1.

0 Introduction
Dentistry is a specialised branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, prevention and study of
oral cavity related diseases. If history of medicine means the finding the ways of healing and controlling the
diseases, Dentistry walked same way since the beginning of the science. We can find the fact that science
seems like a strong personality, who always seeks prove like a judge in the court. For hundreds of years,
human endeavours and inventions with curious attitude gave answers of many questions with proves.
However, Medical science has accepted those with methodically researched and successively established the
ground of universal truth in medicine.
The contrary of truth in medicine with any other aspects (religion, theologies etc.) may arise; however the
main goal of dental practitioner should be scientific exploration which can only be done by a methodical
research procedure. From patient diagnosis to treatment, from prognosis to practicality; the dentist should
reflect the pathway of scientific methodological decision making process and outcome through the cognitive
mind.
The well accepted and established fact that the research and the outcomes and consecutively presenting them
to the individuals or to a mass audience are the general aspects of progression of the medicine study. The
continuation of professional development is deeply underpinned with the research activities and gaining
knowledge about the past and recent inventions or discoveries in medicine. On the contrary, As a human being
of contemporary digital and social networking world, we are reluctant of gaining knowledge deeply, lacking
on contribution attitude, communicating shortly and think very lightly on the logical attributes. Most of the
cases the back-stepping and agoraphobic mind is restraining the dental practitioners from the prospective
contributions in medicine.
The main goal of this book is to prepare the students of dental medicine with research oriented mind, deep
knowledge exploring professionals and enhance the research skills. The concepts and history of microscope,
the development of prognostic methods and current inventions are broadly explained to exemplify the
contributions of researchers. The book also explains and amalgamates the methodology, tools, steps of
research and the presentation techniques. The presentation techniques to the audience are expected to be the
synchronising of the quantitative as well as qualitative which will easily be comprehensible to any level of
audience ( e.g. professionals to novice).
Three things should be in mind of a dental practitioner that
a) Medicine is a science that needs proves by research in methodological way.
b) The research is a continuous process in medicine profession.
c) The Research outcome must be expressed in a simple comprehensible manner to all public.

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There should be more words on how to communicate the audience of different levels. The answer can be The
less is more. As the picture tells a lot of information than words, the pictures are preferable for
communicating the mass people. The hardest part is to explain a complex subject to a person who has no
experience or knowledge in medicine. However the pictures, examples from society and foliating the logics
with simple words can explain better than jargons of words. Last but not the least words should remember that
- the more we communicate and practice the research minded attitude, the more we develop our medicine
knowledge.
1.1 Theory of Research and methodology:
There is a close connection between theory and research. The main motivation of research is actually to find
out the theory. Various researches are designed to explore and develop various types of theories. Theory and
research are co-related as research needs past theories to prove a hypothesis to a theory. The relationship of
theory and research is transactional and determines the type of data to be collected and various challenges to
the past accepted theories. There are two words Hypothesis and Data are new and will be described in
detail in next chapters. In short, Hypothesis is the specific statement of prediction and data is the specific
information collected with certain parameter.
This chapter will help to understand the Types of Theory and Research, Distinguish Research Methodology
from Research methods, Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Research process, Describe Variables
and hypothesis, Identify sampling methods and research design.
1.1.1 Types of Theory and research
The classification of theories in general is: Descriptive, relational and Explanatory. The types of researches
designed to establish these theories are respectively descriptive, correlational and experimental.

Descriptive Theory and Research

Descriptive theories reveal the names and classification of specific dimensions or characteristics. The
target or specimen groups, or certain situations, or events are incorporated and the summaries of
common properties are established by discrete observations. The descriptive theories answer the
question like: what is or what type it is. This theory is primitive since human civilisation started
to ask questions about surroundings and they were very little known about the science and universal
phenomenon.
According to Stevens (1984), descriptive theory is categorized in two: Naming and classification.
Some phenomenon shows the dimensions and characteristics mutually exclusive, overlapping,
hierarchical, or sequential are named as Naming theory. On the other side, a classification theory

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elaborates typologies or taxonomies and the structural interrelation of the dimensions or

characteristics of a given phenomenon.
Descriptive Research (also named as exploratory research) introduces the philosophical inquiry
through critical discussion. For example, the typology of various concepts of dental health among
people can be developed by review and asking questions What is this? What type it is? What are the
existing characteristics?. Conclusively, empirical descriptive research includes case studies, surveys,
grounded theory, ethnographies, and phenomenological studies. Even a small group or community can
be intensively investigated by the specific Case studies. In quest of factual and accurate descriptions
of an intact phenomenon, survey is the best option as it employs structured instruments for data
collection. Ethnography nurtures searching trends from the perspectives of the group members. For
example this process encourages inquiry of ethnic groups ( Jewish, Muslims, Afro-Caribbean, Asian
etc. in Europe) cultural behaviour emphasising the way of life of members. The phenomenology
reveals human experiences in view of cognitive, perception aspects and effects of those perceptions on
behaviour.

Relational Theory and Correlational research

The prerequisite of relational theory is descriptive theory as Relational theory elaborates and explains
the detail relations between dimensions or characteristics of the phenomenon. The comparison and the
relation of every piece of data with every other piece are explained to discover the social process
which is dominant and characterize the phenomenon.
Correlational research is used to establish the relational theory. This type of research asks questions
like: whats happening in the phenomenon? What context or extend two or more can happen same
time? How the data are related as the specific events occur? . Empirical method is used for this
research which uses fixed-choice observation checklists, rating scales, or standardized questionnaires.
Example: Test hypotheses about cause and effect relationships, A causes B.

ExplanatoryTheory and Experimental Research

Explanatory Theory is more matured condition or formulation of the relational theory. This type of
theory explain the causes and effects like: why of changes, what will happen if?, Is treatment A
or Treatment B is better option? and predict the precise relationships.
Experimental research develops the explanatory theory. The similar empirical method is used like
Correlational research. However, this research needs more specific data to differentiate the result.
Parametric statistical techniques are used most frequently to analyze the data collected for the
experiment. For example: If the research question is what is the rate of the dental patients average
tooth loose and how it is related to the social condition, economic class and educational level?, we
need to find out the specific data of population e.g. Earning, age, education and use statistical tools.
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1.1.2 Distinguish Research Methodology from Research methods

Research methodology is the systematic and scientific problem solving way in many dimensions. Reality
doesnt exist until we prove it with using the scientific methodology. It is a process to guide the researcher and
the stakeholders to a standard of principles. Research Methodology answers the question related the question
of a researcher or reader that: how to do/conduct research and underpinned logic behind them. It rationalizes
the choice, implication and typology of method for Sampling, data collection, data analysis & report writing
in the research. It helps to learn the various techniques in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and
critical studies search.
In summary, Research method is a part of the research methodology pathway and acts as a tool of
solving problems in a research . A researcher must explain the pathway and logical base of the research
which is research methodology. In the explanation, the researcher reveals the methods he/she used to
find out the key problems.
Now the question can be raised that what are the research methods?
There are several established research methods in practice of researches: Descriptive, analytic, applied, basic,
quantitative, qualitative, conceptual and empirical. The names of the methods are self-explanatory. However,
for clear understanding it can be stated that Quantitative method is mostly dealing with numbers and
qualitative with words. If these two stand in assessment of viability, the qualitative and quantitative methods
are steering most of the researches as scientific methods for new ideas and yielding epistemological process.
Epistemology means to the idea of assumption about the world and knowledge produced differ among realist,
contextual and constructionist.
1.1.3 Comparison between quantitative and qualitative methods
Types of quantitative methods are: Analytic, True experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational and
predictive. On the other side, Qualitative research accumulates the non-numerical information such as: diary
accounts, open-ended questionnaires, un-structured interviews unstructured observations. Compare to
quantitative data, Qualitative data is vastly hard to analyse which is useful for studies at the individual level
and work on case studies.
Bryman ( 1992) mentioned that qualitative paradigms influence the researcher an opportunity to develop an
individualistic experiences and meaningful emphasizing within the social reality. Therefore, this method
include: Content / thematic analysis (CA/ TA); Grounded Theory (GT); Discursive psychology / Discourse
analysis (DA); Narrative psychology (NA), Phenomenological psychology methods such as interpretative
phenomenological analysis (IPA).

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Approach
Observation

Methodology
Quantitative
Preliminary work ( primary questionnaire

This

Textual Analysis

or prior to designing the questionnaire )

Counting in terms of researchers category

understanding the other culture

Understanding
the
participants

Interviews

and the data

Survey: Collect the data mainly by fixed

categories, typologies etc.

In depth interviews with open ended

Transcripts

choice questions to random samples

The data is checked in frequently

questions
Understanding the way of organising

is

Qualitative
fundamental

rule

of

and think about their experiences

Source: adapted from Silverman ( 1993)
Table 1: Different use of 4 research approaches to qualitative and quantitative methods
Silverman (1993) described the approaches to a research in four different categories: The observation, textual
analysis, interviews of sample group and transcripts or data. The Different aspects from the quantitative and
qualitative point are described in the table 1. As research tools these approaches and methods are synchronised
and juxtaposed to achieve the best result and assessment.

1.1.4 The research Process:

The research process is the chronological steps of a research within a structure. The structure can be deductive
or inductive. We can compare the structure of a research with an hour glass.
Picture 01:

When the structures are ready to define the research, a researcher should decide to establish the process either
in inductive or deductive way.
Picture 02: Inductive and deductive structure of research.

Basic components of pathway in the research process are as follows:

a. Identification of general problem/question

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b. Literature review ( Secondary Data)

c. Specify questions/hypotheses
d. Determination of research design/methodology
e. Sampling and Data collection (Primary Data)
f.

Data analysis/presentation

g. Interpretation of findings
h. Discussion of findings
i.

List of References and Bibliography ( Very important fact)

a. Identification of general problem/question

The researchers find their own specific question from discrete broad questions available in the branch of
knowledge ( e.g. Dental medicine). The problem or question should be identifiable, distinct and doesnt show
the reinvention of the already answered question (already researched topics). The established research topics
can be a reviewed research topic when the researchers debate and disagree in many logical facts. The question
is not merely a raised question in researchers mind. The questions or problems should be current and well
discussed in the area of knowledge.
b. Literature Review
The researcher should search and review the past information or researches in the selected area of study. The
review will help to summarise and evaluate and clarify any previous attempts and research findings. This
process will give a theoretical base and significant guideline to the author determining the typology and way
to forward. The researcher should find out previous journals, research papers and books related to the problem
or question and related the knowledge, set guidance and cite the logical explanation of the raised questions of
dissimilarity. The necessity of reading evaluating and analysing of all collected literature is compulsory to
build the relationships between the literature and researchers field of research.
Literature review is considered as secondary data. Secondary Data refers to the information already in the
place which is searched analysed and invented by previous researches or data collectors. However, there are
more types of secondary data similar to Literature review are: Systematic review, Metanalysis, Analysis of
existing data collected for another purpose.
c. Specify Question Or Hypothesis

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Subsequent of the literature review, the researchers establish hypothesis or in other word the tentative
statement indicating the relationship between two or more outcomes. It explains the expectation and possible
rational results of the research. The researcher and the reader should remember that the hypothesis is not the
final and correct statement. For example, the researcher has decided the hypothesis that the average longevity
of the zirconia crown can vary on the lifestyle of the patient. The hypothesis may be wrong after conducting
the research and receiving the results. The hypothesis stands as the prediction and the goal of the research
which may be right or wrong at the end. There can be multiple hypothesis and predictions affecting the
research goal with multidimensional. However the primary goal setting and decision making is priority for the
researcher. In many cases, the outcome may distinguish and deviance from the hypothesis. This phenomenon
is a part of learning curve and develops the skills of the researcher. The declaration of the fact can help the
author the other options to explore in future studies.
The question may arise: How Do Researchers Come up with a Hypothesis?. The researcher usually
determines the hypothesis from the specific established theory built on previous researches. For
example, prior research shows that the immune compromised patients are more infected with
periodontal diseases. So a researcher might determine the hypothesis that: People with immune
compromised more likely to have osteomyelitis and abscess in mandible or Maxillary bones. In
other cases, the researchers find their hypotheses from the existing believes and thoughts (not
proven yet) in society.
We should also emphasise on the Elements of a Good Hypothesis which can lead to a successful research
outcome. The simplest way is asking question about the hypothesis. We can have some sample
questions:

Is my hypothesis based on my research topic?

Can my hypothesis be tested with different parameters e.g. Statistics, qualitative, case based?

Does my hypothesis include and give scope to analyse the independent and dependent variables ?

Have I spend some time doing background of my research after the literature review and find out the
unsolved unexplored questions by other authors or researchers?

The easiest way to develop the hypothesis is to fit in researchers question in general format.
If (this happens to my independent variables) then ( what will happen to my dependent variables).
For example, lets take the same hypothesis we discussed above. People with immune compromised more
likely to have osteomyelitis and abscess in mandible or Maxillary bones. Here, the independent variable is
People with immune compromised and the dependant variable is cases of osteomyelitis.
In other words: If { the patients are seen as immune compromised} we will observe { the osteomyelitis is
common in mandible or maxillary bones in those patients}.
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The Researcher may make a checklist to develop a good hypothesis.

The checklist can be:

The hypothesis is realistic and doable. (Does the hypothesis focus on something that researcher can
actually test? )

Inclusion of dependant and independent variables ( Does the hypothesis include both an independent
and dependent variable?)

Flexibility to manipulate the variables. ( Can the researcher manipulate the variables?)

Ethical standard compliance. ( does the hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?)

d. Determination of research design/methodology

The two strands of research design process are: establishing the methodology focused on the goal and
exclusion of the irrelevant information. Research methodology as discussed is the logical explanation of the
research pathway to achieve the goal. The methodology comprised of the methods conducted in the research.
The researcher can decide the best methodology suits the research by asking checklist questions:

What are the research methods you have decided? Quantitative, or qualitative, or a mixture of both?

What is the expectation of outcome by using these methods?

What might not be able to discover by these methods?

Do your research questions suit the methods and the goal of research? What about previous studies
and researches?

What type of disadvantages and problem you may face to undergo the methods?

What are their advantages?

What is the basis of inquiring the relevance of the data collected for these methods?

e. Sampling and Data collection

The careful selection of samples is a influential factors of the final outcome of the research. The another term
Population stands for the whole set of the all observation and sample means a subset of the population.
Sampling seems like a straightforward process just collecting some people together. However, the process is
not that simple. Where a researcher should start? Will the person asking people to take the survey? Should the
person send out an email to every person in the sample?
The sampling is a well-defined process to help researchers choose a good representing sample. The basic steps
of sampling are:
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Identify the relevant interested population from broader perspective. A population represents the
whole possible data that can represent the research aspects.. For example, All diabetic patients in the
world with dental caries are population.

Second step is specification of a frame for sampling. A group of similar properties of the Population
can represent A sampling frame. For example, The diabetic patients with dental caries in Timisoara
can be the a sampling Frame. The sampling frame is not same as population however represents the
population.

Third step is to specify the sampling method. There are two ways to choose a sample from a sampling
frame: randomised samples or non-randomised sampling. There are merits and demerits of both ways.
If the sampling is non-randomised and selective the result may be biased and result will not show the
reality. If the sampling is randomised the true result may vary and differ or variance of the data may
be bigger than expected. The best way is to mix the random and no-random sampling. The probability
and non-probability aspects of selected samples can affect the sampling process. The Probability
sampling includes Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Random Sampling, Stratified Sampling and
Cluster Sampling. The non-Probability sampling includes Convenience, Judgmental, Quota and
Snow-ball. Both instigates the size of the sampling and define the final sample.

The question can arise that why we dont consider the whole population? The answer is : If we consider and
take data from whole population will cost high, take huge time and accuracy can be deviated, inaccessible to
every single data and deviation of the observation. However, the specific samples for example Diabetic
patients in Timisoara may be biased as the race and genetics vary in places of the human being. The sampling
method and the testing the hypothesis can be done in different samples (different place).
Picture 03: Chart of the sampling design process
f.

Data analysis/presentation

The data achieved from the sample group need to be analysed. The analysis tools are used with quantitative
values. For example the variance, mean, mood or Null hypothesis tests etc. are statistical tools researchers use
to determine and analyse the data. Qualitative data are considered in a measuring scale with two extreme
scales (extreme positive or 10 and extreme negative or 0).
g. Interpretation of findings

h. Discussion of findings
i.

List of References and Bibliography ( Very important fact)

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1.1.5 Contemporary Dental Medicine researches

Monomers Release from Dental Composites: Effect of Immersion Media and Photoactivation Light
Source

The Role of the Microbial Biofilm in the Pathogenesis of Periodontal Disease

Total Occlusal Convergence and Margin Design in Relation to Survival of Glass-Ceramic Crowns

The injectable composite for all indications

Specialists' management decisions and attitudes towards mucositis and peri-implantitis

The Kushida Index as a screening tool for obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea syndrome

Relationship between Malocclusion and Oral Habits

Placement of implant in close proximity to supernumerary tooth

Stem cell and the regenerative dentist

Effect of ageing on oral health-related quality of life

Will Portland cement be a cheaper alternative to mineral trioxide aggregate in clinical use?: A
comprehensive review of literature.

1.2 Presentation techniques and ideas

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