs

aduana

goods

mercanca

people

gente

police

polica

premises

local (tienda)

quarters

esfera, crculo (social)

riches

riqueza

Those people are very noisy with their song.

The police are preparing their parade.

Pgina | 41

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (1) (SUSTANTIVOS NO CONTABLES)

Son los que designan sustancias, materias y otras nociones que no se pueden contar.
No tienen plural.
Van acompaados de:
slo SINGULAR:
little

poco, poca

much, a lot of

mucho, mucha

my ,your, his, her, its, our, your, their

mi, tu su (de l), su (de ella), su (de ello), nuestro, vuestro, su (de ellos, ellas)

some, any

cuando en espaol no lleva determinante

the

el, la

this / that

este, esta / ese, esa, aquel, aquella

CUIDADO!
NUNCA pueden ir con " a, an " ni con " one"
It was good to have little homework and some time to walk in the countryside.
Algunos sustantivos contables en espaol son no contables en ingls:
UNCOUNTABLE in English

CONTABLE en espaol

accomodation

alojamiento(s), asiento(s), acuerdo(s)

advice

consejo(s), aviso(s)

applause

aplauso(s)

baggage ,luggage

equipaje(s), bagaje(s)

camping

cmping(s)

chewing-gum

chicle(s)

clothing

ropa(s)

conduct

direccin (empresa), comportamiento(s)

cutlery

cubiertos

employment

empleo(s), utilizacin

equipment

accesorio(s), material(es)

evidence

indicios, prueba(s)

fun

diversin

furniture

muebles, mobiliario

hair

pelo

homework

deberes

housework

tareas domsticas

housing

vivienda(s)

information

informacin, datos, denuncia(s)

Pgina | 42

knowledge

conocimiento(s)

leisure

ocio

litter, rubbish

basura(s)

machinery

maquinaria(s), mecanismo(s)

money

dinero

music

msica(s)

news

noticias

nonsense

tonteras

parking

aparcamiento(s), estacionamiento(s)

pay

paga(s)

permission

permiso(s)

produce

productos agrcolas

progress

progreso(s)

research

investigaciones cientficas

scenery

paisaje(s)

shopping

compras

sightseeing

turismo

spaghetti (macarroni...)

espaguetis, macarrones

sunshine

sol

transport

transporte(s)

travel

viajes

work

trabajo

Sin embargo podemos transformar estos sustantivos no contables en contables

MAKING UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS COUNTABLE (CONVERTIR LOS

SUSTANTIVOS NO CONTABLES EN CONTABLES)
Los sustantivos no contables pueden volverse contables cuando van precedidos de:
. determinante + piece + of
. determinante + "medida" + of
. determinante + "forma" + of
. determinante + "envase" + of
Si aludimos a una parte de un conjunto slido que ha sido separada o a un objeto que es parte de
una clase:
a piece / three pieces of + uncountable
advice

un / tres consejo(s)

baggage, luggage

un / tres equipaje(s), bulto(s)

Pgina | 43

bread, cake, chalk, sellotape

un / tres trozo(s) de pan, pastel, tiza, celo

chewing-gum

un / tres chicle(s)

equipment

un / tres aparato(s)

evidence

una / tres prueba(s)

furniture

un / tres mueble(s)

information

un / tres dato(s)

music

una / tres pieza(s) de msica

news

una / tres noticia(s)

Observa que lo que se pone en plural es la expresin, NO el sustantivo no contable:

He only gave me two pieces of information.
Podemos utilizar una medida de peso o capacidad para contar el sustantivo no contable:
A / One litre of milk (un litro de leche)
Two pounds of flour (dos libras de harina)
three kilos of apples (tres kilos de manzanas)
four pints of beer (cuatro pintas de cerveza)
Podemos utilizar una la forma o la racin del sustantivo no contable:
an article / item of

una prenda de, un artculo de

a bar of

una barra de

a bit of

un trozo, pedazo, fragmento de

a chunk of

un trozo de (slo para objetos slidos)

a dash of

una pizca de

a handful of

un puado de

a lump of

un terrn de

a pinch of

un pellizco de

a rasher of beicon, ham

una loncha de beicon, jamn

a slice of

una rebanada, rodaja, loncha de

a spoon / spoonful of

una cucharada de

a square of

una onza de

O podemos referirnos al envase o recipiente del sustantivo no contable.

MAKING UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS COUNTABLE (2) (CONVERTIR LOS

SUSTANTIVOS NO CONTABLES EN CONTABLES)
Podemos referirnos al envase o recipiente del sustantivo no contable:

Pgina | 44

a bag of

a bottle of

a box of

a can of

(bolsa de )

( botella de)

(caja de )

(lata de refresco)

a cup of

a glass of

a jar of

a jug of

(taza de )

a pack of

(vaso, copa de )

a packet of

(paquete grande de )

(paquete pequeo
de)

(tarro de )

a tin of

(lata de conserva de )

a carton of

(cartn, brik de)

(jarra grande de )

a mug of

(jarra de
caf/cerveza)

a tub of

(tarrina de)

a tube of

(tubo de)

Al igual que en espaol, podemos decir: "Two beers, three coffees and two waters, please."
en vez de : "Two glasses of beer, three cups of coffee and two bottles of water, please."
Algunos sustantivos pueden ser contables o no contables pero con un significado distinto.
no contable

contable

some chocolate

chocolate

chocolate(s)

bombn, bombones

a piece of cloth

un trozo de tela

cloth(s)

trapo(s), tela(s)

a bit of glass

un trozo de vidrio

glass(es)

vaso(s), copa(s)

a bar of iron

una barra de hierro

iron(s)

plancha(s)

a sheet of paper

una hoja de papel

paper(s)

peridico(s)

a jar of jam

un tarro de mermelada

jam(s)

lo(s), aprieto(s), atasco(s)

some room

sitio, espacio

room(s)

habitacin, habitaciones

Pgina | 45

QUESTION TAGS (PREGUNTAS "COLETILLA")

Tambin llamadas "tag questions" y se refieren as al tipo de preguntas que se coloca al final de una
oracin y equivalen al espaol: "verdad?", "no?"
AUXILIAR + PRONOMBRE sujeto

ORACIN AFIRMATIVA, "coletilla" NEGATIVA

He is here,
Jim plays tennis,
Tom and Bob must come,

isn't he?
doesn't he?
mustn't they?

l est aqu,
Jim juega al tenis,
Tom y bob tienen que venir,

verdad? / no?

ORACIN NEGATIVA,"coletilla" AFIRMATIVA

Susan hasn't got a dog,
He didn't say so,
We can't tell it,

has she?
did he?
can we?

Susan no tiene un un perro,

l no dijo eso
l no puede decirlo,

verdad? / no?

CUIDADO!
I am late, aren't I? (am not I)
NOTHING, NOBODY, NO ONE siempre llevan el auxiliar AFIRMATIVO:
Nothing is the same, is it?
Con SOMEBODY, ANYBODY, NOBODY, SOMEONE, ANYONE, NO ONE, EVERYBODY, EVERYONE,
aunque en la oracin llevan verbo en singular, la pregunta coletilla lleva el auxiliar plural y el
pronombre sujeto THEY :
Nobody kows, do they? / Everybody is coming, aren't they?
IMPERATIVO, WILL YOU?
Esta pregunta coletilla convierte una orden en peticin corts.
Equivale al espaol "quieres? / queris? / quiere? / quieren? ", "vale?"
Help me (to) make the bed, will you?
Don't shout, will you?
IMPERATIVO, WON'T YOU?
Y la coletilla convierte el imperativo en una invitacin.
Have another cake , won't you?
Do sit down, wont' you?
LET'S + infinitivo sin to, SHALL WE?
Se transforma as el imperativo en una sugerencia.
Let's go for a walk, shall we?

Pgina | 46

RELATIVE CLAUSES (ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS ADJETIVAS O DE

RELATIVO)
. Utilizamos las oraciones subordinadas adjetivas para dar informacin adicional sobre algo o
alguien que aparece en la oracin principal.
. Estas oraciones van introducidas por un pronombre relativo de ah que se llamen tambin oraciones
de relativo.

RELATIVE CLAUSES: FORMATION (ORACIONES DE RELATIVO:

FORMACIN)
Combinando dos oraciones por medio de pronombres relativos, logramos una expresin ms fluida
y evitamos repetir palabras.
Oraciones:
The man is always making noise. He lives upstairs.
Oracin de relativo:
The man who / that lives upstairs is always making noise.
Oraciones:
This necklace is very valuable. It belonged to my grandmother.
Oracin de relativo:
This necklace which / that belonged to my grandmother is very valuable.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS (LOS PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS)

El pronombre relativo que utilizamos depende del sustantivo de la oracin principal al que
modifica (antecedente)

WHO - WHOM - [THAT] -

Cuando el sustantivo al que modifica es PERSONA u animal personificado.
(que, quien, quienes)
Johnny and Keira are the actors who/[that] play in Pirates of the Caribbean.
The man who/whom/[that]/ you saw at the meeting is my neighbour.
WHOM slo se utiliza en lenguaje formal, sustituyndose en el lenguaje coloquial por WHO, THAT u
omitindose () simplemente.
Su uso slo es oblogatorio cuando el relativo de persona va precedido por una preposicin.
This is the woman who/whom/[that]/ I told you about yesterday.
This is the woman about whom I told you yesterday.
Aunque se utiliza THAT en vez de WHO sobre todo en lenguaje coloquial, se prefiere el uso de WHO
CON LAS PERSONAS en general.
Pgina | 47

WHICH - THAT -
Cuando el sustantivo al que modifica es objeto u animal. (que)
I like films which/that make me laugh.
The dog which/that/ he is walking is Bob's.
WHICH puede tambin referirse a una oracin completa (y se traduce por "lo cual", "lo que" y alude
a lo dicho anteriormente.)
He couldnt write, which surprised me.
WHAT igualemente se referiere a una oracin completa (y se traduce por "lo que" pero alude a lo
que se dice a continuacin.)
The shark was what impressed me most.
WHOSE
Cuando expresa posesin y pertenencia. (cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas)
Bob is the boy whose father works in that shop.
A book whose author remains unknown.
THAT
Su uso es obligatorio despus de superlativos, pronombres indefinidos o first, last, next u only:
It's the best film that I've ever seen
It's something that makes her laugh.
This is the first / last / only time that I talk to him.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS: SUBJECT, OBJECT (PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS:

SUJETO, COMPLEMENTO)
WHO - WHiCH - THAT : SUJETO
Se reconocen porque van seguidos de un verbo SIN sujeto.
The person who/that he designs buildings is called an architect.
The portrait which/that it is in the hall is of the founder of the school.

WHO - WHOM - WHiCH - THAT - : OBJETO

Se reconocen porque van seguidos de un verbo CON sujeto.
Entonces el pronombre relativo puede omitirse ()
The novel which/that/ I bought yesterday is of Somerset Maugham.
The lady who/whom/that/you met in the lift is my aunt.

Pgina | 48

excepto:
En las oraciones de relativo explicativas cuando la oracin va entre comas:
NO se sustituye WHO, WHICH por THAT
NO se puede omitir el pronombre relativo objeto
The Ebro, which is Spain's largest river, flows through Zaragoza.
My parents, who/whom you met last month, live in Majorca.

RELATIVE ADVERBS (ADVERBIOS RELATIVOS)

Se puede utilizar un adverbio relativo en vez de un pronombre relativo precedido por una
preposicin (ms formal).
in / on which

when

para referirse a un momento

in / at which

where

para referirse a un lugar

for which

why

para referirse a un motivo

This is the bookshop in which I bought the book.

This is the bookshop where I bought the book.
I caught a cold the day on which we went to the park.
I caught a cold when we went to the park.
It was the year in which he got married.
It was the year when he got married.
She was at the party in which you met your wife.
She was at the party whereyou met your wife.
This is the caf at which we saw him.
This is the caf where we saw him.
Do you know the reason for which she can't stand them?
Do you know (the reason) why she can't stand them?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS WITH "-EVER" SUFFIX (PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS

CON EL SUFIJO "-EVER")
El sufijo -EVER se adjunta a ciertos pronombres relativos con el fin de expresar el sentido de
indeterminacin o generalidad:

whoever

quienquiera que

whomever

(a) quienquiera que [formal]

whichever

cualquiera que

whatever

cualquier cosa que, lo que quiera que

Pgina | 49

Tambin se puede aadir el sufijo a los adverbios relativos:

whenever

siempre que

wherever

dondequiera que

He'll choose whoever can help him.

Tell it to whomever you see there.
He can date whomever/whoever he pleases.
Whichever decision you make, I'm sure it will be the right one.
Whatever he asks for, don't give it to him.
You can call me whenever you want.
Let me go wherever I feel like.

whatever / whatsoever

Son adverbios y se utilizan para negaciones enfticas ("en absoluto").

En lenguaje coloquial se prefiere "at all".
He had no money whatever/whatsoever at that moment.
He had no money at all at that moment.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE (ORACIN DE RELATIVO ESPECIFICATIVA)

Las oraciones de relativo especificativas son las que te dan la informacin necesaria para entender
lo que se dice.
No lleva comas.
who, whom, which pueden ser SUSTITUIDOS por THAT u OMITIRSE () cuando son OBJETO.
The team which/that wins will travel to New York.
I've seen a house which/that/ I'd like to buy.
He drives a car whose right headlight is broken.
Let's go to a country where it's never cold.
There will be a time when I don't have to work there.
Nothing that anyone does can comfort her.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES (ORACIN DE RELATIVO

EXPLICATIVA)
Las oraciones de relativo explicativas dan una informacin que no es esencial para la comprensin
de lo que se dice.
Va entre comas, o detrs de una coma.
who, whom, which NO pueden SUSTITUIRSE por that cuando son OBJETO.
NO puedern ser OMITIDOS () cuando son OBJETO.

Pgina | 50

My grandmother, who lives in Monaco, was born in the South of England.

I spoke to Bob,who/whom you can't bear.

There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I didn't know.
We stopped at the caf, which was closed that day.
The dog looked at the tree, under which he had often slept.
He had hundreds of books, most of which he hadn't read.

Ive talked to Ann, whose son goes to school with my daughter.

Pgina | 51

REPORTED SPEECH (ESTILO INDIRECTO)

Estilo directo: reproduce la informacin de una conversacin repitiendo las mismas palabras
empleadas a lo largo del dilogo.
Jim says, "I'm happy here."
Estilo indirecto: reproduce la informacin modificando la forma de la conversacin pero
manteniendo el contenido.
Jim says (that) he is happy here.
Los CAMBIOS que ocurren en el paso de un estilo a otro dependern del VERBO INTRODUCTOR.

1. Si el verbo introductor est en PRESENTE, FUTURO o PRETRITO PERFECTO, NO hay cambio de

tiempo en la oracin subordinada:
Jim will say (that) he is happy here.
Jim is going to say (that) he is happy here.
Jim has said (that) he is happy here.
2. Sin embargo, si el VERBO INTRODUCTOR est en PASADO, ocurren distintos CAMBIOS en la
subordinada indirecta :
cambios en los tiempos verbales
cambios en los expresiones
cambios de estructura:
Oraciones interrogativas indirectas: 1) Yes /No questions 2) Wh- questions
rdenes indirectas
Reporting verbs

REPORTED SPEECH: CHANGES IN TENSES (ESTILO INDIRECTO: CAMBIOS

DE TIEMPOS VERBALES)
Cuando el VERBO INTRODUCTOR est en PASADO, el VERBO de la SUBORDINADA INDIRECTA se
pone en el PASADO del VERBO de la SUBORDINADA DIRECTA:
Direct speech (Estilo Directo)

Reported speech (Estilo indirecto)

Present simple (Presente simple)

Tom said, "I work very hard."

Past simple (Pasado simple)

Tom said (that) he worked very hard.

Present continuous (Presente continuo)

Tom said, "I'm working very hard."

Past continuous (Pasado continuo)

Tom said (that) he was working very hard.

Present Perfect (Pretrito perfecto compuesto )

Tom said, "I have worked very hard."
Past simple (Pretrito perfecto e imperfecto)
Tom said, "I worked very hard."
Present Perfect continuous (Pretrito perfecto compuesto
continuo )

Past Perfect (Pretrito pluscuamperfecto)

Tom said (that) he had worked very hard.
Past Perfect continuous (Pretrito pluscuamperfecto

continuo)

Pgina | 52

Tom said, "I have been working very hard."

Tom said (that) he had been working very hard.

Past simple continuous (Pretrito perfecto e imperfecto

continuos)

Tom said, "I was working very hard."

Future: will + bare infinitive (futuro)
Tom said, "I will work very hard."

Conditional: would + bare infinitive (condicional)

Tom said (that) he would work very hard.

Future continuous (futuro continuo)

Tom said, "I will be working very hard."

Conditional continuous (condicional continuo)

Tom said (that) he would be working very hard.

can (puedo, s)
Tom said, "I can work very hard."

could (poda, saba, pude, supe)

Tom said (that) he could work very hard.

must / have (got) to (tengo que, debo)

Tom said, "I must work / have (got) to work very hard."

had to (tena que, deba)

Tom said (that) he had to work very hard.

may (puede que)

Tom said, "I may work very hard."

might (pudiera ser que)

Tom said (that) he might work very hard.

Con alguna oraciones y expresiones NO se debe cambiar el tiempo de la subordinada indirecta so

pena de alterar el significado:
He said, "The house was on the corner."
He said (that) the house was on the corner.
porque l a casa no ha cambiado de sitio
Con I WISH (ojal) el cambio de tiempo llevara a un cambio de la idea expresada:
He said, "I wish she were here" (ahora.)
He said (that) he wished she were there. (en ese momento.)
He said (that) he wished she had been there. (pero no estuvo.)
Hay formas verbales que no cambian:
Direct speech (Estilo Directo)

Reported speech (Estilo indirecto)

could (poda, saba, pude, supe)

Tom said, "I could work very hard."

could (poda, saba, pude, supe)

Tom said (that) he could work very hard.

might (pudiera ser que)

Tom said, "I might work very hard."

might (pudiera ser que)

Tom said (that) he might work very hard.

Conditional (condicional)
Tom said, "I would work very hard."

Conditional (condicional)
Tom said (that) he would work very hard.

ought to (debera, tendria que)

Tom said, "I ought to work very hard."

ought to (debera, tendria que)

Tom said (that) he ought to work very hard.

should + bare infinitive (debera, tendria que)

Tom said, "I should work very hard."

should + bare infinitive (debera, tendria que)

Tom said (that) he should work very hard.

used to (sola)
Tom said, "I used to work very hard."

used to (sola)
Tom said (that) he used to work very hard.

REPORTED SPEECH: CHANGES IN WORDS (ESTILO INDIRECTO: CAMBIOS

EN EXPRESIONES)
Al pasar del estilo DIRECTO al estilo INDIRECTO no hay que olvidar hacer los cambios de
determinantes, pronombres, etc... para que lo enunciado conserve su sentido exacto:
Pgina | 53

He said, "I like these action films and so does my brother."

He said (that) he liked those action films and so did his brother.
Direct Speech

Reported Speech

he / she

me

him / her

my

his / her

mine

his / hers

we

they

us

them

our

their

ours

theirs

this / these

that / those

here

there

now

then

next

the following

last

the previous

ago

before

today

that day

tonight

that night

tomorrow

the following day / the next day

the day after tomorrow

in two days' time

yesterday

the previous day / the day before

the day before yesterday

two days before

Este cuadro tiene valor orientativo ya que puede ocurrir que no haya necesidad de cambios,
dependiendo de las circunstancias:
I said, "I don't like this room."
I said (that) I don't like this room.
sigue en ella y sigue sin gustarle

REPORTED SPEECH: REPORTED QUESTIONS (ESTILO INDIRECTO:

ORACIONES INTERROGATIVAS INDIRECTAS)
Las oraciones interrogativas indirectas deben ir introducidas por los verbos:
ask someone preguntarle a alguien
not know something / someone no saber algo / no conocer a alguien
want to know something querer saber algo
wonder something preguntarse algo
Los cambios de los tiempos verbales son los mismos que para las oraciones declarativas indirectas.
Pgina | 54

Las PREGUNTAS INDIRECTAS tienen estructura de ORACIN DECLARATIVA.

Estilo directo:
He said to her, "Are you ready?"
He said to her, "What's your name?"
Estilo indirecto:
He asked her if/whether she was ready.
He wanted to know what her name was.

YES/NO QUESTIONS
En el estilo indirecto la oracin subordinada va introducida por las conjunciones if o whether (SIN
'that' delante):
Direct speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He says, "Can she drive?"

He asks if/whether she can drive.

He said, "Can she drive?"

He asked if/whether she could drive.

He says, "Does she drive?"

He asks if/whether she drives.

He said, "Does she drive?"

He asked if/whether she drove.

WH- QUESTIONS
En la ORACIN SUBORDINADA INDIRECTA, el ORDEN es:
PRONOMBRE INTERROGATIVO + SUJETO + VERBO

He

said,

"When do you train?

"Who is she?"

when I trained.

who she was.

asked
He

didn't know
wanted to know
wondered

Direct speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He says, "Where does she live?"

He asks where she lives.

He said, "Where does she live?"

He asked where she lived.

He says, "What is this for?"

He asks what this is for.

He said, "What is this for?"

He wanted to know what that was for.

He says, "How long are you going to stay?"

He asks how long you are going to stay.

He said, "How long are you going to stay?"

He asked how long you were going to stay.

Pgina | 55

REPORTED SPEECH: REPORTED COMMANDS (ESTILO INDIRECTO:

RDENES INDIRECTAS)
En el estilo directo, utilizamos siempre el imperativo para indicar una orden. En las RDENES INDIRECTAS ,
empleamos la siguiente estructura:

SUJETO + VERBO introductor + OBJETO + (NOT) + TO + INFINITIVO

Estos verbos introductores son:
tell someone decirle a alguien
ask someone pedirle a alguien
advise someone aconsejar a alguien
warn someone advertir / avisar a alguien
Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He says to him, "Sit down."

He tells / asks him to sit down.

He said to him, "Sit down."

He told / asked him to sit down.

He says to Bill, "Don't talk."

He tells / asks Bill not to talk.

He said to Bill, "Don't talk."

He told / asked Bill not to talk.

Observa que el tiempo del verbo introductor (tells /told)

NO INFLUYE en la estructura.
Las rdenes con let's / let's not suelen expresar una sugerencia por lo que pasarn al estilo
indirecto con la estructura:
SUGGEST(ed) + (NOT) + -ING
She says / said, "Let's go to the cinema."
She suggests / suggested going to the cinema.
He says / said, "Let's not wait."
He suggests / suggested not waiting.

REPORTED SPEECH: REPORTING VERBS (ESTILO INDIRECTO: VERBOS

INTRODUCTORES)
Aunque ambos verbos significan en espaol lo mismo , hay una diferencia muy importante:
SAY para resaltar lo que se dice.
TELL para enfatizar a quin se le dice algo.
He said (that) he was happy.
He told us (that) he was happy.
Pgina | 56

 En el estilo directo se pueden utilizar indistintamente siempre que recordemos su distinta

estructura sintctica :
TELL someone something = SAY something TO someone

(decirle algo a alguien)

He said to us, "I'm happy."

He told us, "I'm happy."
PERO: En el estilo indirecto SLO podemos utilizar TOLD cuando 'decir' lleva complemento
indirecto:
He told us (that) he was happy.
He said to us (that) he was happy.
En las rdenes y sugerencias SLO se puede usar TELL:
He told me to wait a moment. He said to me to wait a moment.
He told them (said to them) not to disturb the meeting with questions.
Con algunas EXPRESIONES, slo TELL:
tell (someone) a story / stories

contar[le] (a alguien) un cuento / cuentos

tell (someone) a lie / lies

decir[le] una mentira / mentiras (a alguien)

tell (someone) a joke / jokes

contar[le] un chiste / chistes (a alguien)

tell (someone) the truth

decir[le] la verdad (a alguien)

tell the difference

decir la diferencia, distinguir

tell the future / fortunes

predecir el futuro

tell (someone) the time

decir (-le a alguien) la hora

"can tell" con sentido de "notar":

I can tell that you are tired.
I don't think he is worried but you can never tell.
Con las siguientes expresiones, slo con SAY:
say hello / goodbye

decir hola / adis, saludar /despedirse

say a name

decir un nombre

say something/ anything / nothing

decir algo / algo / nada

say a prayer

decir una oracin

say a word / a phrase / a sentence

decir una palabra / una frase / una oracin

Pgina | 57

ASK
Para preguntas y peticiones:
Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He said to her, "Are they working?"

He asked her if/whether they were working.

He said to Jim, "Where do they work?"

He asked Jim where they worked.

He said to us, "Help me, please."

He asked us to help him.

EXCLAIM
Para las exclamaciones:
Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He said, "How beautiful!"

He exclaimed it was beautiful.

He said, "What a beautiful house!"

He exclaimed it was a beautiful house.

He said, "What beautiful houses!"

He exclaimed they were beautiful houses.

Verbo + "that clauses"

Estos verbos expresan la intencin del hablante:
Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He said, "All right! I'll talk to them."

He agreed that he would talk to them.

He said, "I'm sure I've lost it."

He claimed that he had lost it.

He said, "It's too hot in here."

He complained that it was too hot in there.

He said, "I can't go because I've got a meeting."

He explained that he couldn't go because he had a meeting.

He said, "I'll learn it, I promise."

He promised that he would learn it.

He said to us, "Don't forget that you have to finish

early."

He reminded us that we had to finish early.

He said to them, "I'm busy."

He replied to them that he was busy.

He said to her, "There's a diversion ahead."

He warned her that there was a diversion ahead.

Verbo + objeto + (not) to + infintivo

Adems de "tell" y "ask", ya vistos, tienen esta estructura los siguientes verbos:
Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He said to us, "If I were you, I'd called her."

He advised us to call her .

He said to Jane, "Would you like to come to the cinema?"

He invited Jane to go to the cinema.

He said to the boy, "Don't touch that switch!"

He ordered the boy not to touch that switch.

Pgina | 58

Verbo + verbo acabado en '-ing'

Direct Speech (Estilo directo)

Reported Speech (Estilo indirecto)

He said to Tom , "You cheated at the exam."

He accused Tom of cheating at the exam.

He said, "I've forgotten it, actually."

He admited forgetting it.

He said, "I'm sorry, I'm late."

He apologised for being late .

He said, "As I've already said, we should go all

together."

He insisted on going all toghether.

He said, "You'd better take an umbrella."

He recommended taking an umbrella.

He said, "Why don't we meet at the restaurant?"

He suggested meeting at the restaurant.

She said to him, "It's your fault if we are lost."

She accused him of being lost .

Pgina | 59

SUBJUNCTIVE (EL SUBJUNTIVO)

Es un tiempo poco comn en ingls moderno britnico, y se usa sobre todo en el estilo formal.
Para traducir el subjuntivo espaol al ingls hay varias construcciones:
Expresiones idiomtica
Detrs de oraciones principales que expresen deseo, posibilidad, opinion o sentimientos:
. objeto + infinitivo con to (que + sujeto + subjuntivo)
. that-clauses (que + subjuntivo)
. It + be + adjetivo + that-clause (Es + adjetivo + que + subjuntivo)
. It + be + adjetivo + for + objeto + infinitivo con to (Es + adjetivo + que + subjuntivo)
. be + adjetivo + that-clause (expresin de sentimiento + que + subjuntivo)
. let + objeto + infinitivo sin to (Que + subjuntivo!)
. objeto + -ing (gustar, odiar... + que + subjuntivo)
En las subordinadas temporales y condicionales
It's time (Ya es hora de que + subjuntivo)
May / might (Puede que / Pudiera ser que)
Wish / if only (Ojal)
Would rather (Preferira)
Con expresiones idiomticas:
Come what may,

Pase lo que pase,

God save the Queen!

Dios salve a la reina!

God bless America / you ...!

Dios bendiga Amrica, te bendiga...!

So be it.

As sea.

Suffice it to say that...

Baste decir que ...

SUBJUNCTIVE: OBJECT + INFINITIVE (QUE + SUJETO + SUBJUNTIVO)

Para traducir el subjuntivo espaol detrs de oraciones principales con verbos que expresan deseo,
orden o proposicin, el ingls utiliza la estructura:
verbo + objeto + infinitivo con to
allow / permit

permitir

advise

aconsejar

ask

pedir

beg

rogar

compel

obligar

expect

esperar

forbid

prohibir

instruct

instruir, ordenar

invite

invitar

Pgina | 60

like

gustar

love

encantar

order / command

ordenar

persuade

convencer

prefer

preferir

propose

proponer

recommend

recomendar

request

solicitar

tell

decirle a alguien

urge

instar

want

querer

warn

avisar, advertir

wish

desear

would like

gustara

would prefer

preferira

Did he beg Betty to stay with him?

Jim had expected us to hold a party.
My father would have forbidden my brother to take his car.
He wants Bill not to go with those people.
We will wish you not to fall down.
Would Helen like you to be studying harder?
Would She prefer them not to be always joking?

SUBJUNCTIVE: THAT-CLAUSES (QUE + SUBJUNTIVO)

Adems de con los verbos que expresan deseo, orden o proposicin , excepto "WANT", con
desire

desear

insist

insitir

suggest

sugerir

tambin se utiliza una construccin ms formal (sobre todo en lenguaje jurdico, periodstico, etc.):
verbo + (that) + sujeto + should (en ingls britnico)

verbo + (that) + sujeto + infinitivo sin to (en ingls norteamericano)

Has he begged Betty (that) she should stay with him?
Has he begged Betty (that) she stay with him?
Pgina | 61

Jim will expect (that) we shouldn't hold a party.

Jim will expect (that) we not hold a party
My father would have insisted (that) my brother should be helping.
My father would have insisted (that) my brother be helping.
Bill hasn't suggested (that) we should go altogether.
Bill hasn't suggested that we go altogether.
En ingls el subjuntivo de cualquier verbo se hace con el infinitivo sin to:
I suggested (that) she come with us.
They demand (that) Bob have a new chance.
Aunque, cada vez ms, a un nivel menos formal se usan los tiempos del indicativo:
I suggested (that) she came with us.
They demand (that) Bob has a new chance.
SUGGEST tiene dos estructuras:
1. Si quien sugiere se incluye en la sugerencia:
suggest + verbo en -ING
They suggested going for a walk.
Does she suggest taking a taxi?
2. Si quien sugiere NO se incluye en la sugerencia:
suggest (that) + sujeto + should [UK]
suggest (that) + sujeto + infinitivo sin to [US]
I suggested (that) she (should) go with them.
Do they suggest (that) we (should) take the bus?

SUBJUNCTIVE: IT + BE + ADJECTIVE + THAT-CLAUSES (ES + ADJETIVO +

QUE + SUBJUNTIVO)
It + be + adjetive + (that) + sujeto + should (en ingls britnico)

It + be + adjetive + (that) + sujeto + infinitivo sin to (en ingls norteamericano)

Estas construcciones se usan detrs de oraciones principales que indican posibilidad,

imposibilidad, suposicin, opinin, necesidad:

Pgina | 62

It's a good / bad idea (that)

Es una buena / mala idea que

It's best / worst (that)

Es mejor / peor que

It's crucial (that)

Es de vital importancia que

It's desirable (that)

Sera deseable que

It's essential (that)

Es indispensable / fundamental que

It's funny (that)

Es divertido que

It's (un)fair (that)

Es (in)justo que

It's imperative (that)

Es imprescindible / preciso que

It's important (that)

Es importante que

It's (un)necessary (that)

Es (in)necesario que

It's natural (that)

Es natural que

It's normal (that)

Es normal que

It's (im)possible (that)

Es (im)posible que

It's recommended (that)

Es recomendable que

It's strange (that)

Es extrao que

It's urgent (that)

Es urgente que

It's vital (that)

Es fundamental que

It's necessary (that) we should go there.

It's necessary (that) we go there.
Was it normal (that) Bob shouldn't call home?
Was it normal (that) Bob not call home?
It's imperative (that) your friend should take that flight.
It's imperative (that) your friend take that flight.
Recordemos que el tiempo de la oracin principal NO influye en el tiempo de la subordinada:
It's not a good idea (that) he should speak to them.
It isn't a good idea (that) he speak to them.
It was best (that) she shouldn't refuse to go.
It was best (that) she not refuse to go.
Con estas expresiones, tambin se utiliza la construccin, ms informal:
It + be + adjetive + FOR + objeto + infinitivo con to
It's vital for us to go there.
Was it recommended for Bob to phone home?
It's important for your friend not to take that flight.
Esta construccin es bastante frecuente con too (demasiado) y con enough (bastante):
It was too early for them to come.
It isn't clear enough for the child to understand.
It will be too lte for him not to know something.

Pgina | 63

SUBJUNCTIVE: BE + ADJECTIVE + THAT-CLAUSES (EXPRESIN DE

SENTIMIENTO + QUE + SUBJUNTIVO)
be + adjective + (that) + sujeto + should
Esta estructura se usa detrs de oraciones principales que expresan sentimientos:
I'm amazed (that)

Me asombra que

I'm anxious (that)

Me preocupa que

I'm concerned (that)

Me preocupa que

I'm disappointed (that)

Me decepciona que

I'm interested (that)

Me interesa que

I'm surprised (that)

Me sorprende que

I'm happy (that)

Me alegra que

I'm upset (that)

Me enfada que

Has he been surprised (that) Bob should be saying such nonsense?

She will be upset (that) you shouldn't come.
El tiempo de la oracin principal NO influye en la construccin de la subordinada:
Will he be surprised (that) Bob should be saying such nonsense?
She has been upset (that) you shouldn't come.
En lenguaje informal se puede usar el indicativo:
Will he be surprised (that) Bob is saying such nonsense.
She has been upset (that) you didn't come.

SUBJUNCTIVE: LET (QUE + SUBJUNTIVO!)

Se utiliza esta estructura para expresar una orden o un deseo imperioso equivalente en espaol a un
subjuntivo imperativo: Que + subjuntivo!
let + objeto + infinitivo sin to
Let Bob say it!
If they want to go, let them go!
Let it be told!
Let him be punished!
La forma negativa se hace con not o con don't:
Let him not answer!
Don't let him answer!

Pgina | 64

SUBJUNCTIVE: POSSESSIVE / OBJECT + -ING (GUSTAR, ODIAR... + QUE +

SUBJUNTIVO)
Con verbos que expresan gusto, aversin, sorpresa o emocin:
verbo + Posesivo / objeto + verbo en -ing

like

gustar

love

encantar

prefer

preferir

dislike

tener aversin a

hate

odiar

loathe

detestar

be angry at

estar enfadado por

be bored with

estar aburrido con

be surprised at

sorpenderse por

She doesnt like his / him coming so late.

I hated their / them laughing at me.
We are surprised at your brother smoking.

SUBJUNCTIVE: CLAUSES OF TIME AND CONDITION (SUBJUNTIVO:

SUBORDINADAS TEMPORALES Y CONDICIONALES)
En ingls se utiliza el indicativo con las subordinadas temporales:
I won't disturb you while you are working.
After you left, he was very angry.
Call me when you get home.
We'll give her your message as soon as she arrives.
Y con las subordinadas condicionales que expresan improbabilidad (tipo II) o imposibilidad (tipo
III):
If he called, I wouldn't talk to him.
If he had called, I wouldn't have talked to him.

Pgina | 65

SUBJUNCTIVE: IT'S TIME (YA ES HORA DE QUE + SUBJUNTIVO)

Esta expresin que denota cierta impaciencia, puede ir seguida de tres estructuras:
It's time + infinitivo con to
It's time to go to work.
It's time to start playing.
It's time for + objeto + infinitivo con to
It's time for him to go to work.
It's time for the teams to start playing.
Con pasado, a menudo se utiliza para expresar reproche o crtica.
It's time + sujeto + past
It's time we went to work.
It's about time we went to work.
It's high time we went to work.
Isn't it time the teams started playing?
Isn't it about time the teams started playing?
Isn't it high time the teams started playing?

MAY, MIGHT (PUEDE QUE, PUDIERA SER QUE + SUBJUNTIVO)

Son verbos modales que se usan:
Con valor de subjuntivo espaol en oraciones que expresan posibilidad:
May
Might

expresa posibilidad probable ("puede que")

expresa una posibilidad ms remota ("pudiera ser que")
It may rain.
It might rain.
May your sister have brought it?
Your parents might not know about it.

En subordinadas finales introducidas por in order that, so that:

He brought his camera so that / in order that we might take photos of the event.
I'm bringing these chairs so that / in order that you may be more confortable.
I'll shut the window so that / in order that the noise may not awake the baby.

Pgina | 66

I WISH / IF ONLY (OJAL)

* Las dos formas significan lo mismo, aunque "if only" es ms enftico.
* "I wish" puede ir seguido de "that", "if only" NUNCA
Para Expresar el deseo de que algo sea distinto a como es:
I wish [that] / if only + sujeto + past
I wish [that] / If only you were here!
I wish [that] / If only he worked with us!
I wish [that] / If only my brother didn't find it!
En esta construccin, el verbo be debe ser were en todas las personas, aunque cada vez ms esta forma
es remplazada por was en el lenguaje coloquial (aunque esto es ms raro en la 1 persona del
singular):
I wish [that] / If only I were / (was) there!
I wish [that] / If only his sister were / was nicer!
I wish [that] / If only it were / was easier!
Para expresar el deseo de que algo ocurra en el futuro:
I wish [that] / if only + sujeto + would /could / might
I wish [that] / If only you might come to the party!
I wish [that] / If only she could phone soon!
I wish [that] / If only Jim wouldn't be waiting for us!
Esta forma tambin sirve para expresar el deseo de que alguien cambie un comportamiento en el
presente o en el futuro:
I wish [that] / If only you could stop smoking!
I wish [that] / If only Tom wouldn't go out every night!
Asimismo sirve para expresar una queja o una crtica en el presente:
I wish [that] / If only the children would stop shouting!
I wish [that] / If only Jim would study harder!
Si lo que pedimos no depende de la voluntad del sujeto que tiene que llevar a cabo el cambio:
I wish [that] / If only + sujeto + PAST
I wish [that] / If only this car weren't so expensive!
I wish [that] / If only prices didn't rise so much!
O cuando uno habla de s mismo:
I wish [that] / If only I weren't so coward!
I wish [that] / If only I could run faster!
Pgina | 67

 Para expresar el deseo de que algo hubiera ocurrido de forma diferente:

I wish [that] / if only + sujeto + past perfect
I wish [that] / If only Bob had had a car!
I wish [that] / If only I had been watching the boy!
I wish [that] / if only your flight hadn't been delayed!

WOULD RATHER - WOULD PREFER (PREFERIRA)

Si expresamos una preferencia para nosotros mismos:
would prefer + infinitivo con to + [(rather) than + infinitivo sin to / -ing]
would rather / sooner + infinitivo sin to + (than + infinitivo sin to)
No hay diferencia entre utilizar would rather o would sooner aunque hoy da se oye ms would
rather.
I'd rather / sooner take the bus.
I'd prefer to take the bus.
She'd rather / sooner not have to wait for you.
She'd prefer not to have to wait for you.
Bob would rather / sooner stay at home than go to the party.
Bob would prefer to stay at home (rather) than go / going to the party.
Would they rather / sooner go to the cinema than watch a movie on TV?
Would they prefer to go to the cinema (rather) than watch / watching a movie on TV?
No hay diferencia entre utilizar would rather/sooner o would prefer (si no es la construccin
gramatical).
Sin embargo cuando queremos expresar una preferencia permanente slo podemos utilizar prefer:
I'd rather walk than take the bus.
I'd prefer to walk (rather) than take / taking the bus. en este momento
I prefer walking to taking the bus . siempre
Si expresamos una preferencia en que otra persona haga algo, entonces:
would prefer + objeto + infinitivo con to
would rather / sooner + sujeto + past
I'd rather / sooner she took the bus.
I'd prefer her to take the bus.
She'd rather / sooner we didn't have to wait for you.
She'd prefer us not to have to wait for you.
Bob would rather / sooner Jim stayed at home.
Bob would prefer Jim to stay at home.
Would they rather / sooner the children had gone to the cinema?
Would they prefer the children to have gone to the cinema?
Pgina | 68

MOST COMMON ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS (LOS VERBOS IRREGULARES

INGLESES MS UTILIZADOS)
There are about 600 irregular verbs in English, but some of them are becoming obsolete or turning into
regular verbs, i.e. "-ed" is added to the verb to put it in the past tenses and both forms are considered
standard; however I have listed first the form most frequently used.

VERBOS IRREGULARES Y SU PRONUNCIACIN / IRREGULAR VERBS

WITH SOUND

INFINITIVE
be
begin
bite
bleed

SIMPLE PAST
was/were
began
bit
bled

PAST PARTICIPLE
been
begun
bitten
bled

blow

blew

blown

break
bring
build
buy

broke
brought
built
bought

broken
brought
built
bought

catch

caught

caught

choose
come
cost
cut

chose
came
cost
cut

chosen
come
cost
cut

do
draw
dream
drink

did
drew
dreamt / dreamed
drank

done
drawn
dreamt / dreamed
drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

comer[se]

fall
feel
find
fly
forget

fell
felt
found
flew
forgot

fallen
felt
found
flown
forgotten

caer[se]
sentir[se], experimentar, palpar
encontrar[se] [algo que buscas]
volar, pilotar
olvidar[se]

get

got

got/gotten

give

gave

given

SIGNIFICADO
ser, estar
empezar, comenzar
morder, picar
sangrar
soplar, hinchar, inflar,
explosionar
Romper[se]
traer[se]
construir[se], edificar[se]
comprar[se]
atrapar, pillar, coger con
dificultad
elegir[se]
venir[se]
costar
cortar
hacer [llevar a cabo una tarea]
dibujar, extraer, sacar[se], trazar
soar
beber[se]
conducir, ir en coche, llevar en
coche

conseguir, recibir, ponerse,

llegar
dar
Pgina | 69

go

went

gone

ir[se] [hacia algn sitio]

have
hear
hide
hit
hold
hurt

had
heard
hid
hit
held
hurt

had
heard
hidden
hit
held
hurt

tener
or
esconder[se]
golpear, pegar
sostener, celebrar, esperar
herir[se], lastimar[se], doler

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

learn

learnt /learned

learnt / learned

leave

left

left

lend
let
lie
lose

lent
let
lay
lost

lent
let
lain
lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

put

put

put

poner, colocar

quit

quit

quit

abandonar, rendirse, dejar

read
ride
ring
run

read
rode
rang
ran

read
ridden
rung
run

leer[se]
andar en, pasear en, montar en
sonar
correr

say
see
sell
send
shoot
show
sing
sit
sleep
smell
speak
spell

said
saw
sold
sent
shot
showed
sang
sat
slept
smelled / smelt
spoke
spelled / spelt

said
seen
sold
sent
shot
shown
sung
sat
slept
smelled / smelt
spoken
spelled / spelt

decir
ver
vender
enviar, mandar
disparar, matar a tiros
mostrar, exhibir
cantar
sentar[se]
dormir
oler
hablar
deletrear

guardar[se], quedarse,
mantener
saber, conocer
aprender[se], enterarse
irse, dejar, marcharse,
abandonar
prestar, dejar
dejar, permitir
yacer, echarse, estar situado
perder
hacer, fabricar
significar, querer decir, tener la
intencin de
encontrarse con, conocer a
alguin

Pgina | 70

spend
spread
stand
steal
swear
swim

spent
spread
stood
stole
swore
swam

spent
spread
stood
stolen
sworn
swum

gastar [dinero], pasar [tiempo]

extender, desplegar, esparcir
estar de pie, pararse, soportar
robar
jurar, decir palabrotas, malcedir
nadar

teach
tell
think
throw

taught
told
thought
threw

taught
told
thought
thrown

Ensear, dar clase

decir, contar
pensar
tirar, arrojar

understand

understood

understood

entender

wake
wear
win
write

woke / waked
wore
won
wrote

woken / waked
worn
won
written

despertar[se]
usar, vestir, gastar
Ganar (competicin, premio)
escribir

Pgina | 71

IRREGULAR VERBS: ADVANCED LEVEL (VERBOS IRRREGULARES: NIVEL

AVANZADO)
When there are two forms of past, regular and irregular, any of them is considered standard; however, I
list first the form which is most frequently used today.
INFINITIVE

SIMPLE PAST

PAST PARTICIPLE

abide

abided / abode

abided / abiden

arise

arose

arisen

awoke / awaked

awoken / awaked

bear

bore

born

beat

beat

beaten

golpear, derrotar, ganar [a

alguien]

became

become

convertirse en, llegar a ser,

volverse, ponerse

bent

bent

bet

bet / betted

bet / betted

bid

bid

bid

bind

bound

bound

breed

bred

bred

burn

burned / burnt

burned / burnt

burst

burst

burst

explosionar, estallar,
explotar, reventar

cast

cast

cast

lanzar, echar, emitir

cling

clung

clung

agarrarse, adherirse,
aferrarse

clothe

clothed / clad

clothed / clad

creep

crept

crept

gatear, arrastrarse

deal

dealt

dealt

tratar, repartir, dar [cartas,

un golpe]

dig

dug

dug

cavar

dwell

dwelt / dwelled

dwelt / dwelled

feed

fed

fed

fight

fought

fought

fitted / fit

fitted / fit

fled

fled

awake

become
bend

fit
flee

SIGNIFICADO
aguantar, soportar, morar,
cumplir con
surgir, levantarse
despertar[se]
aguantar, soportar,sostener,
dar a luz

doblar, torcer, inclinarse

apostar[se]
ofrecer, pujar, licitar
atar, unir, encuadernar
criar, engendrar, procrear
quemar[se]

vestir[se]

habitar, morar
alimentar[se], dar de comer
pelear, combatir
quedar bien [atuendo],
encajar
huir, huir de
Pgina | 72

fling

flung

flung

forbade

forbidden

forecast

forecasted / forecast

forecasted / forecast

foresee

foresaw

foreseen

prever

foretell

foretold

foretold

predecir

forgive

forgave

forgiven

perdonar

freeze

froze

frozen

congelar[se]

grind

ground

ground

moler

grow

grew

grown

crecer, cultivar

hang

hung / hanged*

hung / hanged*

colgar[se] / * ahorcar

kneel

kneeled / knelt

kneeled / knelt

arrodillar[se]

lay

laid

laid

poner, colocar [horizontal]

lead

led

led

guiar, llevar, conducir

lean

leaned / leant

leaned / leant

apoyar[se], ladear[se]

leap

leaped / leapt

leaped / leapt

saltar, brincar

learn

learned / learnt

learned / learnt

aprender[se]

light

lighted/ lit

lighted / lit

mislead

misled

misled

mistake

mistook

mistaken

misunderstood

misunderstood

entender mal,
malinterpretar

mowed

mowed / mown

segar, cortar

overhear

overheard

overheard

or [por casualidad, sin

intencin]

overtake

overtook

overtaken

adelantar, pillar
desprevenido

proved

proven / proved

probar, resultar

rid

rid / ridded

rid / ridded

rise

rose

risen

saw

sawed

sawed / sawn

seek

sought

sought

buscar, solicitar, ambicionar

set

set

set

fijar, poner, colocar, montar,

armar

sew

sewed

sewed / sewn

forbid

misunderstand
mow

prove

echar, arrojar
prohibir
pronosticar

encender
engaar, despistar, inducir a
error
confundir[se], equivocarsel

librarse, deshacerse,
desembarazarse
levantarse, subir, salir [sol,
luna]
serrar

coser
Pgina | 73

sacudir, agitar, hacer

temblar

shake

shook

shaken

shave

shaved

shaven / shaved

shine

shone/ shined

shone/ shined

shrink

shrank

shrunk

shut

shut

shut

cerrar[se]

sink

sank

sunk

hundir[se]

slay

slew

slain

matar

slide

slid

slid

deslizar[se], resbalar[se]

sling

slung

slung

tirar, arrojar

slink

slunk

slunk

escabullirse, zafarse

slit

slit

slit

sow

sowed

sown

speeded / sped

speeded / sped

spin

spun

spun

girar, dar vueltas, hilar, tejer

spit

spat

spat

escupir

split

split

split

partir[se], rajar[se],
dividir[se]

spoil

spoiled / spoilt

spoiled / spoilt

sprang

sprung

stick

stuck

stuck

pegar, encolar, clavar[se],

atascarse

sting

stung

stung

escocer, picar, arder

stink

stank

stunk

apestar, oler mal

stride

strode

stridden

andar a zancadas

strike

struck

struck/stricken

string

strung

strung

encordar, ensartar, atar

strive

strove

striven

luchar, esforzarse

swell

swelled

swollen

hincharse, crecer, aumentar

swing

swung

swung

balancear[se], mecer[se],
colgar[se]

tore

torn

thrust

thrust

thrust

tread

trod

trodden

speed

spring

tear

afeitar[se]
brillar, lustrar
encoger[se], reducir[se]

rajar, cortar
sembrar
ir a toda velocidad,
apresurarse

estropear[se], mimar,
consentir
saltar, brotar

golpear, dar la hora,

declararse en huelga

desgarrar, romper, arrancar

empujar, clavar
pisar, andar, caminar
Pgina | 74

undergo

underwent

undergone

sufrir, someterse a, recibir

[tratamiento]

undertake

undertook

undertaken

emprender, acometer,
comprometerse a

upset

upset

upset

weave

wove / weaved

woven / weaved

weep

wept

wept

wet / wetted

wet / wetted

wound

wound

withdraw

withdrew

withdrawn

retirar[se], sacar [dinero],

apartarse

withhold

withheld

withheld

retener, ocultar, aplazar

withstand

withstood

withstood

wrung

wrung

wet
wind

wring

enfadar, trastornar
tejer[se]
llorar
mojar[se], humedecer[se]
dar cuerda, serpentear,
envolver, enrollar

resistir[se], aguantar
torcer, retorcer, estrujar,
escurrir

Pgina | 75