Chapter-4

Structural Geology
and
Tectonics

CONTENTS
4.1. Introduction to Deformation, Stress and Strain
4.2. Primary Structures
4.3. Folds
4.3.1. Introduction
4.3.2. Classification and nomenclature of fold
4.3.3. Types of Fold

4.4. Foliations
4.5. Lineations
4.6. Joints
4.6.1. Terminology of Joints
4.6.2. Genetic classification of Joints
4.6.3. Relation of joints to other structures

4.7. Faults
4.7.1. Fault terminology
4.7.2. Nature of movement along faults
4.7.3. Normal faults
4.7.4. Thrust faults
4.7.5. Strike-slip faults
4.7.6. Shear zones

4.8. Introduction to Plate Tectonics

Objectives and Scope

This chapter deals with ways to recognize and characterize major and
minor structures in the earth's crust and ways to gain insight into how these
structures form.
The chapter develops skills in three-dimensional thinking that are essential
for understanding crustal structures. It also explores techniques for
determining the sequence in which structures form.
The chapter will also focus on macroscopic structures but will also introduce
trainees to some of the fascinating structures that form at the microscopic
scale.
Our ability to understand geologic structures depends in large part on how
we perceive them. Few geologic structures form by trivially simple processes,
but depending on how we view geologic structures, they can appear horribly
complicated or amenable to understanding; perspective is critically important.
One key thread throughout the presentation will be ways of viewing the
geometry, mathematics, and physics of geologic structures.

Structural geology and Tectonics is the branch of geology

that deals with:
Form, arrangement and internal architecture of rocks
Description, representation, and analysis of structures from
the small to moderate scale
Reconstruction of the motions of rocks
Structural geology provides information about the
conditions during regional deformation using structures
Both are concerned with the reconstruction of the motions
that shape the outer layers of earth
Both deal with motion and deformation in the Earths crust
and upper mantle
Tectonic events at all scales produce deformation structures
These two disciplines are closely related and interdependent

Tectonics: Study of the origin and geologic evolution (history

of motion and deformation) of large areas (regional to global)
of the Earths lithosphere (e.g., origin of continents; building of
mountain belts; formation of ocean floor)

Structural Geology: Study of deformation in rocks at scales

ranging from submicroscopic to regional (micro-, meso-, and
macro-scale). It describes a geometric feature in a rock whose
shape, form, and distribution, which can be described as:
Microstructure: The small-scale arrangement of
geometric and mineralogical elements within a rock.
Texture: Preferred orientation of crystallographic axes in
the sample.
Microfabric: Comprises the microstructure and the texture
of a material.

Fundamental Structures are:

Contacts
Primary Structures
Secondary structures
Fractures (Joints and Faults)
Vein
Fold
Structural Analyses consist of:Descriptive:
Recognize, describe structures by measuring their
locations, geometries and orientations
Break a structure into structural elements - physical &
geometric
Kinematic:
Interprets deformational movements that formed the
structures

Translation, Rotation, Distortion, Dilation

Dynamic:
Interprets forces and stresses from interpreted
deformational movements of structures

4.1. Introduction to Deformation, Stress and Strain

Deformation: changes in shape, position, and/or orientation of a body. It
includes all changes in the original location, orientation or form of a crustal
rock body.
Homogeneous deformation: the displacement gradient is a constant throughout
the deformed body. For a homogeneous deformation, initially straight lines
remain straight, circles become ellipses and parallel lines remain parallel after
deformation.
Inhomogeneous deformation: the displacement gradient is not a constant
throughout the deformed body. For an inhomogeneous deformation, initially
straight lines not remain straight after deformation.

Stress
Stress - Force applied to a given area. Determines the concentration of force.
Therefore, stress (force per unit area) has the dimensions MLT-2L-2 = ML-1T2. Units commonly used in geology are Bar, Kbar, Dynes cm-2, Atmosphere,
Newton meter-2, Pascal, Gigapascal (GPa).
Force Mass x acceleration (F = ma)
The action that puts stationary objects in motion or Changes the motion of moving objects.
Differential Stress Unequal in different directions. Hydrostatic stress- uniform in all
directions
3 major types of differential stress
Compressional stress
Tensional stress
Shear stress
Stress act normal to a cube face, are known as normal stresses, and which act parallel to a
cube face, and are known as shear stresses. The normal stresses across the principal planes
are the principal stresses, often denoted as 1, 2 and 3 with the convention that 1>2>
3.

Compressional Stress
Push-together stress.
Shortens and thickens crust.
Associated with orogenesis (mountain building).

Tensional Stress
Pull-apart stress.
Thins and stretches crust.
Associated with rifting.

Stephen Marshak

Shear Stress
Slippage of one rock mass past another.
In shallow crust, shear is often
accommodated by bedding planes.

Strain
Changes in the shape or size of a rock body
caused by stress.
Strain occurs when stresses exceed rock
strength.
Strained rocks deform by folding, flowing, or
fracturing.

Strain Ellipsoid
Is the visualization of state of finite strain at a point. Principal axes are lines that remain perpendicular
before and after strain. Their lengths define the major, intermediate, and minor semi-axes of the strain
ellipse Axes x>y>z (1>2>3). Strain Ellipsoid is visualization of strain tensor (2nd rank). A final state
of "finite" strain may be reached by a variety of strain paths. Finite strain is final state; "incremental
strains" represent steps along path or strain increments that result in final finite state of strain.

Zones

Lines

Structures formed

Zone 1a

Lines that have been elongated only

Boudinaged

Zone
1b

Lines that underwent early

shortening followed by
elongation (net lengthening)

Remnants of disrupted folds and

isolated fold hinges

Zone 2

Lines that underwent early

shortening followed by
elongation (net shortening)

Folds that are becoming

unfolded and boudinaged

Zone 3

Lines that have been shortened only

Folds with large amplitudes and

short wavelengths

Measures of Strain
Change in linear dimension
a Extension (or elongation)

b Stretch

C Quadratic elongation

L L1 Lo

Lo
Lo

S = L1 = Lo L1Lo =1
Lo Lo
Lo

L1
Lo

= S2

= (1)2

dimensionless!

dimensionless!

dimensionless!

Change in right angles (change in angle between originally orthogonal

lines):
= tan Note: for small angular changes, tan

How Rocks Deform

Elastic deformation The rock returns to
original size and shape when stress removed.
When the (strength) of a rock is surpassed, it
either flows (ductile deformation) or fractures
(brittle deformation).
Brittle behavior occurs in the shallow crust;
ductile in the deeper crust.

Stephen Marshak

(contd)
Factors controlling rock strength and deformation style.

Temperature and confining pressure

Low T and P = brittle deformation
High T and P = ductile deformation

Rock type Mineral composition controls strength

Time Stress applied for
change

a long time generates

Reflection!
1. Show that the stress (force per unit area) has the
dimensions (ML-1T-2) and that strain (fractional
change of length or angle) is a dimensionless quantity.
2. Are there any units for the measurements strain?
What are the units for the measurement of strain?

3. What is the percentage shortening if a line initially 10

cm long is shortened progressively to 5 cm?
4. What are the units for the measurement of strainrate?
5. Based on shortening percent of Q. 3 calculate the

strain rate if shortening takes place in one year.

Answers
1. Force (mass X acceleration) has the dimensions (MLT-2). Area has
the dimensions (L2). Therefore, stress (force per unit area) has the
dimensions
(MLT-2L-2) = (ML-1T-2)
2. Since strain is the ratio of a change of length to an initial length has
no dimension. Hence there are no units for strain. A strain
generally expressed as a percentage change or as a fractional
change
3. If a line initially 10 cm long is shortened until it becomes 5 cm the
change in length is 5 cm and the strain (shortening) is 0.5 (no units)
or 50 percent (no units).
4. The dimensions of strain-rate are (T-1) so the that a strain rate
might be written as 10-5 sec-1,
5. The shortening of 50 percent (3 above) takes place in one year
(3.1536 x 107 sec) then the strain rate is
0.5/(3.1536 x 107 sec) = 15.8 x 10-9 sec-1

4.2. Primary Structures

Structures of rocks that are present before the onset of deformation are called
primary structures. They are original features of sedimentary or igneous rocks,
resulting from deposition or emplacement. Structures reflecting subsequent
deformation or metamorphism, which are the subject of most of this chapter,
are secondary structures.
Primary structures play an important role in the interpretation of the structure
of deformed areas. Less common, but of considerable value in areas where
they occur, are primary features that can be used to analyze the strain of the
deformed rock. These include pebbles and fossils in sedimentary rocks; and
vesicles, lapilli, and crystals in rocks of igneous origin.
As well as acting as markers, certain primary structures can also provide very
valuable additional information. These structures indicate the direction in
which the surrounding rocks get younger or, as it is generally expressed, the
younging direction of the sequence.
Some of the more reliable and commonly occurring structures, from the point
of view of younging criteria are discussed below;

Cross Bedding
Cross bedding is defined as a structure confined to a single
sedimentation unit and characterized by internal bedding or
lamination, called foreset bedding, inclined to the principal surface
of accumulation. The type of cross bedding used to determine the
younging direction is the one, in which the angle between the
foreset and the bed boundary is asymmetrical.

Ripple Marks
Ripple is the name given to a group of wavelike depositional structures that may form in
water or in air. Structures of this type vary in amplitude from a few millimeters to mega
ripples, such as sand dunes, which have amplitude measureable in meters or tens of meters.
They can be divided into two groups: Oscillation ripples and current ripples.
Oscillation ripples, in profile, are commonly seen to comprise angular ridges separated by
arcuate troughs. This difference between the shape of the ridge and that of trough, often
makes it possible to tell the direction of younging of oscillation ripple-marked sediments.
It is sometimes more difficult to determine the direction of younging from current ripples.
They are asymmetrical in profile but both the ridges and the troughs have the same shape, so
that when the structure is inverted their appearance is unchanged.
Thus the direction of younging cannot be determined from the shape of the structure alone.
However, in many cases, heavy minerals or organic matter accumulates in the ripple troughs
so that the latter can be distinguished from the crests of the ridges, and the direction of
younging can therefore be determined.

B
Ripple marks: (a) Oscillation type; (b) Current type.

Graded Bedding
In many clastic rocks there is a systematic variation in grain size within a bed, such
that the sediment at one side of the bed is coarse and becomes progressively finer
toward the other side. Such a bed is said to be graded and generally, although not
invariably, the coarse material is at the base or oldest side of the bed.
Sole Marking
The name sole marking, is given to certain irregularities in the interface between a
pelite and the coarser material (conglomerate, sandstone, or limestone) stratigraphy
overlying it. The structure is referred to as sole mark because it is generally observed
on the original lower surface of the sandstone after the pelite has disintegrated and
fallen away. These structures are commonly preserved in deformed rocks and
recognition of them, on the underside of the sandstone, gives the direction of
younging.
Dessication Cracks
Dessication cracks are a fairly common feature of sediments that have been deposited
on land. They are very commonly associated with the ephemeral lakes of arid regions.
They form when the water that has deposited the sediment drains away or evaporate,
leaving the sediment to dry out subaerially. Examination of this structure in presentday sediments reveals that the cracks that develop during drying have polygonal form
in plan and that, in section, the individual polygons of sediment become turned up at
the edges, so that they have a concave upper surface. This form is commonly
preserved in the rock and the upward concavity indicates the direction of younging.

4.3. Folds
Rocks are bent by crustal deformation into a
series of wave-like undulations called folds.
Most folds result from compressional stresses
which shorten and thicken the crust.

Stephen Marshak

4.3.1. Introduction
Folds form from curving, buckling, and bending of originally planar rock layers
(e.g., beds, foliation) through ductile deformation.
Practically, folds are defined by the attitude of their axis and/or hinge line, axial
plane.
Folds occur in any geologic layer such as bedding, lava flow layers, and foliation.
Folds range in size from mm to km, and are manifestations of ductile deformation
(i.e., form at depth where T, P are high and fracturing does not occur).
Parts of a fold
Limbs The two sides
of a fold.
Fold axis or hinge line A
line connecting points of
maximum curvature along
a fold.
Axial plane An
imaginary surface that
divides a fold
symmetrically.

4. 3.2 Classification & Nomenclature of folds

4.3.3 Common Types of Folds

Anticline Upfolded or arched rock layers.
Syncline Downfolds or rock troughs. (Think
sink)
Depending on their orientation, anticlines and
synclines can be described as

Symmetrical
Asymmetrical
Plunging

Anticline

Syncline

Anticlines and Synclines are common in fold

and thrust belts related to mountain belts.

Polyclinal Fold Folds with more than two axial plane (rare)
Conjugate fold: Has converging paired axial surfaces
Axial planes intersect along the axis (if cylindrical)
Axial plane may displace another axial plane
Box Fold : Conjugate folds with round hinge zones
Kink Fold: Conjugate fold with sharp hinge zones
Isoclinal fold: limbs are parallel to the axial plane.
Recumbent fold: fold with horizontal axial plane. Commonly isoclinal.
Monoclines Large, step-like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary
strata.
Domes -Upwarped circular or slightly elongated structure. Oldest rocks
in center, younger rocks outside.
Basins Downwarped circular or slightly elongated structure. Youngest
rocks are found near the center, oldest rocks on the flanks.

4.4. Foliation
Foliation: Any type of planar fabric in rock, including
bedding, cleavage, schistosity. Foliations are penetrative
(occur throughout) in samples at 10's of cm scale. Thus faults
are not foliations, nor are fractures and joints because the
latter are simply fractures and not related to internal
structure of rock.

Cleavage: Secondary fabric element (not bedding) formed

under low grade metamorphic conditions (or less) that allows
the rock to split along planes.
Foliations commonly developed in plane of maximum
flattening of strain ellipsoid or perpendicular to direction of
maximum shortening: Strain Ellipsoid Axes: X>Y>Z, so
foliation commonly in X-Y plane and perpendicular to Z.

Types of foliation
There are three common types of foliation. These are:Axial plane foliations
Shear (Mylonitic) foliations
Transposed foliations

Axial plane foliations are referred to as the surface generally

parallel to the axial plane of the fold in the hinge area.
However, it is important to realize that axial plane foliations
commonly are not strictly parallel to the axial planes of folds.
They are divided into;
(i) continuous,
(ii) spaced or disjunctive, and
(iii) crenulation.

Axial plane Foliations

Note that since the axial planes are oriented
perpendicular to the maximum compressional
stress direction, slatey cleavage or foliation should

also develop along these directions. Thus, slatey

cleavage or foliation is often seen to be parallel to
the axial planes of folds, and is sometimes
referred to axial plane cleavage or foliation.

Fractured/Spaced cleavage

Crenulation cleavage

Shear Foliation

Transposed Foliation

4.5. Lineations
Lineations: A fabric element that can be represented
by a line.
Type of Lineations:
Fold hinges,
Mullions: cusps and bulges between contrasting
lithologies due to mechanical incompatibilities
Rods: preserved fold hinges
Boudins: lineations formed by stretching and
necking of a layer.

Type of lineations: (a) Simple linear fabric defined by preferred orientation of linear bodies. (b) Combined
lineation and foliation defined by preferred orientation of elongate tabular bodies. (c) Linear fabric defined
by common axis of variably oriented, tabular bodies. (d) Linear fabric defined by penetrative folding. (e)
Lineation defined by intersection of two foliations.

4.6. Joints
Joints are a very common
rock structure.
They are fractures with no
offset.
Result from tectonic
stresses on rock mass.
Occur in parallel groups.

Contd
Usually planar
Usually form sets
Two or more sets are a system
Variable size
Spacing more or less consistent
Curved, irregular joints not part of a set are
nonsystematic joints

Importance of studying joints:

To understand the nature and sequence of deformation in an area.
To find out relationship between joints and faults and or folds.
Help to find out the brittle deformation in an area of construction (dams,
bridges, and power plants).
In mineral exploration to find out the trend and type of fractures and joints
that host mineralization which will help in exploration. Joints and fractures
serve as the plumping system for ground water flow in many area and they
are the only routes by which ground water can move through igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Joints and fractures porosity and permeability is very important for water
supplies and hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Joints orientations in road cuts greatly affect both construction and
maintenance. Those oriented parallel to or dip into a highway cut become
hazardous during construction and later because they provide potential
movement surfaces.
Chemical weathering tends to be concentrated along joints

Origin of Joints
Joints can be caused by a number of processes that create
tensional effective stress in rock:
Uplift and erosion
Residual stress
Tectonic deformation
Natural hydraulic fracturing

4.6.1. Terminology of Joints

Conjugate joints

Conjugate fractures are paired fracture systems, formed in the same time, and
produced by tension or shear.

Curved joints
Occur frequently and may be caused by the textural and compositional differences
within a thick bed or large rock mass or they may a result of changes in stress direction
or analysis.

Tectonic joints
Form at depth in response to abnormal fluid pressure and involve hydro fracturing.
They form mainly by tectonic stress and the horizontal compaction of sediment at depth
less than 3 km, where the escape of fluid is hindered by low permeability and
abnormally high pore pressure is created.

Hydraulic joints
Form as tectonic fractures by the pore pressure created due to the confined pressed
fluid during burial and vertical compaction of sediment at depth greater than 5 km.
Filled veins in low metamorphic rocks are one of the best of examples of hydraulic
fractures.

Unloading joints
Form near surface as erosion removes overburden and thermal elastic contraction
occurs. They form when more than half of the original overburden has been removed.
The present stress and tectonic activity may serve to orient these joints. Vertical
unloading fractures occur during cooling and elastic contraction of rock mass and may
occur at depths of 200 to 500 m.

Examples of joint arrays

Systematic

joints:

have a subparallel
orientation and regular spacing.
Joint set: joints that share a similar orientation
in same area.
Joint system: two or more joints sets in the
same area
Nonsystematic joints: joints that do not
share a common orientation and those highly
curved and irregular fracture surfaces. They
occur in most area but are not easily related to
a recognizable stress.

Example of Systematic joints

Release joints

Similar to unloading fractures but they form by release of stress. Orientation of release
joints is controlled by the rock fabric. Released joints form late in the history of an area
and is oriented perpendicular to the original tectonic compression that formed the
dominant fabric in the rock.
Release joints may also develop parallel to the fold axes when erosion begins and rock
mass that was under burial depth and lithification begins to cool and contract, these
joints start to propagate parallel to an existing tectonic fabric.
Sheared fractures may be straight or curved but usually can't be traced for long
distance.

Nontectonic joints
Sheeting joints: Those joints form subparallel to the surface topography. These joints
may be more observed in igneous rocks. Pacing within these fractures increases
downward. These fractures thought that they form by unloading overlong time when
erosion removes large quantities of the overburden rocks.
Columnar joints and Mud Cracks:
Columnar joints form in flows, dikes, sills and volcanic necks in response to cooling and
shrinking of the magma.

4.6.2. Genetic classification of Joints

From the point of view of fracture mechanics, crack tips have been related to
three modes of displacement, namely extensional or Mode I displacement,
and shear fractures of Modes II and III.
Mode I fracture (joints): it is the extensional fractures and formed by
opening with no displacement parallel to the fracture surface. In
extensional fractures the fracture plane is oriented parallel to 1 and 2
and perpendicular to 3.
Mode II and Mode III are shear fractures. These are faults like fractures
one of them is strike -slip and the other is dip-slip. Same fracture can
exhibit both mode II and mode III in different parts of the region.

4.6.3. Relation of joints to other structures

Joints may form during brittle folding in a position related to the fold axis
and axial surface as follows:
parallel
normal
oblique
Joints in fold-thrust belts (orogens) seem to form at depth under high pore

pressure.
Many form parallel to 1 and perpendicular to folds and strike, which is 3.
Joints are also formed adjacent to brittle faults, and movement along faults
usually produces a series of systematic joints.
Fractures form in pluton in response to cooling and later tectonic stress.
Many of these joints are filled with hydrothermal minerals as late stage
products.
Different types of joints are present with pluton (i.e. longitudinal, and cross
joints)

Position of joints related to the fold axis and axial surface

Veins
Veins are mineralized fractures. Because fractures channel fluids,
minerals are commonly deposited forming veins. Terminology for
veins is similar to joints, especially if the veins originated from
joint fractures.

Veins
Two common occurrences are:
en echelon veins (right) and
stockwork veins (below).

4.7. Faults & Shear zones

Breaks in rock that exhibit offset.

Exist at a variety of scales.
Sudden movements along faults are the cause
of most earthquakes.
Classified by movement

Horizontal
Vertical
Oblique

Faults grind rocks to create fault gouge.

Walls of a fault bear evidence of this
grinding as slickensides.
Slicks reveal
fault direction.

Criteria for faulting:

Repetition or omission of stratigraphic units asymmetrical
repetition
Displacement of recognizable marker such as (fossils, color,
composition, texture .etc.).
Truncation of structures, beds or rock units.
Occurrence of fault rocks (mylonite or cataclastic or both)
Abundant veins, silicification or other mineralization along
fracture may indicate faulting.
Drag Units appear to be pulled into a fault during movement
(usually within the drag fold and the result is thrust fault)
Reverse drag occurs along listric normal faults.
Slickensides along a fault surface
Topographic characteristics such as drainages that are
controlled by faults and fault scarps.

A. Thrust fault resulting in repeated section in a vertical drill hole. B. Normal fault resulting in missing section in
a vertical drill hole.

Change in fault character with depth for a steeply dipping fault. Note the change in fault zone width and types of
structures with depth.

4.7.1. Fault terminology

Fault plane: Surface that the movement has taken
place within the fault.
Hanging wall: The rock mass resting on the fault
plane.
Footwall: The rock mass beneath the fault plane.
Slip: Describes the movement parallel to the fault
plane (fault displacement).
Dip slip: Describes the up and down movement
parallel to the dip direction of the fault.
Strike slip: Applies where movement is parallel to
strike of the fault plane.
Oblique slip: Is a combination of strike slip and
dip slip.
Net slip (true displacement): Is the total amount of
motion measured parallel to the direction of
motion
Separation: The amount op apparent offset of a
faulted surface, measured in specified direction. There
are strike separation, dip separation, and net
separation.
Heave: The horizontal component of dip separation
measured perpendicular to strike of the fault.
Throw: The vertical component measured in vertical
plane containing the dip.

Dip slip

Net slip

Throw

Heave

Fault blocks classified as

Footwall (rock mass

below the fault)

Hanging wall
(rock mass
above the fault)

4.7.2. Nature of movement along faults

Dip-slip faults Motion is parallel to fault
dip.
Strike-slip faults Motion is parallel to fault
strike.
Oblique-slip faults Motion is both parallel
to fault strike and dip.

Dip Slip Faults

May produce long, low cliffs called fault
scarps.

Two dominant types

Normal fault
Reverse Fault
Thrust (a low angle reverse fault)

Andersons classification of faults

Anderson 1942 defined three fundamental possibilities of stress regimes and
stress orientation that produce the three types of faults (Normal, thrust, and
strike-slip). Note that 1> 2> 3.

Anderson's theory of Fault Mechanics: (a) high-angle normal faults,

(b) low-angle reverse (thrust) faults, (c) Strike-slip faults

4.7.3. Normal faults

Hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
Accommodate lengthening or extension of the crust.
Exhibit a variety of scales.
Larger scale normal faults are associated with
fault-block mountains (Basin and Range of
Nevada).
Normal fault bounded valleys are called grabens
(Dobi graben, Afar).
Normal fault bounded ridges are called horsts.

Fig. 11.17b
W. W. Norton

Detachment Fault
Accommodating large amounts of extension in the upper crust.
Prior to the recognition that low angle normal faults are widespread
features of the extended crust, they were often mapped as thrusts (which makes no
sense) or unconformities.
Where low angle faults are common, a "stratigraphic section will show many
apparent gaps.

Two models for accommodating large amounts of

extension in the upper crust. From Block and Royden
(1984).

4.7.4. Thrust faults

Hanging wall block moves up relative to the

footwall block
Reverse faults have dips greater than 45o and
thrust faults have dips less then 45o
Accommodate shortening of the crust
Strong compressional forces

Thrust faults - A special case of reverse fault.

Hanging wall block moves up relative to the

footwall block
Thrust faults are characterized by a low dip
angle (less then 45o).
Accommodate shortening of the crust
Strong compressional forces

Fig. 11.17a

4.7.5. Strike-slip faults

Dominant displacement is horizontal and
parallel to the strike of the fault
Types of strike-slip faults

Right-lateral as you face the fault, the block on

the opposite side of the fault moves to the right
Left-lateral as you face the fault, the block on
the opposite side of the fault moves to the left
Dextral

Sinistral

Strike-slip fault

Transform fault
Large strike-slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere
Accommodates motion between two large crustal plates
Types of transform faults are:
Ridge-Ridge
Ridge-Arc
Arc-Arc

Transcurrent fault
types of strike-slip faults, which are confined to the crust. These are: Indent-linked faults
Tear faults
Transfer faults

Features of Strike-Slip Faults

Restraining or compressional bends-- folds and
thrusts
Releasing or extensional relays--- depression
Pull-apart basins

Strain ellipsoid

4.7.6. Shear Zones

Shear zones are produced by both homogeneous and inhomogeneous simple shear or
oblique motion and are thought of as zones of ductile shear
Shear zones on all scales are zones of weakness.
Associate with the formation of mylonite.
Presence of sheath folds.
Shear zones may act both as closed and open geochemical systems with respect to
fluids and elements.
Shear zones generally have parallel sides.
Displacement profiles along any cross section through shear zone should be identical
Shear zones are classified by Ramsay (1980) as:
1) brittle
2) brittle-ductile
3) ductile

Shear sense indicators in mylonitic shear zones (after White et al., 1986)

1.rotation of a pre-existing or generated foliation;

2. rotation of deformed markers;
3. asymmetry of intrafolial folds;
4. normal kink-bands (microshears) in the margin or
central fabric of the shear zone;
5. asymmetry of sheared porphyroclasts;
6. rotation of fragments owing to shear fractures;
7. rotation of fragments owing to tensile fractures;
8. asymmetry of trails growing around rotating
clasts;
9. asymmetry of trails growing around non-rotating
clasts;
10. asymmetry of elongated recrystallized quartz
grains;
11. asymmetry of dragged-out mica porphyroclasts;
12. asymmetry of quartz c-axis fabrics; and
13. The relationship between S-C angle.

Riedel Shears- subsidiary strike slip shear fractures

set of conjugate shear fractures (R,R) that develop in strike-slip fault
systems
R- synthetic faults
R- antithetic faults
P-through cutting; link R,R

Shear sense indicators

Sibson, 1977

4.8. Introduction to Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is a unifying theory that attempts to explain natural phenomena such as
earthquakes and volcanoes. The earth's surface had been mapped into a series of plates.
The seven major plates are: Eurasian, Pacific, Australian, North American, South
American, African and Antarctic - all comprise both oceanic and continental crust. For
example, the North America Plate includes most of North America plus half of the northern
part of the Atlantic Ocean. (The Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic, but it does include the
part of California which lies to the west of the Sand Andreas Fault.)
There are also numerous small plates (e.g., Jaun de Fuca, Nazca, Scotia, Philippine,
Caribbean, Arabian).
Boundaries between these plates are of three types: divergent (i.e., spreading), convergent,
and transform.

Why Study Plate Tectonics?

Geographic distribution of geologic hazards such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions controlled by plate
tectonics,
Many global and regional political and economic problems stem
from uneven distribution of geologic resources such as oil and
metal ores.
Formation of geologic resources is controlled by plate
movement.

THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

The theory of Plate Tectonics is based around the idea that the crust is
broken up into a series of large crustal plates which "float" on the
asthenosphere below.
Motions in the asthenosphere, called convection currents, cause plates to
move away from each other at the rising limb of a convection current, forming
a constructive plate boundary where new oceanic crust is formed.
As plates continue to move outwards, eventually the oceanic plate may be
subducted at a destructive plate boundary.
Supporting evidence for Plate Tectonics Theory:
1. Discovery of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge - Ocean floor mapping led to the discovery
of a global mid-oceanic ridge mountain chain zigzagging around the continents.
2. Magnetic Variations on the Ocean Floor (Palaeomagnetism) - during
cooling, minerals in the Basaltic rock, align themselves along the Earth's magnetic filed
- forming a permanent record of magnetic field in the rocks. Periodic variations in the
earth's magnetic field have produced almost symmetrical magnetic patterns in the
rocks either side of the Mid-Atlantic ridge (alternating stripes of magnetically different
rocks).

Supporting evidence for Plate Tectonics Theory:

3. Theory of Sea-Floor Spreading
Hess, put forward an idea that mid-ocean ridges are a structurally weak point

where magma is able to rise to the surface and where due to the upwelling and
eruption of this material, new crust is created.
This helps, to support the continental drift theory as it helps to explain how the
continents may be moving, as they are carried on the 'spreading' ocean floor.
Hess's theory was supported by the fact that the youngest rocks are nearest to the
ridge (showing the present day magnetic polarity in their mineral alignment) and the
oldest rocks (showing reversed polarity) are further away from the ridge.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift back in 1912.
The theory suggests that there has been large-scale movement of continents
across the globe and that during the Permian period, 225 million years ago, all
the continents were joined as one super continent Pangaea.
Around 200 million years ago, Pangaea split into Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.
The continents have continued to move and today's configuration of
continents represents the most recent stage in their movement.
Continental Drift theory is based on the following evidence
THE JIGSAW FIT OF THE CONTINENTS

PLANT / ANIMAL FOSSILS

THE RULES OF PLATE TECTONICS

1. Continental crust is less dense, or lighter, than Oceanic crust so it

doesn't sink. It is never destroyed and is considered permanent.

2. Oceanic crust is heavier so it can sink below Continental crust. It is
constantly being formed and destroyed at ocean ridges and trenches.
3. Continental crust can carry on beyond the edges of the land and finally
end far below the sea. This explains why the edges of all the continents
don't have deep trenches right up against their coastlines.
4. Plates can never overlap. This means that they must either collide and
both be pushed up to form mountains, or one of the plates must be
pushed down into the mantle and be destroyed.
5. There can never be gaps between plates, so if two plates move apart, as
in the middle of the Atlantic, new rock will be formed to fill the space.
6. We know the Earth isn't getting bigger or smaller, so the amount of
new crust being formed must be the same as the amount being destroyed.
7. Plate movement is very slow. This is partly why Wegener's original
ideas were ignored. Nobody could 'see' the continents moving. When the
plates make a sudden movement we call it an Earthquake, and it's the
only time we are directly aware of the plates moving.

Supercontinent Cycle
Plate movements led to assembly of
Pangaea by the Late Paleozoic Era.
Fragmentation of Pangaea began in
the Triassic Period.
Continued plate movement has led to
the present configuration
The supercontinent cycle of Tuzo
Wilson proposed that super-continents
have formed and fragmented repeatedly
throughout Earths history on a cycle of
500 million years.

The Wilson Cycle

Developed by J. Tuzo Wilson (a Canadian!)
Embryonic - Rift valleys of East Africa
Youthful - Red Sea, Gulf of California
Mature - Atlantic Ocean (growing)
Declining - Pacific Ocean (shrinking)
Terminal - Mediterranean (closing)

The Wilson cycle

Evidence from continental geology supports two and possibly
as many as five complete opening and closings of all ocean
basins
Spreading rates suggest that crust forms at 2.8km2/year
Therefore 310km2 of ocean crust could have formed in 110
billion years
Over the past two billion years as many as 20 ocean basins
could have been created or destroyed

PLATE BOUNDARIES
It is important to recognize that plates are not just pieces of continental or

oceanic crust, but that, along with the crustal rock, they include a considerable
thickness of the rigid upper part of the mantle.
Together, the crust and the rigid part of the mantle make up the lithosphere,
which has a total thickness of approximately 100 km.
At spreading centers, the lithospheric mantle may be very thin because the
upward convective motion of hot mantle material generates temperatures that
are too high for the existence of a significant thickness of rigid lithosphere.
The fact that the plates include both crustal material and lithospheric
mantle material makes it possible for a single plate to be comprised of both
oceanic and continental crust. For example, the North American Plate includes
most of North America, plus half of the northern Atlantic Ocean. Similarly the
South American plate extends across the western part of the southern Atlantic
Ocean, while the European and African plates each comprise part the eastern
Atlantic Ocean.
Immediately beneath the base of the lithosphere lies the partial melting zone
(the low velocity zone) of the upper mantle - which is part of the asthenosphere.
It is thought that the relative lack of strength and rigidity of the partial
melting zone facilitates the sliding of the lithospheric plates.

Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries are spreading boundaries, where new oceanic crust is
created from molten mantle material.
Most are associated with the oceanic-ridges, and the crustal material created
at a spreading boundary is always oceanic in character.
Spreading is caused by the convective movement within the mantle, which
has the effect of pulling the plates apart.
Magma from the mantle pushes up to fill the voids left by spreading.
A variety of volcanic rocks (all of similar composition) are created in the
upper part, including pillow lavas which are formed where magma is pushed
out into sea-water.
Beneath that are vertical dykes intruded into cracks resulting from the
spreading. The base of the oceanic crust is comprised of gabbro (i.e., mafic
intrusive rock).
By oceanic we mean that it is mafic igneous rock (e.g., basalt or gabbro, rich
in ferro-magnesian minerals) as opposed to the felsic igneous rocks (such as
granite, which is dominated by quartz and feldspar) which are typical of
continental areas.
Another term for mafic igneous rock is SIMA (silicon and magnesium rich),
and another term for felsic igneous rock is SIAL (silica and aluminum rich).
Spreading rates vary quite considerable, from 2 to 4 cm/y in the Atlantic, to
between 6 and 18 cm/y in the Pacific.

Divergent boundary of two continental

plates. Creates a rift valley (Example:
East African Rift).

Convergent Boundaries
Convergent boundaries, where two plates move towards
each other, are of three types depending on what type of
crust is present on either side of the boundary (i.e.,
ocean-ocean, ocean-continent or continent-continent).

Transform Boundaries
Transform boundaries exist where one plate slides past another, without
production or destruction of crustal material.
Most transform faults connect segments of mid-ocean ridges and are thus
ocean-ocean boundaries.
Some transform faults connect continental parts of plates. An example is the
San Andreas Fault, which connects the Juan de Fuca ridge with the Gulf of
California ridge.

Transform-fault boundary where the North

American and
Pacific plates are moving past each other
(Example: San Andreas Fault in California).

Summary

How Are Plate Movement and

Motion Determined?
Magnetic anomalies
Matching crustal features and anomalies
Direct measurement
Hot spots

Magnetic anomalies
Average rate of plate movement can be determined by
dividing the age of a magnetic anomaly in oceanic crust by
the distance between that anomaly and the present midocean ridge.
The motion of one continent relative to another can be
assessed by moving matching anomalies on either side of
the present ocean ridge back together along the present
ocean ridge.

Hot spots
A fixed reference point is required to determine absolute motion
of a plate. A hot spot such as lies beneath the island of Hawaii is
a stationary plume of rising mantle material.
Drift of the Pacific plate across the hot spot produced the
Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts.

What Is the Driving Mechanism?

The uneven distribution of heat in Earth ultimately drives plate
tectonics through the process of convection.
Two models, both of which entail rotating thermal convection
cells, have been proposed.
In one model the convection cells are restricted to the
asthenosphere

In the other model the convection cells

involve the entire mantle.