1.

Masonry

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together
by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common
materials

of

masonry

construction

are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine,

limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, stucco, tile, and cob. Masonry is
generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the
quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled
can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who
constructs masonry is called a Mason, or Bricklayer.
1.1.

Applications

Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings,

retaining walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are
the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized
nations and may be either weight-bearing or a veneer.
Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer
various possibilities in masonry construction. They
generally provide great compressive strength, and are best
suited to structures with light transverse loading when the
cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with
concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater
tensile and lateral strength to structures.

1.2.

Advantage

The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a
building and can protect the building from fire.

Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a
structure with reduced life-cycle costs.

Masonry is non-combustible product.

Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes
or tornadoes.

Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a
useful life of more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or
reinforced concrete.

1.3.

Disadvantage
Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can cause degradation of

masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage.

Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as
reinforced concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.

Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to
mechanization, and requires more skilled labor than stick-framing.

1.4.

Structural limitations

Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength
(against twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls
can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical columns
or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be
added.

2. Roofing

When we say "roof", we mean a sloped cover to a building, made of any material, and
we do NOT mean a flat concrete slab that can be used by humans.
Lets start with a well-kept secret, one that will give you an instant understanding over
the range of roof solutions:
"The slope of the roof is a clear indicator of how hi-tech the roof is. A very low slope
will mean a hi-tech roof, and a high slope a low-tech roof."
To understand this principle, let us start with one of the most low-tech roofing systems:
a thatch roof. Thatch roofs in most countries will have a slope of 45 degrees or so. This
is because they are not very watertight. However, they are rather thick, most often
400mm (16") or so. So the high slope forces the water to run off before it penetrates
through the thickness of the thatch, a low-tech solution.
On the other hand, a state of the art system such as low-slope "kliplock" corrugated
metal sheeting can be installed at slopes of 1 degree or less, as it is perfectly watertight.

Take a look at the image below, which shows the correct slopes for a range of roofing
systems, to understand this in greater detail.
Apart from being watertight, a roof must perform other functions: it must support snow,
must look attractive, must have a permanent abrasion-resistant finish, must not absorb
heat in hot climates, and must not loose heat in cold climates.
A roof must be able to withstand the following loads:

Wind loads, which can be very large in some areas

2.1.

Human loads (if the roof is not accessible, it must be able to withstand the
weight of maintenance workers)
Snow loads
Earthquake.

Types of roof systems

Thatch Roofs: Is one of the earliest roofing systems created by man, and are still used
in millions of structures worldwide. Made of dried plant stems, a thatch roof will
commonly have a slope of 45 degrees and thickness of 400mm (16"). This thickness is
made up of a number of layers of individual plant fibres. When water falls on a thatch
roof, it will trickle from layer to layer as gravity pulls it downwards. So the thickness
actually creates sufficient layers for the water drops to move horizontally out of the
structure before they fall into a room. The steep slope serves to increase the speed of
the drops, so that they quickly move out of the structure before falling inside. So this
kind of roof is very different from other roofs, as it does not have a waterproof skin.

Slate or Stone Roofs: stone is not the greatest material for roofs, as it is heavy. Slate is
a naturally occurring type of stone that splits into thin layers if you hit it with a chisel in
just the right way. This produces thin, waterproof tiles that can be overlapped to form a
roof. Since the stone tiles are not exactly the same size and thickness, this is not a

system that is highly waterproof. Therefore it needs to have a good slope, of say 20 to
30 degrees, to force the water to run off the roof and not trickle through the gaps.

Wood Shingle Roofs: wooden shingles are light and easily replaceable, and were used
extensively in many parts of the world.

Metal Roofing Systems: metal roofing systems are hugely popular in today's times.
They are used in almost every industrial and airport terminal building and can also be
used in residential and educational buildings. They make for an extremely light, strong,
economical, and waterproof roof, and come in a very wide range of varieties.
Commonly used metals are mild steel, aluminum, and stainless steel. Steel roofing
sheets need to be protected from corrosion, and are usually galvanized or coated with
other protective layers. The sheets are quite thin, as much as 0.5mm in the case of steel,
and 1mm in aluminum. They therefore require insulation and other layers to be
incorporated into the roof.

3. FINISHES
Interior finishes and space-division systems define the living spaces within residential
buildings with a range of both natural and synthetic materials. The most widely used
wall finish is gypsum board, a prefabricated form of traditional wet plaster. Wet gypsum
plaster is cast between paper facings to form large panels that are nailed to light timber
or metal frameworks. The joints between the panels are filled with a hard-setting resin
compound, giving a smooth seamless surface that has considerable fire resistance.
Gypsum board forms the substrate to which a number of other materials, including thin
wood-veneered plywood and vinyl fabrics, can be applied with adhesives. In wet areas
such as kitchens and bathrooms, water-resistant gypsum board is used, sometimes with
the addition of adhesive-applied ceramic tile.
Doors in residential buildings are usually of the hollow-core type, with thin veneers of
wood glued over a honeycomb paper core and solid wood edge strips; door frames are
typically made of machined timber shapes. Plastic laminates bonded to particleboard are
extensively used for built-in cabinets and countertops. The most common floor finish
is carpeting, most of which is now made of synthetic fibres, displacing the traditional
wool and cotton. It can be easily maintained, and its soft visual and tactile texture, as
well as its sound-absorbing qualities, make it attractive for residential use. Hardwoods
primarily oak, birch, and mapleare also used for floors, both in the traditional

narrow planks nailed to plywood decks and as prefabricated parquet elements, which
are applied with adhesives. In wet or hard-use areas vinyl-composition tiles or ceramic
tiles are used.