Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Polymer Testing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/polytest

Test method

Accelerated wear test of FKM elastomer for life prediction of seals

S.H. Lee a,1, S.S. Yoo a, D.E. Kim a, *, B.S. Kang b, H.E. Kim b
a
b

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Korea Institute of Machinery & Materials, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 15 June 2012
Accepted 25 July 2012

The tribological properties of FKM uorocarbon elastomer were investigated with the aim
of developing suitable accelerated wear test conditions for this type of seal material. The
wear pattern of the specimen under normal operating conditions was monitored over
a test time of 1000 h to be used as a reference. The results were compared with experiments performed under accelerated testing conditions. It was found that by mixing
alumina particles of w1 mm with the lubricant, the wear of a FKM specimen could be
accelerated by a factor of 58, while maintaining similar wear behavior as that of the normal
test conditions. The results of this work are expected to aid in the prediction of life FKM
elastomer seals.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Accelerated testing
Acceleration factor
Elastomer
Friction
Seal
Wear

1. Introduction
Seals are widely used in cylinders and hydraulic systems
to prevent liquid or gas from internal leakage [1]. They
operate by bearing pressure against a counter surface to
close the gap between two components in contact [2]. Seals
may be divided into static or dynamic seals depending on
the nature of their application. Examples of static seals are
gaskets and o-rings, whereas reciprocating and rotating
shaft seals are classied as dynamic seals [3]. If a seal is
improperly installed or used, failure will eventually occur
with time. There are several modes of failure in seals
including abrasion, compression set, and chemical and
thermal degradation [46]. Particularly in the case of
dynamic seals, surface wear occurs gradually over time
eventually leading to opening of the gap and leakage [7].
This may cause catastrophic damage to the machine and,
therefore, the reliability of seals is crucial for extended life
of machines.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 82 2 2123 2822; fax: 82 2 365 0491.

E-mail address: kimde@yonsei.ac.kr (D.E. Kim).
1
Currently at Woongjin Coway Co. Ltd., Gwanak-gu, Seoul, Republic of
Korea.
0142-9418/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2012.07.017

Seals are usually made of relatively soft and compliant

material such as an elastomer to conform to the contacting
surface. As any other material, elastomers are prone to
wear under extended contact sliding conditions and this is
known to be the most profound cause of failure of dynamic
seals. Thus, in order to optimize the design of seals for
prolonged life, the tribological properties of seal materials
need to be clearly understood. In the case of elastomers, the
tribological behavior is greatly inuenced by the viscoelastic property of the material, unlike metals or ceramics
[810]. In contact sliding conditions, elastomers experience
relatively large elastic deformation and high internal friction due to their low elastic modulus and high damping,
respectively [11]. The main cause of frictional energy
dissipation of elastomers is due to adhesion at the contact
region and hysteresis effect of internal friction during
deformation [1214]. If continuous stress is applied to the
contact region, the surface of the seal will eventually wear
out and fail. To prevent such a failure, the seal should be
replaced in a timely manner, but premature replacement is
undesirable since it leads to machine downtime and
nancial loss. Hence, it is highly desirable to predict the life
of a seal so that catastrophic failure can be prevented and at
the same time minimize the nancial loss of prematurely
replacing the seal.

994

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

Predicting the life of machine components is desirable

across a wide spectrum of industry. However, due to the
time and cost involved in obtaining the necessary failure
information from eld data, accelerated testing methods
are often employed [15]. In order to develop a reliable
accelerated life testing (ALT) method, the mechanism of
failure must be clearly understood. In ALT, the main
parameter that affects the life of the component is used as
the control variable [16]. The level of that particular
parameter is increased or decreased to change the time of
failure of the component. In some cases, there may be more
than one parameter used to accelerate the failure process.
In mechanical systems, load, pressure, speed and/or
temperature are often selected as control parameters for
ALT [17]. In the case of tribological systems, the ALT
parameter depends on the mechanism of wear which may
be due to abrasion, adhesion, fatigue or corrosion [18]. If
corrosion is the main mechanism of wear in a given
tribological system, temperature or concentration of the
corrosive agent may be used as the ALT parameter [19]. On
the other hand, if abrasion is the main mechanism particles
may be added to the lubricant to increase the severity of
surface abrasion [20].
Quantitatively, wear can be expressed by Archards wear
equation as shown below [21]:

V kLx=H

work was to provide a fundamental basis for ALT of elastomers such as FKM that will be helpful to the design of ALT for
industrial applications.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Experimental specimens
FKM elastomer was chosen for its wide use in industry
as a seal material in hydraulic systems and various vacuum
devices. The mechanical properties of FKM elastomer are
known to be relatively good compared with other
commercial elastomers in respect of durability, heat resistance and chemical stability [22]. The FKM test specimens
were cut from an o-ring to a length of 20 mm to give the
cross sectional shape and dimensions shown in Fig. 1.
The counter surface was a at stainless steel (stainless
steel 304) plate. Stainless steel (SS) was chosen to represent
a hard metallic surface against which seals are commonly
in contact. The mechanical properties of the specimens
used in this work are given in Table 1. Since the hardness of
SS was much greater than that of the FKM elastomer, wear
of the SS specimen was not expected to be a signicant
concern during the wear tests. Finally, Rando 46, which is
commonly used as lubricant in hydraulic systems, was used
as the lubricant in the wear tests.

(1)

where V is the wear volume, k is the wear coefcient, L is

the applied load, x is the sliding distance and H is the
hardness of the component. It can be seen from this
equation that for given load, sliding distance and hardness
the amount of wear is proportional to the wear coefcient.
Also, load may be increased to achieve the same amount of
wear in a shorter sliding distance for given wear coefcient
and hardness. Thus, based on Archards wear equation,
either the wear coefcient or load may be used as the ALT
parameter. Although load may seem to be a convenient
choice for the ALT parameter, care must be taken to avoid
the undesirable effects of articially increased load during
the accelerated wear test. Such effects include gross
deformation of the component and material property
change due to increased temperature at the sliding interface. Another practical difculty of increasing the load is
that the test system has to be sufciently sturdy to endure
the high load. On the other hand, the wear coefcient can
be altered in various ways that can lead to accelerated wear.
The approach of this work was to identify the effect of
adding particles to the lubricant on the accelerated wear of
FKM elastomer. Essentially, addition of particles is a means of
increasing the wear coefcient. A pin-on-plate reciprocating
tribotester was used to perform the wear tests using FKM
elastomer specimens sliding against a stainless steel surface
in boundary lubrication condition. The test represented a seal
material sliding against the wall of a piston cylinder. Initially,
the wear characteristics of a FKM specimen under normal
boundary lubrication conditions were assessed. Then, wear
tests were performed with particles added to the lubricant to
accelerate the wear process. By comparing the results of the
two experimental conditions, the acceleration factor (AF) for
the proposed ALT method was derived. The motivation of this

2.2. Experimental set-up and conditions

A pin-on-plate reciprocating tribotester was used for
the wear tests. The FKM specimen was used as the pin that
was slid against a at SS counter surface. The SS specimen
was mounted on a plate attached to a linear actuator which
reciprocated back and forth. The stroke was set to 40 mm at
a reciprocating frequency of 1 Hz, which resulted in the
total sliding distance of 80 mm per second. The stroke was
chosen to provide sufcient sliding distance along the axis
and the speed was selected to negate the effects of
temperature increase that may occur if the sliding speed is
too high. A load of 450 gf was applied by using a dead
weight placed on top of the FKM specimen holder. This load
was selected based on the desired degree of contact area
and pressure. Essentially, a high enough contact pressure
was desired to generate a signicant amount of wear
within a reasonable test time. However, excessive contact

Fig. 1. Cross sectional shape and dimensions of the FKM elastomer specimen
used in the wear tests. The arrow indicates the surface that is in contact with
the stainless steel plate during the wear test.

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

995

Table 1
Mechanical properties of FKM elastomer and stainless steel.

Poissons ratio
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Roughness

FKM elastomer

Stainless steel

0.46
71 (Shore A)
16.5 MPa

0.31
63 (HRC)
207 MPa
0.139 mm

pressure may lead to secondary effects that are not representative of the natural wear process. Thus, for the shape
and properties of the FKM specimen used in this work, it
was determined that a contact pressure below 1 MPa was
appropriate. As shown in Fig. 1, for the FKM specimen tip
radius of 2.5 mm, the maximum contact pressure and
contact width were estimated to be 0.65 MPa and 0.47 mm,
respectively, based on the Hertzian contact theory for an
elastic contact between a cylinder and a at surface [23].
The wear tests were performed under boundary lubrication conditions, a small amount of lubricant (0.4 g) being
placed in the contact region. Due to the surface tension of
the lubricant and because the sliding speed was relatively
low, the lubricant remained at the sliding interface
throughout the wear test. For the wear test conducted
under normal condition, the lubricant was used unaltered.
However, in the case of the accelerated tests, w1 mm
alumina particles were added to the lubricant to induce
more abrasion.
During the wear test, the frictional force between the
FKM and SS specimens was measured by a load cell and
recorded in real time through a PC-based data acquisition
system. The frictional force information was utilized to
monitor the state of sliding contact during the wear test.
Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
2.3. Experimental method and results
2.3.1. Wear test under normal wear conditions
Initially, the wear characteristics of FKM under normal
sliding conditions were assessed using the normal lubricant for 1000 h. During this test, the frictional force was
monitored and the surface of the FKM specimen was
examined periodically for signs of surface degradation. The
test was stopped at approximately 100-h intervals and the
FKM specimen was removed from the tribotester for optical
microscope analysis of the surface. After characterizing the
wear pattern of the surface, the FKM specimen was repositioned in the tester to continue the wear test. Extreme
care was to taken to ensure that the angle and position of
contact between the FKM and SS specimens were consistent before and after the specimen mounting process. By
doing so, the characteristics and progression of wear of the
FKM specimen could be obtained as a function of the test
duration. This result was used as a reference to compare
with the results of the accelerated wear test.
Fig. 3 shows the optical microscope images of the
normal wear pattern of the FKM specimen at three
different locations at various time intervals. The images
from left to right show the generation of wear with respect
to time at a similar location on the FKM specimen. A few

Fig. 2. Schematic of the experimental set-up used for the wear tests.

interesting observations could be made from this result.

The vertical grooves are marks that were initially on the
FKM specimen believed to be formed during the
manufacturing process of the o-ring. Wear scars appeared
as dark horizontal strips aligned in the direction of sliding.
The wear pattern indicated that wear occurred at an
extremely slow rate since the forming marks on the FKM
specimen could still be found after 1000 h of wear test.
Wear scars were mostly found at the center region of the
specimen since it was the peak location as viewed from the
cross section of the specimen. Thus, the center region was
expected to experience the highest contact pressure. Also,
wear did not occur evenly across the contact region of the
FKM specimen. Rather, wear could be found only at certain
locations along the contact region. The fact that wear did
not occur evenly supported the probabilistic nature of wear.
This outcome was in accord with the original concept of
wear coefcient in the Archards wear equation that k
represents the probability of a contact point to form a wear
particle [24]. Thus, it may be stated that, due to some
probabilistic event such as particle introduction, surface
inhomogeneity, or even system instability, wear is initiated
at particular locations along the contact region. It was
interesting to note that as the wear test time increased, the
existing wear scars grew in size and new wear scars were
also formed.
As a means to monitor the state of sliding during the
wear test, the frictional force was measured in real time.
Fig. 4 shows the friction coefcient between FKM and SS
specimens during 1000 h of normal wear test under an
applied load of 450 gf. As can be seen from the data, the
friction coefcient was quite stable throughout the test
which indicated that there was no signicant change at the
sliding interface. Also, the average friction coefcient value
was about 0.028 which was within the range of a typical

996

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

Fig. 3. Optical microscope images of the wear pattern of the FKM specimen at three different locations at 670 h, 770 h, 895 h, and 1000 h time intervals during
the wear test against a SS specimen under normal wear condition. Arrow represents the direction of sliding. The images from left to right show the generation of
wear at a similar location on the FKM specimen.

boundary lubricated system [25]. These results supported

the extremely low wear characteristics of the FKM specimen as described above.
2.3.2. Wear test under accelerated wear conditions
In order to identify the appropriate ALT method for the
FKM specimen, two types of particles were investigated for
inclusion in the lubricant. First, iron particles with
a randomly distributed particle size in the range of
1 w 300 mm with a concentration of 1 mg per 10 mg of
lubricant was used. These particles were chosen to represent the wear particles and contaminants that may be
introduced to the interface of the seal and the counter

Fig. 4. Friction coefcient between FKM and SS specimens during 1000 h of

normal wear test.

surface. In the second set of accelerated wear tests, w1 mm

alumina particles were added to the lubricant with
a concentration of 3 mg per 10 mg of lubricant. Alumina
particles were chosen due to their strong abrasive nature
and small size. In identifying the appropriate ALT method,
the most critical concern was to assure that the wear
characteristics of the normal and accelerated test conditions were similar. This could be done by comparing the
wear patterns observed through surface analyses of the
normal and accelerated wear test specimens. Other
experimental conditions such as the sliding speed and
applied load were kept the same for both the normal and
accelerated wear tests.
Accelerated wear tests of FKM specimens were conducted with the lubricant with iron and alumina particles
for 2 h and 10 h, respectively. Fig. 5 shows the optical
microscope images of the wear pattern of the FKM specimen after performing the accelerated wear test using the
two types of particles. The wear patterns were compared
with those of the normal wear test results. From Fig. 5(a), it
could be found that the wear patterns at the three different
locations along the contact region of the FKM specimen
after the accelerated test using the iron particles were quite
varied. Also, the wear pattern was not similar to that of the
normal wear test. Thus, it was considered that the iron
particles used were not appropriate for the ALT of FKM
elastomer.
As for the accelerated test performed with the alumina
particles, the general morphology of the worn surface was
quite similar (Figs. 3 and 5(b)). The accelerated wear

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

997

Fig. 6. Friction coefcient between FKM and SS specimens during 10 h of

accelerated wear test using alumina particles.

3. Analyses of experimental results

Fig. 5. Optical microscope images of the wear pattern of the FKM specimen
at three different locations after (a) 2 h of wear test using Fe particles and (b)
10 h of wear test using alumina particles against a SS specimen under
accelerated wear conditions. Arrow represents the direction of sliding.

surface distinctly showed the vertical grooves that were

formed during the manufacturing process of the o-ring as
in the case of the normal wear test. This suggested that the
accelerated wear condition using the alumina particles was
not too severe. Furthermore, it was found that with
alumina particles the accelerated wear test produced
discontinuous wear strips along the contact region as in the
case of the normal wear test. From the similar wear pattern
results of the two wear tests, it was concluded that the
accelerated wear test condition using the w1 mm alumina
particles was acceptable as a valid ALT method.
The friction coefcient during the accelerated test using
the alumina particles was obtained to monitor the state of
sliding. Fig. 6 shows the friction coefcient between FKM
and SS specimens during 10 h of accelerated wear test
under an applied load of 450 gf. The frictional behavior was
quite different from that of the normal wear test. As can be
seen from Fig. 6, unlike the case of the normal wear test
where the friction coefcient remained quite steady
throughout the test, the friction coefcient decreased from
an initial value of 0.093 to about 0.069 after 10 h of accelerated wear. Also, the range of friction coefcient was
signicantly higher than the value of 0.028 obtained in the
normal wear test. However, it was below 0.1 which suggested that the boundary lubrication condition also existed
in the accelerated wear test (Fig. 7).
The higher friction coefcient that resulted in the
accelerated wear test compared to that of the normal wear
test may be simply attributed to the presence of alumina
particles included in the lubricant. It has been reported in
the past that particles at the sliding interface usually cause
the plowing component of friction to increase [26].

The wear coefcient was obtained using the Archards

wear equation in order to assess the severity of wear of the
FKM specimens for both normal and accelerated wear tests.
The wear volume, total distance and load were obtained
experimentally, and the hardness of the specimen was
measured using a Shore hardness tester. The load in the
experiment was 450 gf and the total sliding distance was
calculated from the test duration and the sliding speed
used in the wear test. In the case of the normal wear test
conducted for 1000 h at a speed of 80 mm per second, the
total sliding distance was 288 km. The hardness of FKM
specimen was 71 Shore A. To obtain a dimensionless wear

Fig. 7. Optical microscope images of the wear pattern of the FKM specimen
at three different locations after (a) 20 h and (b) 30 h of wear test against
a SS specimen under accelerated wear conditions. Arrow represents the
direction of sliding.

998

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

coefcient value, the Shore A hardness of 71 should be

converted to a hardness unit in MPa. Since it was not
straightforward to do so, the Shore A hardness value was
used in the Archards wear equation to obtain the effective
wear coefcient. Thus, the unit for the effective wear
coefcient is mm2$(Shore A)/N. From hereon, a symbol k is
given to represent this unit.
The most difcult part in obtaining the wear coefcient
was in the measurement of wear volume. Since wear on the
FKM specimen occurred at certain locations along the contact
region it was not possible to estimate the wear volume by
simply measuring the change in the radius of the FKM specimen. Hence, the wear scars on the FKM specimen were
analyzed in detail using both 3-D and 2-D surface prolometers. Fig. 8 shows a typical image of the 3-D surface prole
of a wear scar on the FKM specimen. The image represents
one of the wear strips already mentioned in the discussion of
Fig. 3. It clearly shows that wear occurred unevenly along the
contact region. The 3-D surface prolometer was used to
measure the projected wear area along the contact region of
the FKM specimen. For the FKM specimen of the normal wear
test, the total projected area of the worn region was measured
to be about 2.25 mm2. This corresponded to about 12% of the
total contact area as calculated from the Hertzian equation.
While the 3-D surface image provided useful information
regarding the total worn area, it was not convenient to obtain
the depth of the wear scar. A 2-D surface prolometer was
utilized for this purpose.
Fig. 9 shows the 2-D prole of the wear surface along the
contact region of the FKM specimen. From this data, the
average depth of the wear scar was approximated to be about
1.05 mm assuming that the cross-sectional shape of the wear
scar was an equilateral triangle. The average depth was
multiplied to the projected wear area of 2.25 mm2 to obtain
the total wear volume of 2.36  103 mm3. It should be noted
that the total wear volume was estimated from the available
surface prole data and an assumption that the crosssectional area of the wear scar was an equilateral triangle.
Nevertheless, given the extremely small amount of wear that
occurred irregularly along the contact region of the specimen,

this value was taken as the best estimate for the wear volume.
Using all the variables obtained, the effective wear coefcient
of the FKM specimen in normal wear condition was calculated to be an extremely small value of 1.27  1010 k.
Following the same procedure, the wear coefcient for
the 10-h accelerated wear test of the FKM specimen was
obtained. For the accelerated test, the sliding distance was
only 1 percent of the normal sliding test or 2.88 km. The
hardness of 157 MPa was used as in the case of the normal
wear test since all the FKM specimens were sampled from
the same o-ring. Also, the same load of 450 gf was applied.
Based on the average wear depth of the FKM specimen after
the accelerated wear test, the wear volume was calculated
to be 1.38  103 mm3. This amount of wear volume
resulted in the effective wear coefcient of 7.37  109 k.
This value was signicantly higher than that of the normal
wear test. Thus, the accelerated wear effect of the alumina
particles added to the lubricant was conrmed.
Finally, the acceleration factor, AFk, of the proposed ALT
method for the FKM elastomer was derived. For the system
where the life is based on the amount of wear, the Archards
wear equation may be used to estimate the life provided
that the wear coefcient of the system is known.
Based on the effective wear coefcients obtained
experimentally, the AFk can be derived from the following
equations:

V N kN LN xN =HN

(2)

V A kA LA xA =HA

(3)

where subscript N stands for normal wear test and A stands

for accelerated wear test. Also, the sliding distance can be
expressed as

xN vN t N

(4)

xA vA t A

(5)

where v is the sliding speed and t is the test duration. Thus,

given that the sliding speed for both the normal and
accelerated tests is the same,

t N =t A xN =xA

(6)

Essentially, the ratio of the test times given in Eq. (6) may
be considered as the acceleration factor, AFk. Thus, from Eq.
(6) and the Archards equation, the following expression for
AFk can be derived:

AF k xN =xA kA =kN

(7)

where kA and kN are the wear coefcients of accelerated

and normal tests, respectively. Finally, from the effective
wear coefcients obtained experimentally, the acceleration
factor can be calculated as follows:




AF k 7:37  109 k 1:27  1010 k z58

Fig. 8. 3-D surface prole image of a typical wear scar on the FKM specimen.

Thus, by adding alumina particles to the lubricant the

wear of the FKM specimen could be accelerated by a factor
of 58. However, it should be noted that wear phenomenon
depends very much on the system such as the contact
pressure and temperature during the operation. In this

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

999

Fig. 9. 2-D surface prole of the wear track on the FKM specimen obtained after the normal wear test.

sense, ALT condition should be customized to t the system

under consideration and the acceleration factor of 58
cannot be generalized for all types of FKM seals. Nevertheless, for operating conditions similar to the ones used in
this work, the acceleration factor of 58 would be valid.
Furthermore, the ALT method presented in this work is
expected to serve as a good reference for development of
ALT methods for other types of elastomers and seals.
4. Conclusions
The tribological properties of FKM uorocarbon elastomer were investigated with the aim of developing suitable accelerated wear testing conditions for this type of
a seal material. A pin-on-plate reciprocating tribotester was
used to investigate the wear generation pattern of FKM
specimens under normal and accelerated test conditions.
All the wear tests were conducted in boundary lubrication
conditions. The following conclusions may be drawn from
the results of this work:
1). Observation of the FKM specimen surface at various
time intervals during the normal wear test showed that
the wear scars were formed irregularly along the
contact region of the FKM specimen. The wear scars
grew in size and new ones were formed with increasing
number of sliding cycles.
2). For 1000 h of normal wear test, which corresponded to
288 km of sliding, the effective wear coefcient was
calculated to be 1.27  1010 k.

3). In the accelerated wear tests, particles were added to

the lubricant to increase the probability of wear. It was
found that adding Fe particles of random size in the
lubricant was not suitable in reproducing the similar
wear pattern as that of the normal wear test. Rather,
adding w1 mm alumina particles to the lubricant at
a concentration of 3 mg per 10 ml of lubricant produced
a similar wear pattern as that of the normal wear test.
4). For 10 h of accelerated wear test with alumina particles
added to the lubricant, the effective wear coefcient
was calculated to be 7.37  109 k.
5). The acceleration factor for ALT of FKM elastomer with
alumina particles added to the lubricant was 58.
6). The results of this work is expected to aid in the design
of ALT method for FKM as well as other elastomers.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean
government (MEST) (No. 2012-0001232).
References
[1] M. Jaunich, W. Stark, D. Wolff, A new method to evaluate the low
temperature function of rubber sealing materials, Polym. Test. 29 (7)
(2010) 815823.
[2] H.J. Choi, C.W. Park, J.C. Lee, J.G. Kim, S.D. Choi, Analysis on the
mechanical characteristics of PTFE oil seal for the rear part in the
automotive engine, Int. J. Precis. Eng. Man. 12 (3) (2011) 485490.
[3] A.O. Lebeck, Principles and Design of Mechanical Face Seals, Wiley, 1991.

1000

S.H. Lee et al. / Polymer Testing 31 (2012) 9931000

[4] F.K. Orcutt, An investigation of the operation and failure of mechanical

face seals, J. Lubric. Tech.-T. ASME. Ser. F 91 (1969) 713725.
[5] J. Yamabe, T. Matsumoto, S. Nishimura, Application of acoustic
emission method to detection of internal fracture of sealing rubber
material by high-pressure hydrogen decompression, Polym. Test. 30
(2011) 7685.
[6] D.W. Kim, K.Y. Lee, Y.T. Jun, S.J. Lee, C.K. Park, Friction and wear
characteristics of UHMWPE against Co-Cr Alloy under the wide
range of contact pressures in lumbar total disc replacement, Int. J.
Precis. Eng. Man. 12 (6) (2011) 11111118.
[7] A. Golubiev, V. Gordeev, Investigation of wear mechanical seals in
liquids containing abrasive particles, in: Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference on Fluid Sealing B3 (1965). 2332.
[8] S.W. Zhang, Tribology of Elastomers, Elsevier, 2004.
[9] S.I. Moon, I.J. Cho, C.S. Woo, W.D. Kim, Study on determination of
durability analysis process and fatigue damage parameter for rubber
component, J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 25 (2011) 11591165.
[10] D.H. Hwang, I.H. Sung, D.E. Kim, S.J. Lee, Effects of material pair
properties on the frictional behavior of metals, Wear 225 (1999)
600614.
[11] L.R.G. Treloar, The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, Oxford University
Press, 2005.
[12] D.F. Moore, W. Geyer, A review of adhesion theories for elastomers,
Wear 22 (1963) 113141.
[13] D.F. Moore, W. Geyer, A review of hysteresis theories for elastomers,
Wear 30 (1974) 134.

[14] B.N.J. Persson, On the theory of rubber friction, Surf. Sci. 401 (1998)
445454.
[15] L.A. Escobar, W.Q. Meeker, A review of accelerated test models, Stat.
Sci. 21 (2006) 552588.
[16] W. Nelson, Accelerated Testing: Statistical Models, Test Plans, and
Data Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008.
[17] D.S. Peck, The Analysis of Data from Accelerated Stress Tests. Reliability Physics Symposium 9th Annual, 1971, pp. 6978.
[18] B. Bhushan, Principles and Applications of Tribology, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1999.
[19] M.R.S. Rensen, A.F. Voter, Temperature-accelerated dynamics for
simulation of infrequent events, J. Chem. Phys. 112 (2000) 9599.
[20] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics, Springer, 2007.
[21] J.F. Archard, W. Hirst, The wear of metals under unlubricated
conditions, Proc. Royal Soc. A 235 (1956) 397410.
[22] Y. Iwai, A. Hiroki, T. Yagi, M. Tamada, T. Yamanishi, Experimental
durability studies of electrolysis cell materials for a water detritiation system, Fusion Eng. Des. 83 (2008) 14101413.
[23] E. Rabinowcz, Friction and Wear of Material, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.
[24] J.F. Archard, Elastic deformation and the laws of friction, Proc. Royal
Soc. A 243 (1957) 190205.
[25] G. Luengo, J. Israelachvili, S. Granick, Generalized effects in conned
uids: new friction map for boundary lubrication, Wear 200 (1996)
328335.
[26] D.E. Kim, N.P. Suh, On microscopic mechanisms of friction and wear,
Wear 149 (1991) 199208.