Lecture 3

Duality & The Dual Simplex
Method & Sensitivity Analysis

for Linear Programming
Mtodos Cuantitativos
M. En C. Eduardo Bustos Farias
Duality
Duality
Every LP problem has a twin problem
associated with it. One problem is called
primal, while the other is called dual.
These problems possess very closely related
properties so that the optimal solution of
one problem can yield complete information
about the optimal solution of the other
problem!
Duality
In certain cases, these relationships may
prove useful in reducing the computational
effort associated with solving LP problems
Duality
Primal
Dual
Max Zx = cj x j
Min Z y = bi yi
j =1
i =1
s.t.
a x
j =1
ij j
bi , i =1,2,..,m
s.t.
a y c , j = 1,2,..,n
i =1
x j 0, j=1,2,...,n
ij i
yi 0, i = 1,2,...,m
Construction of the Dual

The dual problem is constructed from the
primal problem as follows:
Each constraint in one problem corresponds
to a variable in the other problem
The elements of the resources of the
constraints in one problem are equal to the
respective coefficients of the objective
function in the other problem
Construction of the Dual

The maximization problem has (<)
constraints, and the minimization problem
has (>) constraints
The variables in both problems are nonnegative (> 0)
From symmetry of the two problems, the
dual of the dual is the primal
EXAMPLE
Primal:
MAX Z= 45X1 + 17X2 + 55X3
st:
X1 + X2 + X3 200
9X1 + 8X2 + 10X3 5000
10X1+ 7X2 + 21 X3 4000
Xj 0
Dual:
MAX Z= 45X1 + 17X2 + 55X3
st:
X1 + X2 + X3 200
9X1 + 8X2 + 10X3 5000
10X1+ 7X2 + 21 X3 4000
Xj 0
MIN Z= 200Y1 + 5000Y2 + 4000Y3
st:
Y1 + 9Y2 + 10Y3 45
Y1 + 8Y2 + 7Y3 17
Y1 + 10Y2 + 21Y3 55
Yj 0
: y1
2 x1 + 3 x2 45
: y2
5 x1 2 x2 20
: y3
x2 30
: y4
x1 , x2 0
Example
Dual
Min Z y = 60 y1 + 45 y2 + 20 y3 + 30 y4
s.t.
y1 + 2 y2 + 5 y3
5 : x1
9 y1 + 3 y2 2 y3 + y4 6 : x2
y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 0
10
Primal Variables
s.t. x1 + 9 x2 60
Dual Variables
Primal
Max Z x = 5 x1 + 6 x2
: y1
: y2
: y3
: y4
Dual Variables
Primal in Standard Form

Max Z x = 5 x1 + 6 x2
s.t. x1 + 9 x2 + s1 = 60
2 x1 + 3 x2 + s2 = 45
5 x1 2 x2 + s3 = 20
x2 + s4 = 30
Dual in Standard Form
Example
x1 , x2 , s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 0
s.t .
y1 + 2 y 2 + 5 y 3
=5
: x1
9 y1 + 3 y 2 2 y 3 + y 4 s 2 + A2 = 6
: x2
s1 + A1
Primal
Variables
Max Z 'y = 60 y1 45 y 2 20 y 3 30 y 4 MA1 MA 2
y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , s1 , A1 , s2 , A2 0
11
Observations
Notice in the preceding example, the dual
problem has fewer constraints than the
primal, and may be computationally more
efficient to solve than the primal
Computational difficulty in LPs is mainly
associated with the number of constraints
rather than the number of variables
12
Primal-Dual Relationships
The optimal solution of the primal (dual)
gives, directly the optimal solution of the
dual (primal)
The following two rules are used to
determine the optimal solution of one
problem from the optimal (simplex)
solution of the other problem
13
Rule 1
If the dual variable corresponds to a slack
holgura
starting variable in the primal problem, its
optimum value is given directly by the
coefficient of this slack variable in the
optimal Z-equation row
14
Example
Max Z x = 5x1 + 6 x2
s. t . x1 + 9 x2 + s1 = 60
2 x1 + 3x2 + s2 = 45
5x1 2 x2 + s3 = 20
x2 + s4 = 30
: y1
: y2
: y3
: y4
Dual Variables
x1 , x2 , s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 0
15
Simplex Solution of the Primal

y1
Z x1 x2
Z 1 0 0
x2 0 0 1
s2 0 0
x1 0 1
s4 0 0
Dual variables
y2
y3
y4
s1
.85
.11
s2 s3
0 .83
0 .02
0 .41 1 .32
0 .04 0 .19
0 .11 0 .02
s4
b
0 67.66
0 596
.
0 14.36
0 638
.
1 24.04
16
Rule 2
If the dual variable corresponds to an
artificial starting variable in the primal
problem, its optimal value is given by the
coefficient of this artificial variable in the
optimal Z-equation row of the simplex
tableau, ignoring any Big M term
17
Example
Max Z 'y = 60 y1 45 y 2 20 y 3 30 y 4 MA1 MA2
s. t .
y1 + 2 y 2 + 5 y 3
s1 + A1
9 y1 + 3 y 2 2 y 3 + y 4 s2 + A2
y1 , y 2 , y 3 , y 4 , s1 , A1 , s2 , A2 0
=5
=6
: x1
: x2
18
Primal Variables
Simplex Solution of the Dual

Primal Variables
x1
Z ' y1
Z'
y3
y1
1
0
0
y2
0 14.36
0 .32
1 .40
y3
0
1
0
y4
s1
A1
x2
s2
A2
.
.
67.66
M 596
24.04 6.38 M 6.38 596
.19
.02
.
.02 .19
.02
083
.11
.04
.04
.11
.11
.
085
19
Sensitivity Analysis
20
Sensitivity Analysis
Coefficients in an LP formulation are
assumed to be known with absolute
certainty!
Sensitivity analysis provides an approach
for studying the effect upon the optimal
solution of variations in the cost/profit
coefficients in the objective function, or in
the resource availabilities of the constraints.
21
General Form of a
Linear Programming (LP) Problem
MAX (or MIN): c1X1 + c2X2 + + cnXn
Subject to:
a11X1 + a12X2 + + a1nXn <= b1

:
ak1X1 + ak2X2 + + aknXn <= bk
:
am1X1 + am2X2 + + amnXn = bm
How sensitive is a solution to changes

in the ci, aij, and bi?
22
Sensitivity Problem 1
A Change in objective function coefficients
The goal of this sensitivity analysis is to
determine the range of variation in each of
the objective function coefficients that will
corner
point
of
keep
the
current
optimum
mantendr
the feasible solution space unchanged.
23
Blending Problem Example

Consider the following example to illustrate
sensitivity problem 1
Max Z = 3x1 + 4x2

s.t. 5x1 + 4x2 200
3x1 + 5x2 150
5x1 + 4x2 100
8x1 + 4x2 80
x1 0, x2 0
24
Example - Blending Problem

Max Z = 3x1 + 4 x2
s.t. 5 x1 + 4 x2 200
x2 60
50
3x1 + 5 x2 150
5 x1 + 4 x2 100
40
30
Optimal Solution
20
Max Z = 138.5
x1=30.77, x2=11.54
10
10 20
4
30 40
3
50
60
8 x1 + 4 x2 80
x1 0, x2 0
x1
2
25
Example
In the previous example, if p2 is held
constant at 4, we can determine the
permissible range values on p1 so that the
current solution remains optimal as follows:
3
5
p1
5
4
4
12
p1 5
5
26
Example
Similarly, if p1 is held constant at 3, then
or
so
3
3
5
p2
5
4
p2
5
4
3
3
5
12
p2 5
5
27
How much is a resource unit worth?
vale
The goal of this analysis is to study the

sensitivity of the optimum solution to
changes in the right hand sides (r.h.s,) of
the constraints, i.e., the bis
28
This amounts to changing the availability of
a resource. The results are given as
predetermined ranges of the r.h.s. within
which the optimum objective value will
increase or decrease at a given, constant
rate.
29

Suppose the amount of Crude B is varied from
the 150 units available. This is reflected by
constraint inequality 2
3 x1 + 5 x2 150
Increasing or decreasing the availability of

Crude B has the effect of moving the constraint
line parallel to itself
We wish to determine the range of r.h.s. values
so that the optimal solution is determined by the
intersection of constraints 1 and 2
30

Thus, the acceptable range on Crude B is:
120 Crude B 250

If the availability of Crude B were increased
by 50 units (to a total of 200 units), then profit
would increase by:
50(0.6154) = 30.77, or a total of

. + 30.77 = 169.27
Z = 1385
These values are called dual prices or shadow
prices and are defined as the worth per unit of
resource values. M. En C. Eduardo Bustos Farias
31
valor
Shadow Prices
Goods (resources) having positive shadow
prices are called scarce goods
Goods (resources) having zero shadow
prices are called free goods
32
Blending Example
Max Z x = 3x1 + 4 x2 MA1 MA2
s. t . 5x1 + 4 x2 + s1
= 200
: y1
3x1 + 5x2 + s2
= 150
: y2
5x1 + 4 x2 s3 + A3 = 100
: y3
8 x1 + 4 x2 s4 + A4 = 80
: y4
x1 , x2 , s1 , s2 , s3 , A3 , s4 , A4 0
Dual Variables
33
Simplex Solution of the Primal

y1
y2
Z
x1
s3
Z x1 x2
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
s1
.23
.38
1
s2
.62
.31
0
s4
x2
0
0
2.15 .92
.23 .38
0
0
0
1
y3
y4
s3 A3
0 M
0 0
1 1
s4
0
0
0
A4
b
M 138.46
0 30.77
0
100
0
0
1
0
1 212.3
.
0 1154
0
0
Shadow Prices
(ignore Ms)
34
Blending Example
Max Z 'y = 200 y1 150 y 2 + 100 y 3 + 80 y 4 MA1 MA2
s. t .
5 y1 + 3 y 2 5 y 3 8 y 4 s1 + A1
4 y1 + 5 y 2 4 y 3 4 y 4 s2 + A2
y1 , y 2 , y 3 , y 4 , s1 , A1 , s2 , A2 0
=3
=4
: x1
: x2
35
Primal Variables
Simplex Solution of the Dual

x1
Z' y1 y2
Z'
y1
y2
1
0
0
0
1
0
y3
y4
s1
A1
x2
s2
A2
.
.
.
.
.
13846
M 3077
M 1154
0 100 212.31 3077
1154
.
.38
.23
.
.38
.23
0 1 215
023
.92
.31
.38
.
.31
.38
1 0
062
36
Sensitivity Analysis in Simplex

MAXIMUM CHANGE IN RESOURCE
AVAILABILITY
A change in the resource availabilities (bis) will

only change the r.h.s. of the tableau (b column),
which means that such a change can only affect
the feasibility of the solution.
37
Sensitivity Analysis in Simplex

CHANGES IN MARGINAL COST/PROFIT
Changes in the coefficients of the objective function
will affect only the objective function equation (Zequation row) in the optimal tableau.
Such changes can affect only the optimality of the
current solution.
Goal of sensitivity analysis is to determine the range of
variation for the objective coefficients (one at a time)
for which the current optimum solution remains
unchanged!
38
Approaches to Sensitivity Analysis

enfoques
Change the data and re-solve the model!

Sometimes this is the only practical
approach.
Solver also produces sensitivity reports that can
answer various questions
When solving LP problems, be sure to select
the Assume Linear Model option in the
Solver Options dialog box.
39
The Wyndor Glass Problem

Max Z = 3x1 + 5x2
4
s. t .
x1
x2 6
3x1 + 2 x2 18
x1 , x2 0
40
Wyndor Glass EXCEL Solution
41
Solver creates Worksheet tabs when these options are clicked

42
Wyndor Glass Answer Report
43
Wyndor Glass Sensitivity Analysis
44
Solvers Sensitivity Report

Answers questions about:
Amounts by which objective function coefficients
can change without changing the optimal solution.
The impact on the optimal objective function value
of changes in constrained resources.
The impact on the optimal objective function value
of forced changes in decision variables.
The impact changes in constraint coefficients will
have on the optimal solution.
45
Blue Ridge Hot Tubs Example...

MAX: 350X1 + 300X2
S.T.: 1X1 + 1X2 <= 200
9X1 + 6X2 <= 1566
12X1 + 16X2 <= 2880
X1, X2 >= 0
} profit
} pumps
} labor
} tubing
} non-negativity
46
Answer Report
Microsoft Excel 9.0 Answer Report
Worksheet: [Solver Class Examples Solved.xls]Blue Ridge
Report Created: 7/17/2005 2:56:10 PM
Target Cell (Max)

Cell
Name
$D$6 Unit Profits Total Profit
Original Value
$66,100
Final Value
$66,100
Adjustable Cells
Cell
Name
Original Value
$B$5 Number to Make Aqua-Spas
122
$C$5 Number to Make Hydro-Luxes
78
Final Value
122
78
Constraints
Cell
Name
$D$10 - Labor Req'd Used
$D$11 - Tubing Req'd Used
$D$9 - Pumps Req'd Used
Cell Value
Formula
Status Slack
1566 $D$10<=$E$10 Binding
0
2712 $D$11<=$E$11 Not Binding 168
200 $D$9<=$E$9
Binding
0
47
Sensitivity Report
Microsoft Excel 9.0 Sensitivity Report
Worksheet: [Solver Class Examples Solved.xls]Blue Ridge
Report Created: 7/17/2005 2:56:10 PM
Adjustable Cells
Final
Cell
Name
Value
$B$5 Number to Make Aqua-Spas
122
$C$5 Number to Make Hydro-Luxes
78
Reduced
Cost
Objective Allowable Allowable

Coefficient Increase Decrease
0
350
100
50
0
300
50 66.66667
Constraints
Cell
Name
$D$10 - Labor Req'd Used
$D$11 - Tubing Req'd Used
$D$9 - Pumps Req'd Used
Final Shadow Constraint Allowable Allowable

Value
Price
R.H. Side Increase Decrease
1566 16.6666667
1566
234
126
2712
0
2880
1E+30
168
200
200
200
7
26
48
Changes in Objective Function Coefficients

Values in the Allowable Increase &
Allowable Decrease columns for the
Changing Cells indicate the amounts by which
an objective function coefficient can change
without changing the optimal solution,
assuming all other coefficients remain
constant.
49
Alternate Optimal Solutions

Values of zero (0) in the Allowable
Increase or Allowable Decrease columns
for the Changing Cells indicate that an
alternate optimal solution exists.
50
Changes in Constraint RHS Values

The shadow price of a constraint indicates the
amount by which the objective function value
changes given a unit increase in the RHS value
of the constraint, assuming all other
coefficients remain constant.
51
Changes in Constraint RHS Values

Shadow prices hold only within RHS changes
falling within the values in Allowable Increase
and Allowable Decrease columns.
Shadow prices for nonbinding
constraints are
No vlidas
always zero.
52
Comments About Changes

in Constraint RHS Values
Shadow prices only indicate the changes that occur in
the objective function value as RHS values change.
Changing a RHS value for a binding constraint also
obligatorias
changes the feasible region and the optimal solution (see
graph on following slide).
To find the optimal solution after changing a binding
No vlidas
RHS value, you must re-solve the problem.
53
Other Uses of Shadow Prices

Suppose a new Hot Tub (the Typhoon-Lagoon) is being
considered. It generates a marginal profit of $320 and
requires:
1 pump (shadow price = $200)
8 hours of labor (shadow price = $16.67)
13 feet of tubing (shadow price = $0)
Q: Would it be profitable to produce any?

A: $320 - $200*1 - $16.67*8 - $0*13 = -$13.33 = No!
54
Analyzing Changes in Constraint Coefficients

Q: Suppose a Typhoon-Lagoon required only 7 labor
hours rather than 8. Is it now profitable to
produce any?
A: $320 - $200*1 - $16.67*7 - $0*13 = $3.31 = Yes!
Q: What is the maximum amount of labor TyphoonLagoons could require and still be profitable?
A: We need $320 - $200*1 - $16.67*L3 - $0*13 >=0
The above is true if L3 <= $120/$16.67 = $7.20
55
Key Points - I
The shadow prices of resources equate the
marginal value of the resources consumed with the
marginal benefit of the goods being produced.
Resources in excess supply have a shadow price
(or marginal value) of zero.
56
Key Points-II
The reduced cost of a product is the difference
between its marginal profit and the marginal value
of the resources it consumes.
Products whose marginal profits are less than the
marginal value of the goods required for their
production will NOT be produced in an optimal
solution.
57
Escom computers
Mtodo simplex, dualidad y anlisis
de sensibilidad
58
ESCOM Computer de Mxico fabrica dos

tipos de PCs: un modelo porttil y uno para
escritorio.
Ensambla los gabinetes y las tarjetas de los
circuitos impresos en su nica planta, que
tambin fabrica los gabinetes y monta los
componentes en las tarjetas de circuitos.
La produccin mensual est limitada por las
siguientes capacidades:
59
OPERACIN
PRODUCCIN DE CAJAS
MONTAJE DE CIRCUITOS
ENSAMBLADO DE PORTTILES
ENSAMBLADO PARA ESCRITORIO
PORTATIL
4000
2500
2000
-------
PARA ESCRITORIO
2000
3000
---------1800
Los precios para las tiendas de computadoras son

$1500 para la de escritorio y $1400 para la
porttil.
Con el fin de ser competitiva, ESCOM Computer
tiene que fijar el precio de sus computadoras
varios cientos de pesos por debajo de los
fabricantes de prestigio.
En la actualidad la compaa vende todas las
computadoras que produce de cualquiera de los
modelos.
60
Durante el primer trimestre del ao produjo en

cada mes: 2000 porttiles y 600 para escritorio.
Tanto el montaje de los circuitos como el
ensamblado de las porttiles operaron a toda su
capacidad, pero hubo retraso en la produccin de
los gabinetes y en el ensamblado de las
computadoras de escritorio.
Los contadores de costos determinaron los costos
estndar y los gastos indirectos fijos como se
muestra en las siguientes tablas:
61
PARA ESCRITORIO
PORTTILES
MATERIALES DIRECTOS
MANO DE OBRA DIRECTA
$690
$800
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$20
$15
MONTAJE DE TARJETAS
100
90
ENSAMBLADO FINAL
10
$125
115
GASTOS INDIRECTOS FIJOS
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$95
95
LLENADO DE TARJETAS
205
205
MONTAJE FINAL
415
115
$715

TOTAL
$1640
415
62
$1220
Produccin de cajas externas

Montaje de tarjetas
Ensamble de componentes
escritorio
Ensamblaje de porttiles
GASTOS
INDIRECTOS
TOTALES (X $1000)
$247
533
de 249
FIJOS GASTOS
INDIRECTOS
UNITARIOS
$95
205
415
230
$1259
115
63
FIJOS
En la reunin trimestral de los ejecutivos de la compaa. El gerente de

ventas seal que la computadora de escritorio no estaba produciendo
utilidades. Sugiri que se le diera de baja de la lnea de productos.
El contralor se opuso, su argumento fue: Si producimos ms
computadoras de escritorio podemos rebajar el costo fijo de $415 del
ensamblado final. Ahora es alto porque estamos produciendo pocas
unidades.
El gerente de produccin respondi: Podemos aumentar la produccin
si subcontratamos externamente el montaje de circuitos. Podramos
proporcionar las tarjetas y los componentes y pagarle al subcontratista
sus gastos indirectos y de mano de obra.
El presidente termin la reunin pidindole al gerente de ventas, al
contralor y al gerente de produccin que se reunieran y le presentaran
una recomendacin en relacin con la mezcla de productos de la
compaa y con la subcontratacin. Les dijo que supusieran que la
demanda se mantendra alta y que la capacidad actual permanecera
fija.
64
NO. DE PCS DE ESCRITORIO (X2)
CAJAS
NO. DE PCS PORTATILES (X1)
OPERACIN
PRODUCCIN DE CAJAS
MONTAJE DE CIRCUITOS
ENSAMBLADO DE PORTTILES
ENSAMBLADO PARA ESCRITORIO
PORTATIL
4000
2500
2000
-------
PARA ESCRITORIO
2000
3000
---------1800
65
PREGUNTAS
1. Formule un programa lineal para
determinar la mezcla ptima de productos.
Suponga que no se permite la
subcontratacin.
66
VARIABLES DE DECISIN
X1 = Nmero de computadoras de porttiles
que se fabrican en un mes.
X2= Nmero de computadoras escritorio
que se fabrican en un mes.
67
Solucin
Max Z = 180 X1 -140 x2
Sujeta a:
() x1 + x2 <= 2000
(1)
X1 <= 2000
(2)
X2 <= 1800
(3)
1.2 X1 + x2 <= 3000 (4)
X1, X2 >= 0, y enteros
PARA GENERAR LAS RESTRICCIONES:
(x1,y1)
(x2, y2)
(4000,0) y (0, 2000)
y-y1 = ((y2-y1)/(x2-x1)) (x-x1)
68
2. Resuelva el problema usando el mtodo

smplex.
69
70
71
72
3. Qu pasara si no se produjeran Pcs de

escritorio?, cul sera la nueva solucin?.
73
SOLUCIN
3. Nada, la solucin sera la misma.
74
4. A qu utilidad por unidad convendra

producir Pcs de escritorio?
75
76
SOLUCIN
4. 1 (c1-z1)>= 0
1 (-140-0)>= 0
1 +140 >= 0
1 >=140
C1 = -140 + 1
C1=-140+140 =0
Por lo tanto, M.
valores
de c1 superiores a cero.
En C. Eduardo Bustos Farias
77
Ahora se permite que los subcontratistas monten algunos

circuitos. Suponga que la produccin de una computadora
con una tarjeta de circuitos montada por el subcontratista
requiere la misma cantidad de tiempo, en cuanto a la
produccin del gabinete y el ensamblado final, que la
produccin de una computadora con la tarjeta de circuitos
terminada en la fbrica.
Supngase que el subcontratista cobrar $110 por cada
tarjeta de circuito para una Pc de escritorio y $100 por cada
tarjeta para una porttil. Escom le proporciona a los
subcontratistas los materiales necesarios.
78
PREGUNTAS
5. Debe Escom utilizar subcontratistas para
montar las tarjetas de circuitos? Argumente
porqu si o porqu no, sin formular y
resolver el problema lineal.
79
TABLA INICIAL
PARA ESCRITORIO
PORTTILES
MATERIALES DIRECTOS
$690
$800
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$20
$15
MONTAJE DE TARJETAS
100
90
ENSAMBLADO FINAL
10
$125
115
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$95
95
LLENADO DE TARJETAS
205
205
MONTAJE FINAL
415
115
$715

TOTAL
$1640
415
80
$1220
PARA ESCRITORIO
TABLA CON
SUBCONTRATACIN
PORTTILES
MATERIALES DIRECTOS
$690
$800
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$20
$15
MONTAJE DE TARJETAS
100
90
ENSAMBLADO FINAL
10
$125
115
PRODUCCIN
EXTERNAS
DE
CAJAS
$95
95
LLENADO DE TARJETAS
110
100
MONTAJE FINAL
415
115
$620

TOTAL
$1545
310
81
$1115
5. Se obtienen mayores utilidades

subcontratando.
82
6. Formule un programa lineal para

determinar la mezcla ptima de productos.
Suponga que si se permite la
subcontratacin.
83
SIN SUBCONTRATAR
Max Z = 180 X1 -140 x2
C2= 1500-1640
C1=1400-1220
CON SUBCONTRATACIN
C2=1500-1545=-45
C1=1400-1115=285
84
Max Z = 285 X1 -45 x2

Sujeta a:
() x1 + x2 <= 2000
(1)
X1 <= 2000
(2)
X2 <= 1800
(3)
1.2 X1 + x2 <= 3000 (4)
X1, X2 >= 0
85
ESCRITORIO
C1= 1500-1545=-45
PORTTILES
C2=1400-1115=285
86
6. CON
SUBCONTRATACIN
Max Z = 285 X1 -45 x2
Sujeta a:
() x1 + x2 <= 2000
(1)
X1 <= 2000
(2)
X2 <= 1800
(3)
1.2 X1 + x2 <= 3000 (4)
X1, X2 >= 0
SIN SUBCONTRATACIN
Max Z = 180 X1-140 x2
Sujeta a:
() x1 + x2 <= 2000
(1)
X1 <= 2000
(2)
X2 <= 1800
(3)
1.2 X1 + x2 <= 3000 (4)
X1, X2 >= 0
87
7. Resuelva el problema usando el mtodo

smplex.
88
89
90

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Duality & The Dual Simplex

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