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Conditionals are clauses introduced with if. The main types of conditionals
are: zero conditionals, type 1(real present), type 2 (unreal present), and type 3
(unreal past).
Conditional clauses consist of two parts: the if- clause (hypothesis) and the
main clause (result). When the if-clause comes before the main clause, the two
clauses are separated with a comma.
When the main clause comes before the if-clause, then no comma is
necessary.
main clause
If -clause
main clause
If -clause
Main clause
Future/imperative
can/may/might/must/should/could +
present bare infinitive
or very probable situations in the present or
or
Main clause
past Would/could/might + present bare
infinitive
They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in
the present and, therefore, are unlikely to happen in the present or future. They are
also used to give advice.
e.g. If I didnt have to work such long hours, I wouldnt be so tired.
* Note:
Type 1 and type 2 conditionals refer to the present or the future. The use of
Type 2 suggests that the situation is impossible, or imaginary.
e.g.
a/ If I win the money, Ill buy a new car. (comment made by a contestant on a
TV game show)
b/ If I won the money, I would buy a new car. (comment made by a member of
the audience on that TV game show)
IV. Type 3 Conditionals (unreal past)
If clause
Main clause
If + past perfect/ past perfect Would/could/might + perfect bare
continuous
infinitive
They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in
the past. They are also used to express regrets or criticism.
e.g. If I had known about the storm, I wouldnt have driven to Hanoi.
* Note:
In formal English, the subject and the auxiliary can be inverted in Type 1, 2, and
3 conditionals with if omitted:
e.g.
Should you see Mary, tell to phone me. (if you should see Mary)
Were he to propose to you now, what would you say? (if he were to propose to
you)
Were I (to be) you, I would find another job. (if I were you)
Were it not for Miguel, we wouldn't know what to do now. (if it weren't for
Miguel)
Had it not been for your mistake, we wouldn't have got lost. (if it hadn't been for
your mistake)
V. Other ways of forming conditional sentences
In some cases, we can form conditional sentences by using other words or
expressions as follows.
1. Unless
Conditional clauses can begin with unless. Unless means something similar
to if not or except if.
e.g. Unless I phone you, you can assume the trains on time. (If I do not
phone you /except if I phone you, you can assume the train is on time.)
We dont use unless for impossible conditions
e.g. If the government had not raised food prices, there would not have been
so many protests.
Not: Unless the government had raised food prices
2. And
Conditions with and are used to express a threat or a promise.
e.g. Open the letter and Ill never trust you again. (a threat)
Help me do the housework and Ill give you one hundred thousand dong. (a
promise)
3. As/ so long as, providing/provided that, on condition that
These expressions are used when we want to impose specific conditions or
set limits on a situation. As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on
condition that are more formal and more common in writing:
e.g. You can play in the living room as long as you dont make a mess.
Providing (that) is more common in speaking; provided (that) is more
formal and more common in written language:
e.g. You can get a senior citizens reduction providing youve got a railcar.
They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law.
4. Supposing/ Supposed/ What if
Supposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in first,
second or third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener to imagine a
situation:
e.g. Supposing I dont arrive till after midnight, will the guest-house still be
open? (Imagine if I dont arrive till after midnight )
What if/ What will happen if the plane is late?
5. In case of/ In the event of
We use in case of/ in the event of + noun to mean if and when something happens
e.g. In case of breakdown, please press the alarm button and call this
number. (if the lift breaks down, )
In the event of fire, sound the alarm.
(If there is a fire, )
6. Otherwise/ Or
Otherwise means or if not. It can go at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence.
e.g. Thank you for your directions. We wouldnt have found the right house
otherwise.
7. Even if
Even if emphasizes that something will happen, would happen or would have
happened whatever the condition.
e.g. Even if we leave right now, we still won't catch the train.
8. But for/ Without
This can replace if not. It is used in formal language, and must be followed
by a noun form.
e.g. If you hadnt helped me, we would have met many difficulties.
But for your help, we would have met many difficulties.
VI. Using mixed time in conditional sentences
We can combine two different types of conditional patterns.
1. Mixed third / second conditional
With this combination we are contrasting an imagined or real event in the
past with the present result of that.
e.g.
TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.
CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be
hungry now.
Note that we use this type of conditional when we regret past action or
inaction.
2. Mixed second / third conditional
With this combination, we are describing ongoing circumstances in relation
to a previous past event.
e.g.
TRUE: He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.
CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the
test yesterday.
VII. Practice
Practice 1: Complete the sentences with verbs in parentheses.
1. You should tell your father exactly what happened. If I (be)_____ you, I (tell)
____him the truth as soon as possible.
14. I can hear the speaker all right but I wish I could see him too. If he (stand)
_______on a barrel we all (see) _______him and that (be) _______much better.
15. My unmarried friends are always telling me how to bring up my children. I
sometimes think that if they (have) ______children they (make) ______just as
many mistakes as I do.
16. If you freeze the water, it (turn) ______ to ice.
Practice 2: Complete the following sentences with if or when.
1. _____I am late to work, my boss gets very angry. That is why I am always on
time.
2. _____ I leave work, I usually go to the fitness center to work out.
3. _____he eats, he tries to choose healthy foods.
4. His car is very reliable, and he rarely has any trouble with it. But he has had a
couple of difficulties in the past. ______his car breaks down or he has any
problems, he calls the auto club.
5. His car is terrible! It always breaks down. ______ his car breaks down or he has
any problems, he calls the auto club.
6. Mary gets six weeks paid vacation a year. She loves to travel. _____ she goes on
vacation, she always goes somewhere exotic.
7. Diane works harder than anyone I know. I don't think she has taken a day off in
three years. But she does really love to travel. ______she goes on vacation, she
goes somewhere exotic.
8. He loves going to the movies. ______he goes to the movies, he always gets a
large popcorn with tons of butter.
9. She hates TV. She thinks television is a waste of time. ______she watches
television, it is usually a documentary or a news program.
10. My friend always keeps in touch by mail. _____ I get a letter, I usually write
back immediately.
Practice 3: Underline the correct word or expression.
1. Ill lend you the money on condition that/ unless you pay it back soon.
2. Even if/ But for her help, Id be in trouble now.
3. Unless/ Provided it stops raining. We wont be going to the park.
4. I couldnt lend them the money even if/ otherwise they wanted.
5. Try to be there on time, and/otherwise well miss the beginning of the film.
6. Ill wear Mums necklace for the party.
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If only..
3. What would you do of there was an earthquake?
Supposing
4. If you do the shopping, Ill cook lunch.
You
5. What would you do of you found some buried treasure?
If you were.
6. If Pauline hadnt been interested, the project would have been abandoned.
But for..
7. If by any chance you find my wallet, could you let me know?
If you happen..
8. The fire was brought under control thanks to the night-watchman.
If it hadnt ..
9. Dick is in prison because a detective recongnized him.
If a detective..
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5.
Note:
After the subject pronouns I and we, we use could instead of would.
e.g. I wish I could travel abroad.
We can use were instead of was after wish.
e.g. I wish he were more careful.
II. Practice
Practice 1. Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of the verbs
in parentheses.
1. We need some help. I wish Alfred (be) ______ here now. If he (be) _____, we
could finish this work very quickly.
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2. We had a good time in Houston over vacation. I wish you (come) _______ with
us. If you (come) _________ with us, you (have) ______ a good time.
3. I wish it (be, not) _______ so cold today. If it (be, not) _______ so cold, I (go)
_______ swimming.
4. I missed part of the lecture because I was daydreaming, and now my notes are
incomplete. I wish I (pay) ________ more attention to the lecturer.
5.
9.
A: He couldnt have said that! Thats impossible. You must have
misunderstood him.
B: I only wish I (have) _______, but Im sure I heard him correctly.
10. Alice doesnt like her job as a nurse. She wishes she (go, not) ________ to a
nursing school.
11. A: I know that somethings bothering you, I wish you (tell) ______ ne what
it is. Maybe I can help.
B: I appreciate it, but I cant discuss it now.
12.
A: My feet are killing me! I wish I (wear) _______ more comfortable shoes.
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B. SUBJUNCTIVES
I. Present subjunctive
1. Form
The present subjunctive has exactly the same form as the infinitive.
e.g. The queen lives here. (simple present tense)
Long live the queen! (subjunctive)
2. Use
a. The present subjunctive is used in certain exclamations to express a wish or
hope, very often involving supernatural powers:
e.g. Bless you!
b. It is sometimes used in poetry, either to express a wish or in clauses of condition
or concession:
e.g. Stevenson: Fair the day shine as it shone in my childhood. (May the day
shine/ I hope it will shine.)
c. The subjunctive can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clause when the
main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so
on. Some verbs used in this case such as:
to advise (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)
+S
+ V infinitive/
should V infinitive
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It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is necessary (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)
e.g. It is a good idea that you be there on time.
II. Past subjunctive (Unreal present and past)
1. Form
The past subjunctive has exactly the same form as the simple past except that
with the verb be the past subjunctive form is either I/he/she/it was or I/he/she/it
were. In expressions of doubt or unreality were is more usual than was.
e.g. He looks as if he knew the answer.
2. Use
a. The past simple can be used to refer to unreal present when we talk about
imaginary or unreal situations which are contrary to facts in the present.
The past simple is used with:
type 2 Conditionals (unreal present)
e g. If he had enough money, he would build a house.
suppose/supposing/imagine
e.g. Suppose/Supposing he stood you up, what would you do?
wish/If only
e.g. I wish/ If only I had a better job.
would rather (present)
e.g. I'd rather Mary had dinner with me.
as if/as though
e.g. John talks as if/ as though he knew everything.
it's (about/high) time
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To-infinitive
to play
to have played
to be playing
to have been playing
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afford
happen
threaten
expect
prove
choose
agree
attempt
train
fail
refuse
claim
plan
seek
manage
aim
help
come
prepare
seem
neglect undertake
appear
beg
dare
pretend
hesitate
decide
arrange
wait
demand
promise
hope
learn
ask
tend
care
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decision
intention
proposal
agreement
demand
need
refusal
ambition
desire
anxiety
determination
plan
request
arrangement
eagerness
preparations
willingness
attempt
failure
promise
wish
offer
reluctance
choice
7. Question word + to-infinitive
We can use a question word or phrase (what, who, when, etc.) before a toinfinitive.
e.g. I just don't know what to say.
This pattern expresses an indirect question about what the best action is.
What to say means 'what I should say'.
* Notes:
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e.g.
I didn't enjoy it. I'd rather have stayed at home.
They decided to accept the offer rather than go to court.
3. Verb + object + bare infinitive
a. Make, let and have + object + bare infinitive.
e.g. The official made me fill in a form.
b. A verb of perception (see, hear, feel, smell, watch) + object + bare infinitive. In
this case, the action is complete.
e.g. Someone saw the men leave the building.
B. GERUNDS
I. Form of gerunds
Active
Passive
Simple
playing
being played
Perfect
having played
2. Verb + gerunds
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Admit
can't help
detest
escape
imagine
mention
permit
resent
dislike
postpone
confess
suggest
practice
involve
enjoy
anticipate
resist
miss
fancy
consider
keep (on)
appreciate
justify
risk
finish
resume
deny
quit
delay
avoid
give up
3. After expressions such as, its no use, its (no) good, its (not) worth, theres
no point (in), have difficulty in, etc.
e.g. Its no use arguing about what had happened.
4. After prepositions
e.g. My husband is good at cooking.
5. After no
e.g. No parking.
* Notes:
1. Some verbs take either form, to-infinitive or a gerund with almost no difference
in meaning.
e.g. I hate to leave/hate leaving everything to the last minute..
These verbs are begin, bother, can't bear, cease, commence, continue, hate,
intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.
Like takes a to-infinitive when it means that something is a good idea, rather
than a pleasure.
e.g. I like to keep all these papers in order.
When the main verb has a continuous form, we normally avoid using another
ing form after it.
e.g. The spectators were already beginning to arrive.
2. Some verbs take wither form but they have different meanings.
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The to-infinitive and gerund have different meanings after remember, forget;
regret; dread; try; stop; mean; go on; need, want, require and deserve.
a . We use remember and forget with a to-infinitive to talk about an obligation.
e.g. Did you remember to turn off the electricity?
We use a gerund to talk about past events.
e.g. I don't know. I can't remember turning it off.
b. We use regret + to-infinitive for a present action, especially when giving bad
news.
e.g. We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful.
We use a gerund to express regret about the past.
e.g. I regret wasting/regret having wasted so much time last year.
c. We use dread + to-infinitive mainly in the expression I dread to think/imagine...
e.g. I dread to think what might happen to you all alone in a big city.
We use a gerund for something that causes fear.
e.g. I always dreaded being seen by that man.
d. Try + to-infinitive means 'attempt to do' and try + gerund means making an
experiment' or to a new experience.
e.g. I'm trying to light a fire, but this wood won't burn. ~
Why don't you try pouring some petrol on it?
e. After stop we often use the to-infinitive of purpose. But stop + gerund means to
end an action.
e.g. At the next services he stopped to buy a newspaper.
You'd better stop dreaming and get on with some work.
f. Mean + to-infinitive has the sense of 'intend'. But mean + gerund expresses
result, what is involved in something.
e.g. I'm sorry. I didn't mean to step on your foot.
I have to be at the airport by nine. It means getting up early.
g. Go on + to-infinitive means to do something different, to do the next thing. Go
on +ing-form means to continue doing something.
e.g. After receiving the award, the actor went on to thank all the people who
had helped him in his career.
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e.g. He holds the rope with one hand and stretches out the other to the boy.
Holding the rope with one hand, he stretches out the other to the boy.
He rode away and he whistled.
He rode away whistling.
b. When one action is immediately followed by another by the same subject, the
first action can often be expressed by a present participle. The participle must be
placed first.
e.g. The teacher opened the bag and took out a book.
Opening the bag, the teacher took out a book.
c. When an action that is the result of another action:
e.g. Moments later a bomb exploded, leaving three people dead and twelve
others injured.
2.8. A present participle can replace an adverbial clause of reason, time, result, or
condition in active voice.
e.g. Being athletic, Tom found that the climb was quite easy.(Clause of
reason)
We met John while shopping. (Clause of time)
They pumped waste into the river, killing all the fish. (Clause of result)
Studying hard, youll pass the exam. (Clause of condition)
II. Past participle
1. Form: V-ed
However, it is also formed in various other ways for irregular verbs.
e.g. studied, fallen, gone
2. Use
2.1. As an adjective modifies a noun that is affected by someone or something else.
e.g. The children were interested in the cartoon.
2.2. To form the perfect tenses/ infinitives and the passive voice
e.g. She has worked as a teacher for three years.
The mouse was caught by the cat.
2.3. A past participle can replace a passive relative clause.
e.g. The police are trying to identify the man injured in the accident.
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brackets.
1. A woman (wear)_____ a blue hat opened the door.
2. Champagne, (produce)_______ in France, is exported all over the world.
3. My sister works in a bakery (make)______ cakes.
4. A million dollars worth of jewellery (belong)_______ to the President's wife has
been stolen.
5. Pictures (paint) ________by Picasso usually sell for millions of pounds.
6. A lorry (carry)________ fruit crashed on the motorway.
7. This is a vegetarian restaurant. None of the dishes (serve) ________here contain
meat or fish.
8. The Harry Potter books, (write)______ by JK Rowling, have all been made into
films.
9. He was sitting in an armchair (read) ________
10. (Work) _______in the company for many years, he knew everyone and
everything.
11. The cup (fill) _________ with milk stood on the table.
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12. (Not see) _________ each other for ages, they had a lot to talk about.
13. (Bear) _________ into a rich family, she got everything she wished for.
14. (Be) __________ the child of poor people, he often went to bed hungry.
15. (Park) the car, he went to a restaurant.
16. (watch) _________ the film a dozen times, she knew the dialogues by heart.
Practice 2: Rewrite the sentences with participle clauses.
1. Sam left school early because he felt sick.
2. The teacher was impressed by Daniels work, so she gave him the highest score.
3. Because he didn't study hard enough for his exam, Ryan couldn't pass it.
4. As I havent received all the applications yet, I am not eager to hire anyone.
5. The golden ring, which was stolen weeks ago, was found.
6. As I have an assignment to finish, I cannot come with you.
7. When my sister heard the good news, she wanted to cry.
8. Because I didnt want to lose my passport, I gave it to my father.
9. After he had been told to do the dishes, John entered the kitchen with a frown.
10. As I had been to England before, I knew where to find a good hotel.
Practice 3. Using participles to join sentences
Join each of the following pairs of sentences, using either a present participle a
past participle, or a perfect participle.
e.g. He got off his horse. He began searching for something on the ground.
Getting off his horse, he began searching for something on the ground.
1. I knew that he was poor. I offered to pay his fare.
2. We barricaded the windows. We assembled in the hall.
3. She became tired of my complaints about the programme. She turned it off.
4. He found no one at home. He left the house in a bad temper.
5. She hoped to find the will. She searched everywhere.
6. The criminal removed all traces of his crime. He left the building.
7. He realized that he had missed the last train. He began to walk.
8. He was exhausted by his work. He threw himself on his bed.
9. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home and ask his father for a job.
10. He escaped from prison. He looked for a place where he could get food.
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11. She didnt want to hear the story again. She had heard it all before.
12. They found the money. They began quarrelling about how to divide it.
13. She entered the room suddenly. She found them smoking.
14. I turn on the light. I was astonished at what I saw.
15. We visited the museum. We decided to have lunch in the park.
16. He offered to show us the way home. He thought we were lost.
17. He found his revolver. He load it. He sat down facing the door.
18. She asked me to help her. She realized that she couldnt move it alone.
19. He fed the dog. He sat down to his own dinner.
20. He addressed the congregation. He said he was sorry to see how few of them
had been able to come.
21. He thought he must have made a mistake somewhere. He went through his
calculations again.
22. I have looked through the fashion magazines. I realize that my clothes are
hopelessly out of date.
23. The tree had fallen across the road. It had been uprooted by the gale.
24. People were sleeping in the next room. They were wakened by the sound of
breaking glass.
25. I knew that the murderer was still at large. I was extremely reluctant to open the
door.
26. He stole the silver. He looked for a place to hide it.
27. We were soaked to the skin. We eventually reached the station.
28. I sat in the front row. I used opera glasses. I saw everything beautifully.
29. One evening you will be sitting by the fire. You will remember this day.
30. I didnt like to sit down. I knew that there were ants in the grass.
31. She believed that she could trust him absolutely. She gave him a blank cheque.
32. Slates were ripped off by the gale. They fell on people passing below.
33. The lion found his cage door open. He saw no sign of his keeper. He left the
cage and walked slowly towards the zoo entrance.
34. The government once tried to tax people according to the size of their houses.
They put a tax on windows.
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35. I had heard that the caves were dangerous. I didnt like to go any further
without a light.
36. She wore extremely fashionable clothes. She was surrounded by photographers
and pressmen. She swept up to the microphone.
A. INVERSION
I. Definition of inversion
Inversion means putting the verb before the subject.
The term inversion covers two different grammatical operations:
1. Using a question form of the main verb
e.g. Never have I enjoyed myself more!
2. Changing the normal positions of verb and subject
e.g. Along the street came a strange procession.
II. Cases of inversion
1. Inversion after negative adverbials
1.1. Time expressions: never, rarely, seldom
These are most commonly used with present perfect or past perfect or with
modals such as can and could. Sentences of this type often contain comparatives.
e.g. Seldom has he seen anything stranger.
Rarely had I had so much responsibility.
1.2. Time expressions: hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner
These refer to an event which quickly follows another. They are usually used
with past perfect, although no sooner can be followed by past simple. Note the
words used in the contrasting clause.
Structure:
Hardly
Barely
Scarcely
No sooner + had + S+ P.P + than + clause (simple past)
e.g. Scarcely had I got out of bed when the doorbell rang.
No sooner had he finished dinner, when she walked in the door.
1.3. Phrases containing no/not
These include under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no way
On no condition, not until, not only (but also).
e.g. Under no circumstances can we accept credit cards.
At no time did she say she would come.
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1.4. Little
Little also has a negative or restrictive meaning in this sense:
e.g. Little did he know what he should do.
2. Inversion after so/such that
2.1. This occurs with so and adjectives when the main verb is be. It is used for
emphasis.
e.g. So strange was the situation that I couldn't sleep.
2.2. Such used with be means so much/ so great
e.g. Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted
3. Inverted conditional sentences without if
Three types of Ifsentence can be inverted without If . This makes the
sentences more formal and makes the event less likely.
e.g. Should he decide to come, please phone me.
4. Inversion after as, so, neither, and nor to express agreement or disagreement.
e.g. I dont like violent films. - Neither do I.
My sister is a musician, as is her sister.
5. After 'Only' expressions such as 'only after', 'only when', 'only then', etc.
When the expressions only after/ only by/ only if/ only when come at the
beginning of a sentence, the inversion is in the main clause.
e.g. Only if you follow my advice will you pass the exam.
III. Practice
Practice 1: Choose the most suitable words underlined.
1. Jim promised that he would never/ never would he tell anyone else.
2. Not until it was too late I remembered/ did I remember to call Susan.
3. Hardly had we settled down in our seats than/ when the lights went out.
4. Only after checking three times I was/ was I certain of the answer.
5. At no time I was aware/ was I aware of anything out of the usual.
6. Only Catherine and Sally passed/did they pass the final examination.
7. So the waves were high/ So high were the waves that swimming was dangerous.
8. Only when Peter has arrived/ has Peter arrived can we begin the programme.
9. No sooner had it stopped raining than/ when the sun came out.
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10. If should you leave early/ Should you leave early could you give me a lift?
Practice 2: Rewrite each sentence, starting as shown so that the meaning
stays the same.
1. It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting.
Not until.. .
2. The facts were not all made public until later.
Only
3. If I had realized what would happen, I wouldnt have accepted the job.
Had..
4. The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff.
Such..
5. Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder.
Not only..
6. The police didnt at all suspect that the judge was the murderer.
Little
7. If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me?
Should.
8. The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.
In
9. The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled.
So..
10. If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election.
Were..
11. As soon as I got into the bath, someone knocked at the door.
No sooner
12. Its not common for there to be so much rain in March.
Seldom
13. Just after the play started there was a power failure.
Hardly
14. The Prime Minister has hardly ever made a speech as inept as this.
Rarely.
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15. We had only just arrived home when the police called.
Scarcely...
16. Press photographers are banned from taking photographs backstage.
On no
17. The way so much money has been spent to so little purpose must be a record!
Never before
18. The judge was taken ill just after the trial proceedings began.
Barely
Practice 3: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the words in capitals,
and the meaning stays the same.
1. Were Smith to resign, I might stand a chance of getting his job. (IF)
2. Such was the demand for tickets that people queue day and night. (GREAT)
3. The money is not to be paid under any circumstances. (NO)
4. Three days passed before we arrived at the first oasis. (NOT UNTIL)
5. Hardly had the ship left port, when a violent storm developed.
6. They would have discovered land sooner had they carried a compass. (IF)
7. Little did Brenda know what she was letting herself in for. (IDEA)
8. It was only when I stopped that I realized something was wrong. (DID I)
9. The accused never expressed I regret for what he had done. (AT NO TIME)
10. So exhausted were the runners that none of them finished the race. (TOO)
Practice 4: Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.
1. Should you need anything, could you let me know?
2. Were.., everyone in it would have been killed.
3. Had..harder, I would probably have passed all my exams.
4. Should.. neighbourhood, why dont you drop in?
5. Had..immediately, your daughter would not
be so ill.
6. Were.you, I would turn you down flat!
7. Should........., just call room service, and order a
meal.
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B. EMPHASIS
I. Ways of expressing emphasis in English
1. Changing word order to change focus.
1.1 Passive
Passive constructions vary the way information is given in a sentence,
putting more emphasis on what comes first. By using a passive sentence, we
emphasize by showing what happens to something rather than who or what does
something.
e.g. This road has been built recently.
1.2. Fronting and inversion
Fronting involves changing the word order of clauses in a sentence and
putting first for emphasis a clause that would usually not be first.
e.g. What to deal with this issue, Im not sure.
Inversion refers to changing the normal word order in the sentence so that a
prepositional phrase is emphasized before the verb. This also involves putting the
verb before the subject.
e.g. Up into the air went the balloon.
1.3. Cleft and pseudo cleft sentences
These sentences are introduced by it is/ it was. who/which/that or by a
clause beginning with what. Different parts of the sentence can be emphasized in
this way.
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38
Common examples are: day after day, time and time again, over and over
again, day in, day out.
e.g. She watches the cartoon over and over again.
3.2. Repetition of main verbs
e.g I tried and tried, but I did not succeed.
II. Practice
Practice 1: Complete each sentence with one suitable word.
1. You cant complain. Its your own fault, isnt it?
2. That looks like Janet.
- ..it is! My goodness, hasnt she changed.
3. Im sorry to keep you waiting. I.. hope you havent been here long.
4. It is by nocertain that the Prime Minister will attend the meeting.
5. I really enjoyed in winter is a bowl of hot soup.
6. I searched and.. for my keys but I couldnt find them.
7. .. you are all going to sleep I cant quite work out!
8. What the government then. was to raise interest rates.
9. There isnt much to eat. .. weve got is some leftovers.
Practice 2: Rewrite each sentence, beginning with words in capitals, so
that the meaning stays the same.
1. I dont know who is going to pay for the damage. (WHO)
2. Although the ticket may seem expensive, it is good value for money.
(EXPENSIVE)
3. I really cant stand lukewarm food. (WHAT)
4. In the end Martha went to the police. (WHAT)
5. Every day, its the same old routine in my job. (DAY IN)
6. I think you must have seen a ghost. (IT)
7. Her car was the last car we expected to be stolen. (HERS)
8. The parcel finally arrived on Wednesday. (IT)
9. I bought it because it was a bargain. (IT WAS BECAUSE)
Practice 3: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the words in capitals
and the meaning stays the same.
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40
41
42
43
- But cried the inspector the Roxy was closed all last weekend
Practice 3. Fill each gap with say/tell/ask and an object if necessary.
1. He often .. things like that.
2. She always .. .her troubles.
3. The children if they can go out to play.
4. Dont do that! She. to them.
5. Theyve arrived, she.
6. How are you both? she .
7. I.that I didnt know what to do.
8. The nurse... if he needed anything else.
9. Did he.where you came from.
10.Did she. where she had put my books.
11. The policeman where we were going.
12.He didnt me how long the job would take.
13.Theres no match on Saturday.- Who.so?
14.You were right. Those curtains look terrible!- Iso!
15.When I was introduced to the Princess, she. a few words to me.
16.That little boys very bad. He lots of lies.
17.How much are those bananas?- Ive got no idea. Go and ..the price.
B. STATEMENTS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
I. Tense changes.
1. Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in a present tense: He says that.
This is usual when we are:
a. reporting a conversation that is still going.
b. reading a letter a reporting what it says.
c. reading instructions and reporting them
d. reporting a statement that someone makes very often, e.g. Tom says that
hell never get married.
When the introductory verb is in the present, present perfect, or future tense
we can report the direct speech without any change of tense.
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Simple past
Future
He said, Ill be in Paris on Monday.
Future continuous
Indirect speech
Ill be using the car myself on the She said shed be using the car herself
24th, she said.
on the 24th.
Notes:
In written English past tenses usually do change to past perfect but there are
the following exceptions:
a. Past/ past continuous tenses in time clauses do not normally change, such as
when, after, before, as soon as, until, etc.
e.g. He said, When we lived in France, we often drove around Paris.
He said when they lived in France they had often driven/ drove around
Paris.
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The main verb of such sentences can either remain unchanged or become the
past perfect.
b. Past tense used to describe the state of affairs which still exists when the speech
is reported remains unchanged.
e.g. She said. I decided not to buy the house because it was on a main
road.
She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was on a
main road.
3. Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) in indirect speech.
- Unreal past tenses after wish, would rather/sooner and it is time do not
change.
e.g. We wish we didnt have to take exams, said the children.
The children said they wished they didnt have to take exams.
-
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- But you ought to/ should, if used to express advice rather than obligation, can be
reported by advise + object + infinitive.
4.4. Used to
- used to doesnt change
e.g. I used to live here so I know it very well, he said.
He said that he used to live there so he knew it very well.
4.5. Could
4.5.1. Could for ability
- could for present ability can remain unchanged or be reported by would be able.
e.g. She said, I could do it tomorrow.
She said he could do it/ would be able to do it the next day.
- Could in type 2 conditional sentences is reported similarly.
e.g. If I had enough money I could buy this house, he said.
He said that if he had enough money he could/ would be able to
buy that house.
- Could in type 3 conditional sentences is reported unchanged.
- Could for the past ability can remain unchanged or be reported by had been able.
e.g. I could play football when I was two, he said.
He said he could/had been able to play football when she was
two.
4.5.2. Could for permission
- In type 2 conditional sentences could remain unchanged or be reported by would
be allowed:
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Indirect
then
that day
that night
the day before/ the previous day
the previous morning/ afternoon
two days before
the previous week (month)
before
the following day/ the next day
the following morning/ afternoon, etc.
the following week, etc.
in two days time
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Here can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant.
e.g. At the station, he said, Ill be here again tomorrow.
He said hed be there again the next day.
IV. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns changes
1. This used in time expression usually becomes that:
e.g. He said, She is coming this week.
He said that he was coming that week.
2. Otherwise, this and that used as adjectives usually change to the:
e.g. He said, I bought this pearl for my mother.
He said that he had bought the pearl for his mother.
3. This, these used as pronouns can become it, they/them
e.g. He showed me two bullets. I found these embedded in the paneling.
He said had found them embedded in the paneling.
e.g. He said, We will discuss this tomorrow.
He said that they would discuss it/ this matter the next day.
4. This/ these (adjectives or pronouns) used to indicate choice or to distinguish
some things from others, can become the one(s) near him, etc., or the sentence can
be reworded.
e.g. Ill get this (one), she said to me.
He said that he would get the one near him.
Or:
He pointed to/ showed me the one he wanted.
V. Practice
Practice 1: Put the following sentences into indirect speech.
1. I have something to show you, I said to her.
2. Nothing grows in my garden. It never gets any sun, she said.
3. Im going away tomorrow, mother, he said.
4. Ive been in London for a month but so far I havent had time to visit the
Tower, said Rupert.
5. It isnt so foggy today as it was yesterday, I remark.
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6. The new underpass is being officially opened the day after tomorrow, said the
BBC announcer.
7. We have moved into our new flat. We dont like it nearly so much as our last
one, said my aunt.
8. We have a lift but very often it doesnt work, they said.
9. From one of the windows of my flat I can see the Eiffel Tower, he said.
10. I have no idea what the time is but Ill dial 8081, and find out, said his
daughter.
11. He said, My wife has just been made a judge.
12. Ill come with you as soon as Im ready, she replied.
13. I have a German lesson this afternoon and I havent done my homework yet,
said the small boy.
14. If you let the iron get too hot you will scorch your clothes, I warned her.
15. You havent given me quite enough. The bill is for J14, and youve paid me
only J13, he pointed out.
16. Ann said, Englishmen make good husbands because they are nearly always
willing to help in the house.
17. Mary answered, I like men to be useful but I dont like them to be too
domesticated. I prefer them to keep out of the kitchen altogether. Men look silly in
aprons anyway.
18. Motoring report: The new Rolls Royce runs so quietly that all you can hear is
the ticking of the clock.
19. I dont know what to do with all my plums, I suppose Ill have to make jam.
The trouble is that none of us eats jam, she said.
20. We like working on Sundays because we get double pay, explained the
builders.
21. He said, Im quite a good cook and I do all my own washing and mending
too.
22. You can keep that one if you like, Joan, he said. Ive got plenty of others.
23. Im going fishing with mother this afternoon, said the small boy, and we are
going into the garden now to dig for worms.
24. Youve got my umbrella, said I crossly. Yours is in your bedroom.
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25. I know exactly what they said, the private detective explained to his client,
because I bugged their phone.
Practice 2: Some tenses/forms do not change when direct speech becomes
indirect. Put the following sentences into indirect speech, being careful to avoid
ambiguity.
1. I couldnt get into the house because I had lost my key, so I had to break the
window, he said.
2. The mirror is there so that you can see yourself when you are dancing, the
instructress told him.
3. I wrote to him the day before yesterday. I wonder why he hasnt rung up, she
said.
4. If the ground is dry on the day of the race, my horse might win, said the owner.
5. Youd better slow down. Theres a speed limit here, she said to me.
6. If Tom wants seat, hed better apply early, she said.
7. We walked 50 miles last night to see the Minister and protest about our rents
being raised. He was very polite and promised to do what he could for us, said one
of the tenants.
8. They should put traffic lights here, otherwise therell be more accidents, said
she.
9. Its time we began training for our next match, the coach said to them.
10. If you leave home at six, you should be here by nine, he said to me.
11. If it rains this afternoon it will be too wet to play the match tomorrow, the
captain said.
12. I meant to plug in the electric blanket but I plugged in the electric kettle by
mistake. Im always doing silly things like that, she told her guest.
13. I was intending to do it tomorrow, he said, but now I dont think Ill be able
to.
14. Bill should do very well at the university, Mrs Smith, said the headmaster.
Hes doing very well here.
15. I dont think your father likes me, said the young wife.
You mustnt think that, said the husband, its just that hes old and finds it hard
to get used to new people.
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16. The steak is overdone again. Im not complaining; Im just pointing it out,
said her husband.
I wish youd stop pointing things out, said his wife.
17. They couldnt open the safe on the spot so they carried away with them, the
night watchman reported.
18. If you saw my father, youd recognize him at once. He is the most extraordinary
looking man, she said to me.
19. I found an old Roman coin in the garden yesterday, he said, and Im going to
take it to the museum this afternoon.
20. He said, I got out of my boat, leaving the engine running, but while I was
standing on the quay the gears suddenly engaged themselves and the boat went
straight out of the harbour with no one on board.
21. Would you like me to go out with you? I said.
Id rather go alone, he answered.
22. My brother said, You may take my car if you like. I shant be needing it
tomorrow or the day after.
23. Yesterday Tom and I went to look at a house that he was thinking of buying. It
was rather a nice house and had a lovely garden but Tom decided against it because
it was opposite a cemetery, said Celia.
24. He said, My wife wants to take a job but Id rather she concentrated on out
home.
25. I dont know what your father will say when he sees what a mess your puppies
have made of this five-pound note, said my mother.
26. Its high time you passed your test; Im tired of driving round with an L-plate
on the front of the car, my sister said.
27. Id wish youd seen it, I said to her.
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3. Question tags
e.g. Everyone took the test, did they?
4. Alternative questions
e.g. Are you Vietnamese or English?
II. General rules
1. When we turn direct questions into indirect speech, the following changes are
necessary. Tense, pronouns, and possessive adjectives, and adverbs of time and
place change as in statements.
The interrogative form of the verb changes to affirmative form. The question
mark (?) is therefore omitted in indirect questions
e.g. He said, Where does she live?
He asked where she lived.
2. If the introductory is say, it must be changed into a verb of inquiry, e.g. ask,
inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
e.g. Jack said, Where is the station?
Jack asked where the station was.
3. ask can be followed by the person addressed.
e.g. He asked, What have you done today?
He asked (me) what I had done that day.
But inquire, wonder, want to know can not take an indirect object, so if we wish
to report a question where the person addressed is mentioned, we must use ask.
e.g. He said, John, when are you going to school?
He asked John when he was going to school.
4. If the direct question begins with a question word (when, where, who, whom,
how, why, etc.), the question word is repeated in the indirect question.
e.g. She said, What do you want?
She asked what they wanted.
III. Yes/ No questions in indirect speech
1. Rules for changing Yes/No questions into indirect speech
Normally we can use either if or whether. If is the more usual:
e.g. Do you know Bill? she said.
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54
55
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28. What are you going to do with your old car? I asked him.
29. Do you grow your own vegetable? I asked.
30. What train are you going to get? my friend inquired.
31. Could you change a five-pound note? Im afraid I havent got anything
smaller, said the passenger to the conductor.
32. How many sleeping pills have you taken? said the night sister.
I have no idea, said Mr Jones sleepily.
33. Could we speak to the manager, please? said the two men.
Have you an appointment? said the secretary.
34. Do you think you could live entirely on your own for six months, said Tom,
or would you get bored?
35. Did any of you actually see accident happen? said the policeman.
36. Could I see Commander Smith? the lady asked.
Im afraid hes in orbit, I said. Would you like to leave a message?
Practice 2: Report the following conversations.
1. Will you be here for the next ten minutes? she said.
Yes, I answered.
2. Havent you got a TV set? he asked.
No, I said, nobody in our village has got one.
3. Can I lose five kilos in one week? the fat woman asked.
No, said the doctor.
4. Wouldnt you like to look ten years younger? said my hairdresser.
No, I replied.
5. Have you ever been convicted of driving under the influence of drink? she
asked him.
No, he said.
6. Ive just received my sons school report; would you like to see it? he asked.
No, I said.
7. Did you hear a terrible crash about 3 a.m. this morning? said my host.
Yes, I said. What was it?
8. Shall I have to do the whole exam again if I fail in one paper? said the student.
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Direct speech
Reported speech
demand
He demanded to be given
the money.
agree
promise
offer
you?
threaten
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refuse
+ sb + to + infinitive
advise
ask
beg
command
invite
Will you
wedding?
order
Go to your room!
remind
warn
+ ing
come
to
my
He invited me to go to her
wedding.
She ordered him to go to
his room.
suggest
accuse sbd of
apologise for
deny
They
accused
commiting the crime.
of
+ that -clause
suggest
III. Exclamation
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We use the verbs exclaim/ say that to report exclamations which begin with
What a/an or How in direct speech.
e.g. What a beautiful flower!
She exclaimed/ said that it was a beautiful flower.
But with exclamations such as Splendid!, Great!, Good!, Oh!, etc.
we use the expression give an exclamation of delight/ surprise/ disgust/ relief,
etc.
e.g. Wow! he said as he unwrapped his gift.
He gave an exclamation of surprise as he unwrapped his gift.
IV. Mixed types
Direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command,
command + statement, or all three together.
1. Normally each requires its own introductory verb:
e.g. I dont remember her name. Do you? he asked.
He said he didnt remember her name and asked if he did.
2. Sometimes when the last clause is a statement which helps to explain the first,
we can use as instead of a second introductory verb.
e.g. Dont swim in this river. Its very deep, she said.
She warned me not to swim in that river as it was very deep.
3. Sometimes the second introductory verb can be a participle.
e.g. Please, dont drink too much! Remember youll have to drive home,
she said.
She begged him not to drink too much, reminding that hed have to
drive home.
V. Practice
Practice 1. Put the following sentences into indirect speech.
1. He said, Get out of my way.
2. Climb in through the window, he ordered.
3. Please pay at the desk, said the assistant.
4. Open your bag, please, said the store detective.
5. Dont worry about anything, Mrs. Pitt, said her solicitor. Leave it all to me.
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36. Please, please send whatever you can spare, said the secretary of the disaster
fund.
37. Wear a wig if you dont want to be recognized, I advised him.
38. Dont bathe when the red flag is flying, said the lifeguard.
39. Dont forget to thank Mrs. Jones when you are saying goodbye to her, said
his mother.
40. Watch the milk and dont let it boil over, he said.
41. Dont shelter under a tree in a thunderstorm, he said. The tree might be
struck by lightning.
42. Put the message into a bottle and throw it into the sea, he said.
43. Read it for yourself if you dont believe what I say, he told me.
44. Dont forget to use your indicators, said the driving instructor.
45. Dont drive too fast or the baby will be sick, she said to her husband.
46. Do make the coffee a bit stronger, I begged. It was terribly weak last night.
47. Beware of pickpockets, said the huge notice.
48. Smell this. Do you think it had gone bad? she said.
49. Dont take your coat off. We are going out again in a moment, she told him.
50. Stand by the window and tell me if anyone goes into the house opposite, he
said.
Practice 2. Report the following dialogue.
Ann: What about having a party on Saturday?
Mary: Yes, lets. Who shall we invite?
Ann: Lets not make a list. Lets just invite everyone.
Mary: We dont want to do too much cooking, so what about making a wine and
cheese party?
Ann: Suppose we ask everybody to bring a bottle?
Mary: Shall we hire glasses from our local wine shop? We havent many left.
Ann: Its warm. How about having a party in the garden?
Mary: Why not have a barbecue?
Why not? We could ask Paul to do the cooking.
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Mary: Last time we had a barbecue the neighbours complained about the noise.
Shall we ask everyone to speak whisper?
Ann: Suppose we go around to the neighbours and apologize in advance this time?
Mary: Why not invite the neighbours? Then the noise wont matter.
Ann: What a clever idea! Shall we start ringing everyone up tonight?
Mary: What about working out how much it will cost first?
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Active voice
keeps
is keeping
kept
was keeping
has kept
will keep
would keep
would have kept
to keep
to have kept
keeping
having kept
Passive voice
is kept
is being kept
was kept
was being kept
has been kept
will be kept
would be kept
would have been kept
to be kept
to have been kept
being kept
having been kept
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65
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example.
e.g. Dont touch it. (active voice)
Let it not be touched. (passive voice)
You are warned not to touch it. (passive voice)
* Note:
The passive form has to begin with you, when the object of the verb in the
active voice is not given.
e.g. Work hard. (active voice)
You are advised to work hard. (passive voice)
6. Modal verbs
To form the passive voice of a modal expressing the present or the future, we
use the form: a modal + be + a past participle.
e.g. This book had be returned to the library before Saturday.
Or past-passive form: a modal + have been + past participle. The latter
structure is used to express a regret or critisim for not doing something.
e.g. He should have been told about it.
7. Reporting verbs
With verbs such as believe, know, say, think which report peoples opinions,
a passive construction is often used to avoid a weak subject, and to give a
generalised idea.
Present reference
With present reference, the passive is followed by present infinitive.
e.g. People think that he is a professor. (active)
He is thought to be a professor. (passive)
Or : Its thought that he is a professor (passive)
Passive reference
With passive reference, the passive is followed by perfect past infinitive.
e.g. People said that he was jealous of her. (active)
It was said that he was jealous of her. (passive)
Or: He was said to be jealous of her. (passive)
8. Have/get something done, need doing
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6. By tradition, any sturgeons that are caught by British ships must be offered to the
Queen.
7. This notice has been altered.
8. The owners went away last March and since then houseboat has been used
continuously by squatters.
9. The damaged ship was being towed into harbor when the towline broke.
10. Have a lift put in and then you wont have to climb up all these stairs.
11. Last year a profit of two million pounds was made in the first six which was
made in the second months.
12. Evening dress will be worn.
13. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were forbidden to
land.
14. Someone will have to be found to take her place.
15. He was made to surrender his passport.
16. This rumour must have been started by our opponents.
17. My paintings are to be exhibited for the first time by New Arts Gallery
18. The scientific theory has now been proved to be false.
19. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged today.
20. The house where the dead man was found is being guarded by the police to
prevent it from being entered and the evidence interfered with.
21. Why wasnt the car either locker or put into the garage?
22. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the government on roads.
23. Your money could be put to good use instead of being left idle in the bank.
24. For a long time the earth was believed to be flat.
25. This copy hasnt been read. The pages havent been cut.
26. The stones were thrown by a student, who was afterwards led away by the
police.
27. Carrier pigeons are said to have been used by early Egyptian and Greek sailors.
28. The referee was being escorted from the football field by a strong police guard.
29. He likes being given present.
Practice 3: Change the following sentences into passive voice, paying
attention to phrasal verbs.
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27. This college is already full. We are turning away students the whole time.
28. You will have to pull down the skyscraper as you have not complied with the
town planning regulations.
Practice 4: Put the following sentences into passive, using an infinitive
construction where possible.
1. We added up the money and found that it was correct.
2. Im employing a man tile the bathroom.
3. Someone seems to have made a terrible mistake.
4. It is your duty to make tea at eleven oclock.
5. People know that he is armed.
6. Someone saw him pick up the gun.
7. We know that you were in town on the night of the crime.
8. We believe that he has special knowledge which may be useful to the police.
9. You neednt have done this.
10. Its a little too loose; you had better ask your tailor to take it in.
11. He likes people to call him sir.
12. Dont touch this switch.
13. You will have to get someone to see to it.
14. It is impossible to do this
15. Someone is following us.
16. They used to make little boys climb the chimneys to clean them.
17. You have to see it to believe it.
18. You order me about and I am tired of it.
19. He doesnt like people laughing at him.
20. You dont need to wind this watch.
21. They shouldnt have told him.
22. They decided to divide the money between the windows of the lifeboat men.
23. People believe that he was killed by terrorists.
24. They are to send letters to the leaders of charitable organizations.
25. We consider that she was the best singer that Australia has ever produced.
26. They report that the fire was started by accident.
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3. Last week. The Prime Minister visited Dawston. The Mayor of the town
greeted him when he arrived and gave him a tour. He introduced the Prime Minister
to some important businessmen and took him to lunch in a local restaurant. In the
afternoon, the Mayor held a meeting and the Prime Minister addressed the citizens
of Dawston. He told them that he had enjoyed his visit very much.
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REFERENCES
1. Alexander L.J. (1990), Longman English Grammar Practice for Intermediate
Students, Longman.
2. Azar S.B. (1998), Understanding and using English Grammar, 3 th edition,
Longman, London.
3. Dooley J. & Evans V. (1999), Grammarway 4, Express Publishing.
4. Eastwood J. (1994), Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford University
Press.
5. Hornby A.S. et al. (2005), Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 7
Oxford University Press.
th
edition,
6. Thomson A.J. & Martinet A.V. (1987), Practical English Grammar, 4th edition,
Oxford University Press, UK.
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