WHAT IS CONDUCTIVITY

AND HOW IS IT
MEASURED?
A Technical Handbook For Industry
By Joe Novak

Hach Company, 2003

All rights reserved.

Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The Properties of Water ______________________________________________3
Ion Product Constant of Water _________________________________________3

CHAPTER 2 BASIC THEORY OF CONDUCTIVITY

What is Conductivity? ________________________________________________4
Why is Conductivity of Interest? _______________________________________4
Electrical Conductivity in Liquids ______________________________________4
Polarization ________________________________________________________5
Mhos versus Siemens _________________________________________________5
The Conductivity Spectrum ____________________________________________5
TDS Relationship to Conductivity and Resistivity__________________________6
Conductivity/Concentration Relationships ________________________________6
High Purity Water Measurements _______________________________________7
pH versus Conductivity Measurements___________________________________7
Effects of Temperature On Solution Conductivity __________________________8
Temperature Compensation ____________________________________________8
Non-linear Temperature Compensation __________________________________8
Resistance Measurement of Conductivity_________________________________8

CHAPTER 3 CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS

Contacting Style Sensors _____________________________________________10
Electrode Materials __________________________________________________11
Non-contacting (Electrodeless) Style Sensors ____________________________11
When To Use Contacting Versus Electrodeless Style Sensors________________12
Sensor Installation __________________________________________________12
Analyzers__________________________________________________________14
Analyzer Installation ________________________________________________14
Interconnect (Extension) Cable ________________________________________15
Calibration_________________________________________________________15
Dry Method Calibration ______________________________________________15
Wet Method Calibration______________________________________________15
Maintenance Schedule/Cleaning _______________________________________15

CHAPTER 4 COMMON APPLICATIONS

Demineralizers/Deionizers ____________________________________________18
Heat Exchanger Leakage _____________________________________________18
Distilled Water _____________________________________________________18
Chemical Peeling ___________________________________________________18
Boiler Operation ____________________________________________________18
Cooling Towers _____________________________________________________19
Rinsing ___________________________________________________________19
Semiconductors_____________________________________________________19
Metals ____________________________________________________________19
Acid Manufacture ___________________________________________________20
Scrubbing Towers ___________________________________________________20
Pulp and Paper Making ______________________________________________20
Desalinization ______________________________________________________20
High Purity Water___________________________________________________20
Reverse Osmosis ____________________________________________________20

BIBLIOGRAPHY _____________________________________________21
GLOSSARY ________________________________________________22
2

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
The Properties of Water

Ion Product Constant of Water

Water is the most common substance and the most important. In vapor, liquid, or solid form it covers more than seventy percent of the Earths surface and is a major
component of the atmosphere. Water is also an essential
requirement for all forms of life, most living things are
largely made up of water. Human beings, for example, are
about two-thirds water.

Water molecules are in continuous motion, even at low temperatures. Occasionally, when two water molecules collide, a
hydrogen ion is transferred from one molecule to the other
(Figure 1). The water molecule that loses the hydrogen ion
becomes a negatively charged hydroxide ion. The water
molecule that gains the hydrogen ion becomes a positively
charged hydronium ion. This process is commonly referred
to as the self-iionization of water.

Pure water is a clear, colorless, and odorless liquid that is

made up of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. The
Italian scientist Stanislao Cannizzarro defined the chemical
formula of the water molecule, H2O, in 1860.
Water is a powerful substance that acts as a medium for
many reactions, which is why it is often referred to as the
universal solvent. Although pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, natural impurities found in water can
transform it into a relatively good conductor. Water has
unusually high boiling (100C/212F) and freezing
(0C/32F) points. It also shows unusual volume changes
with temperature. As water-cools, it contracts to a maximum density of 1 gram per cubic centimeter at 4C (39F).
Further cooling actually causes it to expand, especially
when it reaches the freezing point. The fact that water is
denser as a liquid than as a solid explains why an ice cube
floats in a beverage, or why a body of water freezes from the
top down. While the density property of water is relatively
unimportant for beverage cooling, it has a tremendous
impact on the survival of the aquatic life inhabiting a body
of water.
The physical and chemical properties of water results in
part, from the strong attraction that hydrogen atoms have
for each other in water molecules. Because of this phenomenon, the energy required to melt ice and boil liquid water
is greater than might otherwise be predicted.
Salts and contaminates in water disassociate into components called ions. In many cases, ions in water are called
impurities (especially when referring to pure water), while in
other aqueous solutions such as hydrochloric acid or sodium
hydroxide, the ions define the actual chemical composition.

Figure 1. Self Ionization of Water

The self-ionization of water is limited and can be written as

a simple dissociation (Figure 2). In fact, at 25C in pure
water, each concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide
ions is only 1 x 10-7 M. In theoretically pure water, the
result of this disassociation allows a minute electrical current to flow whose value is 0.056 microSiemens/cm (S/cm)
or 18.21 megohms cm) at 25C. It is important to note that
the amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions produced from
this reaction are equal. This is why pure water is often
described as a neutral solution.

Figure 2. Dissociation of Water

In all other aqueous solutions, the relative concentrations of

each of these ions are unequal. In fact, when more of one
ion is added to the solution, the concentration of the other
decreases. The following equation describes this relationship:
[H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14 (mol/L)2 = KW
The product of the hydrogen and hydroxide ions is always
equal to 1 x 10-14 (mol/L)2. Therefore, if the concentration
of one ion increases by a factor of 10, then the concentration of the other ion must decrease by a factor of 10. Since
this relationship is constant, it is given the symbol KW,
product constant for water.
which is called the ion-p

Chapter 2 BASIC THEORY OF CONDUCTIVITY

What is Conductivity?
Electrolytic conductivity is the measure of the ability of a
solution to conduct an electric current and is sometimes
referred to as specific conductance. Electrolytic conductivity is defined as the inverse or reciprocal of electrical
resistance (ohms) and uses measurement units called mhos
where one millionth of a mho equals one micromho.
Resistivity as the inverse of conductivity is defined as the
measure of the ability of a solution to resist an electric current flow.
Water is a polar solvent. That is, the water molecule has an
uneven distribution of electrons, causing one portion of the
molecule to be somewhat positive, and another somewhat
negative. As a result, water molecules cannot carry a net
charge. Therefore, water is not an efficient conductor of
electrical current unless impurities or dissolved substances
are present.
In an electric field, water molecules will gravitate toward
both electrodes (Figure 3). However, dissolving specific substances to introduce impurities in water can greatly increase
its conductivity. These dissolved substances are called
electrolytes. Electrolytes in water dissociate into positively
and negatively charged ions that are free to move about the
solution. In a beaker containing a pair of electrodes connected to a DC voltage source, positively charged particles
will migrate toward the negative electrode (anode) and negatively charged particles will migrate toward the positive
electrode (cathode). The migration of particles is the electric
current flow.
The conductivity measurement is directly affected by the
number of dissolved ions in the solution and will increase as
the quantity and mobility of ions increases. The higher the
conductivity reading, the better ability the solution has to
conduct electricity. Conversely, the lower the conductivity
reading, the poorer ability the solution has to conduct
electricity.

Why is Conductivity of Interest?

Conductivity is an indication of the quantity of ions contained in a solution. In ultrapure water, for example, minute
amounts of ions affecting the conductivity measurement by
as little as 0.05 S/cm can produce unwanted deposits on
plated parts, cause significant problems in manufacturing
semiconductors, and damage turbine components used in
the power industry. In the manufacture of sulfuric acid
(approximately 100,000 S/cm for a 99% concentration of

H2SO4 at 25C), the large number of H2SO4 ions dissociated

in solution defines the concentration of the acid. The conductivity of the solutions used in these various applications
must be measured and kept within acceptable limits. Just as
temperature is controlled for maximum process efficiencies,
so too must conductivity be controlled.

Electrical Conductivity in Liquids

The conduction of electricity through all forms of matter is
normally associated with the flow of electrons. However, the
mechanism of electrical conduction through a liquid is significantly different than electrical conduction through a
solid (Figure 3). When a potential is applied to a solid conductor, the flow of current is virtually instantaneous, and is
proportional to the applied potential. Additionally, different
types of materials conduct electrical charges with different
efficiencies. In metals, there are free electrons that are available for conduction, even at fairly low temperatures. One
major characteristic of metals is that resistances increase as
the metal is heated because of the decrease in electron
mobility. Conversely, the resistance of semiconductors and
insulators decreases with increasing temperature because
the number of charge carriers increases. In semiconductors
(and insulators), more energy is required to excite electrons
to be available to conduct a charge.
In ionic compounds, entire ions may diffuse to conduct electricity, though these have very low mobilities. Applying a
potential to a liquid conductor causes current to be carried
through the solution by dissolved particles (ions) that have
electrical charges. Dissolved ions move slower than electrons, depending on their geometry, the applied potential,
and the temperature of the solution.

Figure 3. Method of Conduction in Liquid and

Solid Conductors

Smaller ions generally move through a solution more rapidly than larger ones. The hydrogen ion [H+] and the
hydroxyl ion [OH-] are extremely mobile due to their geometry, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Size of Ions Relative to Each Other

Mhos versus Siemens

The electrical measurement of conductivity is the inverse
(reciprocal) of ohms (1/ohms) or mhos. In the 1960s, the
international committee for electrical measurement stated
that all measurements (electrical) will be named after the
person(s) who pioneered that measurement. In the 1800s,
Dr. Siemens performed electrical experiments on the resistivity of water. Thus, the unit of measurement for conductivity was changed from mhos to Siemens, and is exactly the
same measurement:
1/ohm = 1 mho = 1 Siemen
1000 micromhos/cm = 1000 microSiemens/cm (S/cm)

The Conductivity Spectrum

Polarization
When a DC voltage is applied to the electrodes of a conductivity sensor, positive (H+) ions and negative (OH-) ions
move to the positive and negative electrodes of the sensor
(Figure 5). The ions gain or lose electrons, and are converted
to hydrogen gas at the negative electrode and oxygen gas at
the positive electrode. These gases effectively form an insulation barrier at the electrodes, increasing the apparent
resistance that in turn decreases the apparent conductivity
of the solution. Using an AC voltage, at 60 Hertz or higher,
and increasing the cross sectional area of the electrodes, virtually eliminates the effects associated with polarization.
However, there are practical limits to increasing the electrode surface area. Electrode size cannot become too large
due to the physical constraints of sensor installation.

If all salts and free ions are removed from water, what
remains is referred to as theoretically pure water. Theoretically pure water has, at 25C, a specific conductance of
0.056 S/cm and a resistivity of 18.21 megohms cm. High
quality condensed steam and distilled or demineralized
water have specific conductances of 1.0 S/cm or less. This
value is caused by about 0.5 ppm of dissolved salts. Table 1
and Figure 6 (on the next page) show typical conductivity
ranges of various substances.

Table 1. Conductivity Ranges of Common

Solutions
Pure Water_____________________0.05 S/cm
Demineralized Water _____________0.1 to 1.0 S/cm
Distilled Water __________________1 to 10 S/cm
Tap Water _____________________100 to 1000 S/cm
Polluted Water __________________1000 to 10,000 S/cm
Sea Water _____________________30,000 to 50,000 S/cm
5% Sodium Chloride Solution ______70,000 S/cm
10% Sulphuric Acid Solution _______140,000S/cm

Figure 5. Demonstration of Polarization

Figure 6. Specific Conductances of Various Solutions

TDS Relationship to Conductivity

and Resistivity
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) is the amount of solids dissolved in a water sample. SS (Suspended Solids) is the
amount of solids that have not dissolved into a water sample, or solids that are insoluble in water. TS (Total Solids) is
the sum of TDS and SS. In laboratory analysis, measurements of these parameters are made by filtering and weighing to determine SS, then drying and weighing to determine
TDS.
In a process stream, TDS is commonly measured with a conductivity analyzer. However, this measurement is only an
approximation because it is based on a multiplication factor

of 0.4 to 0.75 times the raw conductivity value. The variation is due to the type of dissolved solid(s) that are in the
sample. Table 2 can be used to convert between conductivity, resistivity, and TDS.

Conductivity/Concentration
Relationships
Different solutions with different conductivities, do not
always have directly proportional concentrations of salts or
solids in solution. In dilute solutions, an increase in conductivity is linear with an increase in concentration of the solution provided an electrolyte is dissolved in the solution and
there are no interactions between the solution and the dissolved electrolyte. When these two conditions are met, the

Table 2. Conductivity/Resistivity/TDS Conversions

Conductivity
(S/cm)
at 25C
Ultrapure Water
0.056
0.059
0.063
0.067
0.072
0.077
0.084
0.091
0.100
High Purity Water
0.111
0.125
0.143
0.167
0.200
0.250
0.333
0.500
1.000

Resistivity
(ohms cm)
at 25C

Dissolved Solids
Parts/million
(ppm)

18,000,000
17,000,000
16,000,000
15,000,000
14,000,000
13,000,000
12,000,000
11,000,000
10,000,000

0.0277
0.0294
0.0313
0.0333
0.0357
0.0384
0.0417
0.0455
0.0500

9,000,000
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000

0.0556
0.0625
0.0714
0.0833
0.100
0.125
0.167
0.250
0.500

Conductivity
(S/cm)
at 25C
Pure Water
1.110
1.250
1.430
1.670
2.000
2.500
3.330
5.000
10.00

Resistivity
(ohms cm)
at 25C

Dissolved Solids
Parts/million
(ppm)

900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000

0.556
0.625
0.714
0.833
1.000
1.250
1.670
2.500
5.000

dissolved electrolyte is said to be completely dissociated. An

example is sodium chloride (NaCl). In solution, NaCl forms
Na+ and Cl- ions which exist as separate entities and are
individually surrounded by water molecules. The water molecules form a barrier around the ions. Being separate, the
Na+ and Cl- ions are in a state capable of carrying current.
This not the case with all electrolytes. When Ammonia,
(NH3), is dissolved in water, it reacts with the water to form
Ammonium Ions, (NH4+) and OH- Ions. (NH3+H2O > NH4+
+ OH-)
The attraction between the NH4+ and OH- ions is so great
that the barrier created by the surrounding water molecules
cannot keep them all apart. The NH4+ and OH- ions constantly break through the water molecule barrier to form
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Consequently, the number
of ions available to carry electric current is quite small and
the resulting conductivity is lower than that of the completely dissociated solution.
Plotting concentration versus conductivity curves graphically portrays another important physical property of solutions. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is an example of this. It is
completely dissociated in low concentrations and its conductivity is directly proportional to concentration. The
H2SO4 in the solution dissociates to form H+ and HSO4ions. At a specific point of concentration, the attraction
between the ions breaks down the weakened water molecule
barrier and the total number of ions in solution is at the
maximum. At this point, the conductivity of the solution
reaches a maximum value. Any further increase in the concentration of the solution results in more and more ions
coming together, or associating, producing fewer ions available to conduct current. The curve of concentration versus
conductivity (Figure 7) for sulfuric acid begins to drop
which, in effect, results in two (or more) concentration values for the same conductivity.

Figure 7. Concentration versus Conductivity for

Sulfuric Acid

High Purity Water Measurements

High purity water is defined as water specially processed to
reduce or eliminate suspended solids, dissolved solids,
organic, ionic and microbiological contaminants; this term
is commonly used in the power, microelectronics and pharmaceutical industry.
In a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl), the sodium and
chloride ions disassociate, providing the vast majority of
ions capable of carrying current. In this solution, only the
current carrying capability of the Na+ and Cl- ions are
measured while the concentration of H+ and OH- ions in the
water are ignored because there concentration is only about
1/10,000,000th equivalent weight per liter of solution. For
example, in a 0.1% solution of NaCl in water, this would
represent approximately 1/10,000,000th gram of H+, and
20/10,000,000th grams of OH-, as compared to four grams
of Na+ and six grams of Cl-. As the Na+ and Cl- ions are
removed from the solution, a point is reached where the H+
and OH- ions constitute an appreciable percentage of the
ions present in the solution. At this point, the contribution
of the H+ and OH- ions to the conductivity of the solution
can no longer be disregarded. When the concentration of the
H+ and OH- ions, and the Na+ and Cl- ions are equal, the
concentration of the conductivity solution value of H+ and
OH- ions is four times greater than Na+ and Cl- ions.

pH versus Conductivity
Measurements
A frequently asked question when making water quality
measurements is whether conductivity or pH should be
measured.
pH is specific to hydrogen ions it will not respond to other
ions that may be present in solution. For example, if iron
sulfate were dissolved in the sulfuric acid solution discussed
above, the measurement of pH, the acid concentration,
would be unaffected. However, because conductivity
responds to all ions present, the measurement of conductivity will change with changes in iron sulfate content, while
the acid content remains constant. When determining
whether to measure pH or conductivity, always consider
solution concentrations and ion activity.
Example: Should pH or conductivity be used to measure the
concentration of sulfuric acid? This depends on the parameters of the process. If the concentration of the acid is less
than 0.5%, pH or conductivity measurement could be used.
If the acid concentration is greater, conductivity measurement should be used. The limitation for using pH measurement is that the hydrogen sensitive measuring electrode
becomes saturated at high concentrations of hydrogen ions.
Conductivity sensors are not hampered by high concentrations of hydrogen ions.

Effects of Temperature on
Solution Conductivity

Figure 8. Temperature vs. Conductivity

In a solid, electrons move almost instantly upon the application of a voltage potential. In a solution, the electron
charge is carried by ions. Therefore, the applied potential,
species and concentration of the ion, and temperature of the
solution determine the speed at which the charge is transferred.
The resistance of a solid conductor has a positive temperature coefficient. Resistance increases with increasing temperature. Solid conductors vary chemically and possess
different positive temperature coefficients.
In solutions, ion mobility increases with increasing temperature. This increase in ion mobility means that ions will
carry more electrons per unit of time, resulting in a decrease
in solution resistance and a corresponding increase of conductivity which is a negative temperature coefficient.
The mobility of the dissociated ions depends on the temperature of the solution, and is not always linear because of the
contaminants in solution.

Temperature Compensation
Electrical conduction in aqueous solution is related to the
temperature, solution concentration, and the specific conductivity of the ions in the solution (Figure 8). Temperature
compensation corrects the conductivity measured at the
sample temperature to what that value would be if the sample was at a reference temperature (normally 25C).
Solution conductivity varies with ion concentration as well
as temperature and must be related to conductivity measurements at a reference temperature. The temperature coefficient (TC or temperature compensation factor) of
conductivity solutions in water is typically positive, linear,
and ranges between 2% and 7% per C, depending on the
nature and concentration of the conducting ions. Water
solutions typically have a compensation factor of 2% per C.
An analyzer or meter that is properly temperature compensated will read conductivity corrected to the reference temperature and the temperature coefficient curve, regardless of
sample temperature.
For example, water with a TC of 2% per C (0.02) and
500 S/cm at 25C, would actually read 510 S/cm at 26C,
an increase of 10 S/cm, if the measurement was not properly temperature compensated.
Information on specific temperature coefficients for most
chemicals can be found in published reference books and
periodicals.
The overall accuracy of a conductivity system is governed
to a large extent by the accuracy of its temperature compensator rather than by any other single factor and, many
times, by all other factors combined.

Non-linear Temperature
Compensation
In high purity water (1-18.3 megohms cm), temperature
compensation is non-linear. The conductivity versus temperature is not as easily defined. Special resistivity instruments are used to monitor high purity water and have
pre-programmed electronics for handling the conductivity
versus temperature equation.

Resistance Measurement of
Conductivity
Measuring the resistance of the solution and calculating its
reciprocal determine conductance. The Whetstone Bridge
(Figure 9), due to its inherent accuracy, is normally used to
make this resistance measurement. The conductivity sensor
forms one section of the bridge (R1 and R2), and from the
balancing arm (R3 and Rs), the resistance of the solution
being measured can be calculated.
A practical means of providing temperature compensation is
to introduce into the bridge circuit a resistive element (Rt)
that will change with temperature at the same rate as the
solution being measured. This temperature compensator arm
of the Whetstone Bridge can be:

Manuala potentiometer calibrated in temperature.

Figure 9. Whetstone Bridge

Automatican RTD or thermistor in good thermal contact with the sample being measured.
Regardless of the type of device used to accomplish the temperature measurement, accurate compensation for temperature changes requires the temperature coefficient
compensator to match that of the solution being measured,
and that the temperature compensator be in direct contact
with the solution.

NOTE: Conductivity measurements are an AC resistance

measurement.

Chapter 3 CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS

Contacting Style Sensors

Figure 11. Configuration of a standard cell

Contacting style conductivity sensors have their electrodes in

direct contact with the solution being measured (Figure 10).
To understand contacting conductivity sensors and their construction, the concept of a cell constant (K) and a standard cell
requires discussion.
A contacting style conductivity sensor with a cell constant
of 1.0 has two electrodes, each one square centimeter in
area, spaced one centimeter apart. The volume between
these electrodes is one cubic centimeter (Figure 11).
Since the volume of measured solution is the area of the
electrode times the distance between the electrodes, the
mathematical relationship does not change if one dimension
increases and the other decreases proportionally.
This configuration results in a one-centimeter cube of liquid
between the electrodes, and is referred to as the Standard
Cell, where its two plates are the electrodes. By definition, a
standard cell has a cell constant (K) of 1.0.
Generally, a standard cell is only used in laboratory conditions where flow and pressure are controlled to prevent the
dimensions and geometry of the electrodes from varying.
Industrial contacting style conductivity sensors are manufactured to be robust, and dimensionally stable, and are
offered in various mounting configurations to address many
different installation requirements.

Figure 10. Contacting Style Conductivity Sensors

10

The cell constant (K) is determined by the formula:

K = L (distance between plates) / a (area of plates)
K = 1 cm / 1 cm2 = 1 cm-1

Industrial contacting style conductivity sensors built in the

same production run under identical circumstances will not
be exactly dimensionally alike. Therefore, a method must be
provided to calibrate the cell constant of each sensor. Cell
constant calibration is accomplished by first measuring the
resistance of a solution (Rs) with a reference cell with a
known cell constant. Next, the resistance of the same solution is measured with the sensor to be calibrated (Rc). These
measurements must be made at the same temperature.
Consider a solution that measures 50 ohms with the reference cell and 500 ohms with the uncalibrated sensor. The
cell constant (K) can then be calculated:
K = Rc/Rs
K = 500/50 = 10
If the solution measured 5 ohms in the uncalibrated sensor,
its cell constant would be:

Non-contacting (Electrodeless)
Style Sensors
Conductivity measurements are often made in solutions
which tend to coat, foul, or damage the surface of conventional contacting style conductivity sensors. When measuring solutions over 10,000 S/cm with electrode type sensors,
large cell constants must be used. These sensors have small
electrode surface areas and, consequently, are very susceptible to fouling and polarization which introduce measurement errors.
Non-contacting or electrodeless conductivity sensors do
not have electrodes in direct contact with the solution being
measured (Figure 12). They are immune to the normal problems associated with contacting style conductivity sensors.
Electrodeless style conductivity sensors were specifically
developed to solve these problems.

K = 5/50 = 0.1
The ratio Rc / Rs is defined as the cell constant (K) for the
measuring sensor. It can be used to convert readings made
with the previously uncalibrated sensor to specific conductance using the following equations:

Figure 12. Electrodeless Conductivity Sensors

Specific Resistance = Measured Resistance/Cell Constant

Specific Conductance = (Cell Constant) x
(Measured Conductance) = mho/cm or S/cm
The cell constant (K) also serves the very important purpose
of determining the appropriate conductivity cell for the
desired measuring range. Electrolytic conductivity measuring
instruments have been designed for a specified resistance
range, for example, infinity to 100 ohms. The corresponding
range in S/cm would be 0 to 10,000 microSiemens.
Remember:
1 S/cm corresponds to 1,000,000 ohms

Operation

1,000,000 S/cm corresponds to 1 ohm

The electrodeless style conductivity sensor operates by

inducing an alternating current in a closed loop of solution
and measuring the magnitude of this current to determine
the conductivity of the solution (Figure 13 on the next page).

The quotient obtained by dividing 1,000,000 by the resistance value yields a S/cm value. Example: 100 ohms =
1,000,000/100 or 10,000 S/cm. Use the same procedure to
convert S/cm to ohms. Example: 200 S/cm =
1,000,000/200 or 5,000 ohms.

Electrode Materials
Electrode materials affect the conductive properties of contacting style conductivity sensors. In the past, platinum and
gold, which exhibited high performance characteristics,
were used as electrode materials. When aggressive solutions
(concentrated acids and caustics) were measured, noble metals that resisted oxidation were used to eliminate dissolving
of the electrode. Today, most electrodes are made of titanium, graphite, or stainless steel. These materials have good
performance characteristics in addition to exhibiting good
corrosive resistance in most applications.

The electrodeless conductivity sensor contains a pair of

Toroidal coils arranged so that the solution passes through
the center of both coils, effectively forming a loop. These
Toroidal coils operate similarly to a transformer. Think of
each Toroidal coil as an independent winding of a transformer, and the solution being measured as the dielectric
resistance which is converted to specific conductance. The
dielectric resistance varies with the amount of ions present
in the solution being measured because they serve to
increase the magnetic coupling between the coils.
The Toroidal coils and internal electronics are contained in
a waterproof housing to isolate them from direct contact
with the solution being measured. the term electrodeless
conductivity is derived from the fact that the solution never
actually contacts the torroids.

11

Figure 13. Operation of Electrodeless Conductivity Sensors

When to use Contacting versus

Electrodeless Sensors
The measuring ranges of contacting and electrodeless style
conductivity sensors are almost identical. Contacting style
sensors typically measure from theoretically pure water
(0.056 S/cm) to concentrated salt solutions in the
Siemens/cm range. Electrodeless style sensors are somewhat
limited at the low end of the measuring range. Their useful
range is from about 25 S/cm up to concentrated solutions
in the Siemens/cm range.
By knowing these inherent limitations, the only other factors in deciding whether to use a contacting or electrodeless
style sensor is its mechanical design, maintenance requirements, and cost. In general, contacting style sensors should
only be used in clear fluids to preclude maintenance problems associated with electrode coating, fouling, and physical damage. Electrodeless style sensors perform more
reliably in applications where coating, fouling and slurries
would render a contacting style sensor inoperable.

Sensor Installation
Best performance comes from a conductivity system that
has its sensor mounted properly. Conductivity sensors are
usually installed in-line (flow-thru) or immersed (submersion) in an open vessel.
In flow through applications the following should be
adhered too. For contacting conductivity sensors, flow
should contact the tip end of the sensor and completely
surround the sensor before exiting. Electrodeless conductivity sensors must have a flow path that flows through the
center of the sensor and completely surrounds the sensor

12

before exiting. Flow rate in either case should be within the

manufacturers specifications and held constant. In immersion applications, such as in a tank, care must be given that
the sensor is mounts at least four inches from the tank wall
to avoid any capacitance effect of the tank wall that will
affect the measurement. High quality cable should be used
for wiring and have as few junctions as possible. The best
wiring method is direct connection of the sensor to the analyzer, avoiding an interconnect cable and junction box. The
use of splices is highly discouraged. The analyzer should be
mounted and properly grounded according to the manufacturers specifications.
Some common installations are shown in Figures 14
through 18.

Figure 14. Typical Non-Contacting Sensor Union

Mount Hardware

Figure 15. Typical Non-Contacting Immersion

Mounting Into Vessel

Figure 16. Typical Non-Contacting Gate Valve

Mounting

Figure 17. Typical Non-Contacting Sanitary

Mount Hardware

Figure 18. Typical Contacting Conductivity Sensor Installations

4
1
2

8
7
5

1
2
3
4

Insertion mounting
Insertion mounting
Non-metallic sensor, insertion mounting
Boiler wall insertion mouting

5
6
7
8

13

End of pipe immersion

Non-metallic sensor, end of pipe immersion
Sanitary (CIP) flange mounting
Ball valve insertion for compression-style sensor
with extended sensor body

In general, the following guidelines apply to all conductivity sensor installations:

1.

Mount the sensor so that it is totally surrounded by

the solution being measured.

2.

Mount the sensor so that air or sediment cannot

contact the sensor.

3.

Keep the flow past the sensor constant and within

specified levels.

4.

Keep wiring clean and dry.

Analyzers
Until the advent of the microprocessor-based conductivity
analyzer, many of the calculations (algorithms) necessary
for accurate conductivity/resistivity measurement could not
be effectively implemented. The flexibility of the microprocessor enables the inclusion of multiple concentration
ranges, linear and non-linear ranges, and for measuring systems using two sensors, dedicated math functions for TDS

14

(Total Dissolved Solids), % passage or % rejection, and difference, all within the same analyzer.
Also, separate alarms can be dedicated to a data point, set
to a math function, or configured for diagnostic and or temperature alarms. Typically, resolution can be read to 3-1/2
digits after the decimal point. Other microprocessor-based
analyzer attributes include system diagnostics for the sensor
and analyzer.
It is interesting to note that analog analyzers still have merit
and can be advantageous. For specific applications only
requiring moderate accuracy, the generally lower-priced
analog instruments may be the best choice.

Analyzer Installation
The analyzer should be installed according to the manufacturers specifications. Pay particular attention to grounding.
Ground loops commonly cause havoc with conductivity
readings.

Interconnect (Extension) Cable

Calibration

Some installations may require the sensor to be located further from the analyzer than the standard sensor cable
length, typically 20 ft. (6 m). In these cases, use an interconnect or extension cable recommended by the sensor
manufacturer and a suitable junction box to protect the
splicing between the sensor and interconnect cables. Use of
other cables may introduce errors due to cable capacitance
effect, noise intrusion, or line loss. In general, low conductivity ranges necessitate shorter cable runs, while higher
ranges enable longer runs. Be sure to follow good wiring
practices and use as few termination points as possible. If
cabling must be spliced, a soldered splice is better than a
crimped splice. Make sure to protect any splices from moisture. Sealing the splice with a non-conductive type RTV or
silicone sealant is highly recommended.

Conductivity sensors and their associated temperature compensators require only a one-point calibration. It may be
inconvenient or impossible for the operator to calibrate the
conductivity sensor to the analyzer using known solutions
or temperature baths. This is especially true when operating
at conductivity or temperature points that are at the
extremes of their ranges, or that would require unstable or
hazardous solutions.

Calibration of Conductivity
Systems
The old adage of an analyzer is only as good as its calibration holds true for conductivity analyzers, and is especially
critical when measuring high purity water (HPW). Wet calibration to known standards is the accepted method for calibrating most conductivity measurement systems. However,
it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to wet calibrate
conductivity measurement systems used for HPW measurement. The difficulties in preparing qualified samples of HPW
standards without error are monumental.
Qualified HPW samples are unstable and costly to make.
They are, however, available in small quantities as 5 S/cm,
and 15 S/cm standards from NIST (National Institute of
Standards and Testing). Cost as of this writing is $360 for a
500 ml sample. These standards are only good for one time
use, and only under laboratory conditions. Therefore this
may not be the best choice for calibrating a system used to
measure HPW conductivity.
A better method that some analyzers offer is a dry calibration method in which samples are not required. This calibration is also known as the true cell constant (K)
method. To perform this method, the true cell K not just
the nominal cell K must be known. The analyzer then uses
the entered true cell K in its measuring algorithm to calculate the conductivity value:
Conductivity =

106 x Kcell
Rcell [1 + S (C - 25)]

Where:
Conductivity is in S/cm at 25C
Kcell = true cell constant
Rcell = resistance in ohms
S = the slope of the solution with temperature.
C = temperature in degrees C.

For these reasons, a dry calibration makes calibrating easier and more accurate. The conductivity sensor is precisely
measured at the factory for both conductivity slope and
temperature offset. The sensor is then labeled with the true
cell K and temperature T factor for entry into the analyzer. The assumption with dry calibration is that the characteristics of the sensor have not changed; the electrodes are
clean and not deformed or eroded away. If the physical
characteristics of the sensor have not changed from its manufactured state, dry calibration is valid. This makes the dry
calibration method viable for any conductivity range.

Dry Method Calibration

This method is the most accurate calibration method and
only requires entry of the true cell K and true temperature
T factor of the sensor into the analyzer to complete system calibration. The analyzer then applies these values
directly to the measuring algorithm.

Wet Method Calibration

This method enables the analyzer to interpret the cell constant (K). The sensor is immersed into a sample of known
value. After the sensor and sample temperatures have equalized, the known sample value is entered into the analyzer.
The analyzer then calculates the true cell K and uses this
value in the measuring algorithm.
This method is most useful when using electrodeless sensors,
because their cell K is usually only a nominal cell K.
Electrodeless sensors are typically used in applications with
conductivity ranges in which stable calibration samples can
be readily made and will remain stable during the calibration process.

Maintenance Schedule/Cleaning
Conductivity sensors, like any other sensor installed in a
process, will eventually succumb to contamination from the
process. Regular cleaning of the conductivity sensor will
assure long, reliable, and accurate service.
Conductivity sensors are typically made of durable, corrosion-resistant materials. Other than cleaning to remove contaminants, no other maintenance should be required.
Careful examination of the electrodes should be performed
to make sure they have not been chemically attacked,

15

eroded, or physically altered. A slow degradation of the sensor can be hard to spot until its too late.
Cleaning should be done with a combination of soaks and
rinses in a solution of water and detergent. This usually
removes most contaminants. Persistent contaminants may
require soaking in weak acid or caustic solutions for brief
periods of time, followed by thorough rinsing with clean
water to remove and neutralize any residual acid or caustic.
NOTE: Always follow all safety procedures when using
chemicals to clean conductivity sensors.

16

Do not use a brush or other abrasives to clean conductivity

sensors. These can bend or abrade the cell parts (metal,
graphite) of the sensor, altering its cell constant. Always
follow the manufacturers recommended procedure and
schedule.
For optimal performance of conductivity systems that are
dry calibrated, it is recommended to have the manufacturer periodically re-certify the true cell K and temperature T factor of the sensor. For optimal operation of a
conductivity measuring system an annual re-certification is
all that is required.

Chapter 4 COMMON APPLICATIONS

A discussion of applications would not be complete without
first considering advantages and disadvantages of measuring conductivity.
Conductivity offers a fast reliable means of measuring the
ionic content of a aqueous sample stream. The measurement
can be made in-line on a continuous basis in processes from
ultrapure water to thick slurries. Accuracy, repeatability, and
reliability of better than 1% of the measured range is easily
achieved. Todays robust sensors readily enable insertion in
process temperatures above 250C at line pressures of
300 psi.

The non-fouling ability of electrodeless conductivity sensors

are ideal for use in slurries such as those found in mining
operations, food processing, waste streams and chemical
production.
Conductivity measurements do have some disadvantages.
Conductivity is a non-specific ion measurement. Conductivity systems measure all ions in a sample in the aggregate
(total). Also, usable measurements cannot be made in many
organic compounds (alcohols, sugars, etc.), petroleum products, or other non-ionic solutions.
Table 3 shows a list of industries and applications that are
representative of the many processes where conductivity is
used.

Table 3 Conductivity Applications

Industry

Applications

Industry

Applications

Chemical Production

Concentrations*
Purity
Leak Detection* (Heat Exchange)
Cleaning*
Scrubbers*
Waste Streams
Cooling Towers

Mining

Leaching
Concentration*
Waste Streams
Leak Detection* (Heat Exchanges)

Semiconductors

Reverse Osmosis
Deionization*
Electro Deionization
Concentration*
Waste Streams
Rinsing*

Food Processing

Tomato Paste
Pickling
Waste Streams
Chemical Peeling*

Papermaking

Concentration
Black Liquor*
Bleaching
Brown Stock*
Waste Streams
Cooling Towers*

Printing

Fountain Control*

Water Production

Reverse Osmosis
Demineralization*
Deionization*
Electro Deionization
Desalination*
Nano Filtration
Distilled Water*

Petroleum Drilling

Mud Control
Concentration*
Waste Streams

Pharmaceuticals

Reverse Osmosis
Deionized Water*
Concentration*
Waste Streams

Power Generation

Textiles

Steam Production*
Condensate Return*
Boiler Blow-down*
Cooling Towers*
Leak Detection* (Heat Exchangers)
Demineralizers*
Reverse Osmosis
Cleaning*
Concentration*
Waste Streams
Desalination*
Dye Vats*
Bleaching*
Washing*
Rinsing*
Waste Streams
Cooling Towers*
Concentration*

Iron & Steel

Cooling Towers*
Cleaning*
Waste Streams
Pickling Baths*

Metals Finishing

Plating Rinsing*
Concentration
Pickling Bath
Cleaning*
Waste Streams

Brewing & Beverage

Cleaning*
Rinsing*
Concentration*

*These application are briefly described in the following pages.

17

Demineralizers/Deionizers
Two-bed Demineralizers
In a two-bed demineralizer, synthetic resins adsorb cations
and anions in the water as they pass through the cation and
anion beds. A conductivity sensor located in the discharge
of the cation bed will signal resin depletion by a drop in
conductivity. A conductivity sensor located in the discharge
of the anion bed will signal the depletion of resin in either
bed by a rise in conductivity. In large demineralizers, additional conductivity measuring systems are commonly used
to monitor the strength of the regenerate acid and caustic,
and check the rinse before the demineralizer is put back in
service. A properly operating deionizer train will remove
between 98-99.9% of all ionic impurities. The final product
water will have a conductivity of 0.056 S/cm which is considered theoretically pure.
Unlike aqueous solutions of higher conductivities (more
than 25 S/cm), high purity water (HPW) requires special
considerations for accurate conductivity measurements.
Sensors must be constructed of materials that do not readily dissolve in HPW, which would add ions. The sensor must
not have voids where air can become trapped, causing
unstable readings. It must have a very fast acting and accurate ( 0.1C) temperature compensation device with its
true cell K and T factor must be known. The analyzer
must be microprocessor-based and include algorithms specific to HPW measurement.

Mixed-bed Demineralizers
In a mixed-bed demineralizer, the anion and cation resins
are mixed. This has the effect of a number of two-bed demineralizers in series and produces higher quality product
water. A conductivity sensor is used to monitor the discharge. A rise in conductivity signals depletion of either
resin, similar to the two-bed system. Additional conductivity measuring systems can be used to monitor the acid and
caustic regenerate solutions as well as the rinse-down.

Heat Exchanger Leakage

Production of many liquid products are heated by steam in
either plate or coil type heat exchangers. The steam condensation from the exchanger is collected through a steam
trap and returned to a condensation tank. A break in the
steam coils can let potentially corrosive materials return to
the boiler. Many industrial chemicals applications flowing
through heat exchangers contain conductive impurities.
Conductivity measuring systems are used to provide an
alarm or actuate an automatic dump valve if leaks occur
causing high conductivity values. The same measurements
apply when heat exchangers are used for cooling hot
solutions.
Even if the product being manufactured does not contain
ions, hydrocarbon products for example, the same conductivity measurements are necessary. The resulting readings

18

will be quite different however. In this case, a leak would

cause the conductivity value to drop because of the dilution
of the heating or cooling medium.
A much more effective approach to heat exchanger monitoring is to use a two-sensor input analyzer, with sensors
installed on the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger.
Instead of reading the absolute conductivity of each sensor,
the difference between them is monitored. If there is no leak,
there will be no difference. If there is a leak, it will show up
immediately as a difference.

Distilled Water
The purity of distilled water is determined by conductivity.
Conductivity is measured at the discharge line of the still. If
there is a storage vessel for this water, this too can be
monitored.

Chemical Peeling
In canning processes, many fruits and vegetables such as
potatoes, onions, peaches, etc., are placed on a conveyor
and run through a hot caustic soda bath to loosen their
skins. The strength of the caustic solution is monitored by
placing a conductivity sensor between the discharge of the
bath and inlet of the circulating pump used to keep the concentration equal throughout the bath. The bath eventually
becomes contaminated with dirt, peel, and other foreign
material, and its viscosity increases. A change in conductivity signals when the bath must be cleaned.

Boiler Operation
Boiler Blowdown
Dissolved solids concentrate in boiler water where steaming
occurs. Depending on the boiler design, proper boiler operation requires that the solids concentration be maintained
below some limit. This is accomplished by blowing down
(draining) a portion of the boiler water and maintaining the
water level by adding feedwater with a low solids content.
Blowdown is normally measured as TDS (Total Dissolved
Solids).

Condensate
Monitoring returned condensate is one of the largest uses of
conductivity measuring systems. Where steam is manufactured, the return condensate may be contaminated with
acid, caustic, plating solution, brine, etc. These contaminates
are easily detectable by conductivity analyzers. In other
processes, the condensate may contain materials such as
sugar syrup, contaminated oils, etc. which are non-ionic but
which contain impurities that are ionic. Conductivity measurement is a practical way to detect these impurities.
When electricity is generated by steam, a water-cooled condenser is usually used after the turbine that reduces pressure
and temperature to insure a liquid sample for making a con-

ductivity measurement. Leakage of small amounts of this

cooling water into the high purity condensate, subsequently
used as feedwater is a serious matter.
Several schemes have been devised to improve the sensitivity for the detection of such a leak. The most successful of
these has been the Larson-Lane Condensate Analyzer (U.S.
Patent 2,832,673). A major limitation to the sensitivity of
any measurement is the presence of amines, usually added
to the boiler to maintain an alkaline atmosphere to inhibit
corrosion. The amines are soluble and conductive in water
and mask the conductivity changes when leakage occurs.
The Larson-Lane Condensate Analyzer removes the interference of amines by passing the sample through a small
cation exchange bed. Not only are the amines removed in
this process, but also additionally, the salts in the leakage
are converted to corresponding mineral acids. Because the
acids are about three times more conductive than the salts,
the resultant conductivity indication is far more sensitive
than the standard measurement. In many utility steam stations, the Larson-Lane Analyzer is used not only on the
condensate discharge, but also on heater drains and deaerators.

Steam
Steam can be checked for carryover of boiler water solids by
using proper sample conditioning equipment and conductivity measuring systems. Where steam is employed for its
heat content or where it is used to drive a reciprocating
steam engine, sensitivities below 1 ppm TDS are not generally required. In this case, a proper sampling system consists
of a suitably sized cooling coil and a throttling valve to drop
the temperature and pressure. The conductivity of the sample is then monitored.
Where steam is used to operate a turbine, much more stringent requirements are placed on the steam generator. Small
amounts of solids will foul a turbine and reduce its efficiency. The use of a sample cooler to reduce steam temperature and pressure and provide a condensed sample is a
common practice at solids levels above 1 ppm TDS in the
steam. However, if turbine operation requires steam purity
somewhat better than this for prolonged service, more elaborate sample conditioning is necessary.
The Larson-Lane Steam Analyzer (U.S. Patent 2,832,673) is
a combination thermal and chemical analyzer which substantially increases the sensitivity of the conductivity measurement. Not only dissolved solids, but also volatile
constituents such as carbon dioxide, ammonia and amines,
contribute to the conductivity of the condensed steam.
Degassing of the sample is a requisite for high sensitivity
and accuracy in measuring conductivity as a means of
measuring solids in steam. Mechanical degassing is effective
in stripping carbon dioxide. The more soluble ammonia and
amines are not appreciably removed. However, by preceding
a reboiling stage with ion exchange through a cation resin
bed, ammonia and amines are completely removed, and the

boiler water salts are converted to their respective acids

which are readily detectable by a conductivity measurement. Bicarbonates are converted to carbonic acid which is
decomposed and driven off in the reboiling stage. Mineral
acids formed from the salts have about three times more
conductivity than the salts. Therefore, the overall sensitivity
to mineral carryover is enhanced, and is on the order of 100
ppb TDS in the steam.

Cooling Towers
With growing emphasis on the conservation of water, cooling towers are prominent as a means of dissipating large
heat loads from chemical production, air conditioning systems, and power generation. Because evaporative losses in
the cooling tower concentrate the solids in the circulating
water, conductivity measurement is an effective way to control Blowdown and make-up water.

Rinsing
Rinsing of ionic solutions from a variety of materials
accounts for a large use of conductivity instrumentation.
Products like milk of magnesia, salt cake, titanium dioxide,
paint pigments, and latex curd fall into this category.
Measurement and control of the conductivity of the effluent
in the washing of these materials helps to insure consistent
high quality.
Adequate rinsing of metal and plastic in the electroplating
industry has special significance. Not only is adequate rinsing of corrosive cleaning and plating solutions from parts
important in maintaining their finish quality, but also
equally important is the reduction in the volume of water
being used. Continuous blow-down in this process effectively promotes adequate rinsing and consistent plating
quality while minimizing water volume and waste volume
that must be treated.

Semiconductors
Ultrapure water is an excellent solvent, leaving no residue.
It is used throughout the semiconductor manufacturing
process for rinsing wafers and other substrates. Monitoring
the quality of the deionized water used in these processes is
a critical part of quality control programs for this industry.

Metals
Cleaning with mixtures of caustic, polyphosphates, and other
compounds is used throughout the metal fabricating industry, starting with the mill and continuing through to the finishing shop. Changes in the cleaning bath concentration are
caused by drag-in and drag-out as well as by dilution.
Conductivity effectively monitors the concentration and
directly controls additions of make-up water or chemicals.

19

Acid Manufacture

Desalinization

Conductivity measuring systems are used in the manufacture of many primary industrial chemicals including sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, and hydrofluoric acids.
Many of these measurements are made at high acid concentrations, where conductivity will actually decrease with an
increasing acid concentration.

Conversion of brackish and saline waters to potable water is

becoming increasingly important. Regardless of the conversion process (distillation, freezing, reverse osmosis, or ion
exchange), conductivity measurements provide inexpensive
and reliable monitoring of the product quality.

Scrubbing Towers
The composition and gradual depletion of the chemical contents of many industrial scrubbing towers are effectively
monitored by the measurement of conductivity. For example, a 10% caustic soda solution is commonly used to scrub
acid vapors from process gases and exhaust air. As hydroxyl
ions in the caustic soda are replaced by chloride, cyanide,
bicarbonate, etc., the conductivity of the solution decreases.
This decrease is proportional to the degree of depletion of
the original charge of caustic soda.

Pulp and Papermaking

Pulp and paper mills make varied use of conductivity instruments. In addition to the common uses such as detection of
contamination of steam condensate, control of dilution of
liquid caustic, etc., two special uses are noteworthy.
Conductivity measurement of black liquor during the digestion cycle provides an indication of the cook, and the prediction of the kappa number. Following the cooking
operation, the digested fiber undergoes several stages of
black liquor extraction, washing, and a final rinse in the
brown stock washer. Measuring the effluent conductivity of
the brown stock washer is an effective means of determining completeness of washing cycle. Because most pulp and
paper process have high solids and have species that are
sticky electrodeless conductivity sensors are commonly
used to measure conductivity.

20

High Purity Water

Conductivity measurement is the prime measurement for
impurities in high purity water (HPW). By its very nature,
HPW is difficult to produce and measure. It is unstable and
very corrosive. HPW is the universal solvent. One method
for producing HPW involves using a reverse osmosis unit
followed by mixed-bed deionization. This type of a system
will typically produce theoretically pure water with a conductivity value of 0.056 S/cm.

Reverse Osmosis
During reverse osmosis (RO), water is drawn first through a
filter unit to remove suspended solids, and then sent on to
the RO unit. In the RO unit, pressure is applied to water on
one side of a semi-permeable membrane, forcing the water
to diffuse through the membrane. Minerals, salts and colloids are rejected, while purified water passes through. Total
dissolved solids (TDS) removal can be 90% or higher with
conductivity readings below 5 S/cm.
The RO process functions well with waters that have high
dissolved solids. In fact, RO units are often used to remove
the majority of dissolved solids from water destined for an
ion exchange system. The product water from the reverse
osmosis unit is then passed through a two-bed or mixed-bed
deionization unit to remove the remaining ions that are
present. This step is sometimes referred to as polishing the
water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Beckman, 1958, Principles of Industrial Solution Conductivity Measurements, Beckman Instruments, Inc.

2.

Leeds and Northrup, 1988, On Line Conductivity and Resistivity Measurements, Leeds and Northrup

3.

Osmonics, 1999, Pure Water Handbook, Osmonics

4.

Power Engineering, 1987, Guide to Water Treatment, Diversey Water Technologies

5.

Thornton and Associates, 1998, Resistivity Measurement Techniques, Thornton and Associates

6.

John C. Russ, 1996, Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh NC

21

GLOSSARY
Anion: A negatively charged ion in an aqueous solution.
Blowdown: In boiler operation, the purge of a small portion
of concentrated boiler water from the system to maintain a
desired level of dissolved and suspended solids in the system.
Cation: A positively charged ion in an aqueous solution.
Concentrate: In crossflow filtration, the portion of a feed
stream which does not permeate the media, but retains the
ions, organics, and suspended particles which are rejected
by the media.
Concentration: The amount of material contained in a unit
volume of fluid; the process of increasing the dissolved
material per unit volume.
Condensate: Water obtained through evaporation and subsequent condensation. Normally the water resulting from condensing plant steam originally generated in a boiler. (Water
condensed in a water still operation is usually called distillate.)
Contaminate: A source of contamination, an impurity. Any
substance in water which is not H2O.
Deionization (DI): The process of removing ionized salts
(theoretically up to 100%) from water through specially
manufactured ion exchange resins. Deionization typically
does not remove organics, viruses or bacteria, except
through accidental trapping in the resin, or when using
specially made strong base anion resins which remove gram
negative bacteria.
Demineralization: The process of removing minerals from
water, usually through deionization, reverse osmosis, or distillation.
Dissolved Solids: The residual material remaining after filtering the suspended material from water and evaporating
the solution to a dry state.

is commonly used in the power, microelectronics and pharmaceutical industry.

Ion: An atom or molecule that has lost or gained one or
more electrons, thereby acquiring a net electric charge.
Ion Exchange: A process in which ions are preferentially
adsorbed from a solution for equivalently charged ions
attached to small solid structures (resin).
Membrane: A highly engineered polymer film containing
controlled distributions of pores. Membranes serve as a barrier permitting the passage of materials only up to a certain
size, shape, or character. Membranes are used as the separation mechanism in reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and microfiltration, and as disc
filters in laboratories, and as pleated final filter cartridges,
particularly in pharmaceutical and electronic applications.
Mixed-bbed Tank: An ion exchange tank consisting of both
cation and anion resins mixed together. Provides the most
complete deionization of water, up to 18.3 megohms cm
resistivity. Commonly used to polish water already treated
by two-bed ion exchange tanks or reverse osmosis.
Molecule: The smallest physical unit of a substance, composed of one or more atoms, that retains the properties of
that substance.
Osmosis: The spontaneous flow of water from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through
a semi-permeable membrane until energy equilibrium is
achieved.
Osmotic Pressure: The measurement of the potential energy
difference between solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane. A factor in designing reverse osmosis
equipment. The applied pressure must first overcome the
osmotic pressure inherent in the chemical solution to attain
good purification and flux.

Distillate: The product water from distillation formed by

condensing vapors.

pH: An expression of hydrogen ion concentration, specifically the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH measurement range is 0-14, with 7 as neutral,
0-7 as acid, and 7-14 as alkaline (base).

Distillation: The process of condensing steam from boiling

water on a cool surface. Most contaminants do not vaporize
and, therefore, do not pass to the distillate. Distillation
removes nearly 100% of all impurities.

ppb: An acronym for parts per billion, commonly considered equivalent to micrograms per liter (g/L).

Effluent: The final output of liquids exiting a process.

Electrodialysis: Dialysis that is performed with the aid of an
electromotive force applied to electrodes adjacent to both
sides of the membrane.
High Purity Water (HPW): Water specially processed to
reduce or eliminate suspended solids, dissolved solids,
organic, ionic and microbiological contaminants; this term

22

ppm: An acronym for parts per million, commonly considered equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/L).
ppt: An acronym for parts per trillion, commonly considered
equivalent to nanograms per liter (ng/L).
Precipitate: An insoluble product of a chemical reaction of
soluble compounds in water.

Precipitation: The process of producing a precipitate from

an aqueous chemical reaction, usually a crystalline compound that grows in size to be settleable.

Saturation: The point at which a solution contains enough

of a dissolved solid, liquid, or gas so that no more will dissolve into the solution at a given temperature and pressure.

Reagent-ggrade Water (ASTM): Water that meets the standards for reagent use promulgated by American Society of
Testing and Materials. Four grades, RI through RIV, have
been established for specifically intended uses.

Scaling: The build-up of precipitated salts on a surface, such

as pipes, tanks, or boiler condensate tubes.

Regeneration: In ion exchange systems, the process of using

either an acid, alkali, or salt solution to remove the accumulated cations or anions. The cation exchange resins take
on hydrogen ions and the anion exchange resins take on
hydroxide ions to restore themselves to the original hydrogen or hydroxide form when using strong acid and strong
alkali solutions for the process.
Rejection: In crossflow membrane systems, the process of
retaining contaminants at the membrane that are larger
than the membrane pore sizes. In a membrane system,
expressed as a percent of the total presence of those contaminants.
Resin: Specially manufactured polymer beads used in ion
exchange processes to remove dissolved salts from water.
Resistivity: In aqueous solutions, the property of a substance
to resist the flow of electricity; the measurement of that
resistance. the inverse of conductivity. Measured by a resistivity monitor, and described in ohms cm.

Semi-p
permeable Membrane: A membrane which allows a
solvent such as water to pass through, while rejecting certain dissolved or colloidal substances.
Sepralator: In crossflow membrane systems, a modular and
replaceable spiral-wound membrane cartridge or element.
Solutes: Matter dissolved in a solvent.
Suspended Solids (SS): Solid organic and inorganic particles
in a solution that are held in suspension.
TDS: An acronym for Total Dissolved Solids.
Two-bbed Tank: A pairing of cation and anion exchange
tanks, typically operating in series. Best used for the deionization of relatively high volumes of water. Capable of
product water resistivity of up to 1 megohmcm.
Ultrapure Water: Highly treated water of high resistivity
with no organics; usually used in the semiconductor and
pharmaceutical industries.

Reverse Osmosis (RO): The separation of one component of

a solution from another component by flowing the feed
stream under pressure across a semi-permeable membrane.
RO removes ionized salts, colloids, and organics down to
150 molecular weight. May also be called hyperfiltration.

23