Lead-free Solder Implementation for Automotive Electronics

Gordon Whitten
Delphi Delco Electronics Systems
1 Corporate Center, Kokomo, IN 46901
gordon.c.whitten @delphiauto.com

Abstract
Lead-free solders for electronics have been actively
pursued since the early 1990's here and abroad for
environmental, legislative, and competitive reasons. The
National Center for Manufacturing Sciences (NCMS-US)', the
International Tin Research Institute (ITRI-UK)', Swedish
Institute of Production Engineering Research ( I v F - S ~ e d e n ) ~ ,
Japan Institute of Electronics Packaging (JIEP -Japan)4,
Improved Design Life and Environmentally Aware
Manufacture of Electronics Assemblies by Lead-free
Soldering ( I D E A L S - E U ~ O ~and,
~ ) ~ , more recently, the
National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (NEMI-US)6
have been aggressively seeking lead-free solutions.
The automotive environment is one of the toughest since it
includes chemicals both solvents and salt spray, wide
temperature ranges, vibration, and humidity. A change in
alloy requires extensive testing and durable materials.
Tests of PWB surface finishes, Tg, and thickness will be
described as they relate to Lead-free solder implementation.
Requirements for boards and components will also be
discussed.
Introduction
Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has been working on
Lead-free solder since 1993. At that time there was great
concern that a rapid move away from SnPb eutectic solder
would have grave consequences for the automotive industry.
All along, the intent was to methodically select a reliable leadfree alloy, characterize the process window to ensure a
capable process, and work with suppliers who can provide
reliable parts with lead-free surface finishes. The automotive
environment is one of the most difficult for electronics.
Vibration is present continuously, with wide thermal
excursions, many solvents, salt spray, and high current. The
mission life is also quite long and increasing. While shortlived consumer products may be able to convert quickly, there
is real concern that converting away from SnPb eutectic will
be extremely risky. For that reason, Delphi Delco Electronics
Systems has been, working aggressively to develop and
validate Lead-free Solder.
NCMS Project
Delphi Delco Electronics Systems experience began in
1993 with participation in the National Center for
Manufacturing Sciences Lead Free Solder Effort. That $10
million dollar effort which extended over several years,
identified several candidate alloys, but also identified several
significant problems. It has been described in detail elsewhere
so only the major aspects will be reviewed here.'

0-7803-5908-9/00/$10.00
02000 IEEE

Figure 1 NCMS Downselection

Figure 2 Bathtub Curve

An initial list of 79 possible alloys was down-selected to 7
for in-depth reliability testing. The reliability tests explored
the rising portion of the classical bathtub failure curve for the
alloys under condideration.
The 3-Parameter Weibull Function describes solder
wearout failure very well in this region as shown in the
accompanying fit.

where CDF(t) is the Cumulative Device Failures

normalized to 1, t is the time, sometimes expressed in cycles,
p is the shape parameter which measures the width of the
transition region, y is the first failure time, and q is the weibull
life, the time where 1-l/e or about 63% of the devices have
failed. It's important to note that a 2-parameter weibull
function does not fit solder wearout properly since it assumes
a useful life of 0, i.e, y = 0.

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The only other significant failure in SMT testing was 1206

resistors which failed well beyond 1000 cycles of -55 to
+125C testing as shown below. The dark vertical bars
indicate the end of testing.

...,
C p r r . ~ J ~ + l ; o c : oM
l .~IMilhl

Figure 3 Three Parameter Weibull Fit to Data

There were three different test vehicles used by the NCMS
team. The SolderabilityTest Vehicle (STV) was used to
assess manufacturability early in the program. The Surface
Mount Reliability Test Vehicle(SMRTV) and Through Hole
Reliability Test Vehicles(RTV-TH) were used later in the
program. The alloys were tested at both 0 to lOOC with a 30
minute thermal cycle, and at -55 to +125C with a 72 minutes
cycle.
SMRTV Each 11 x 17" board contained:
6 - 132 Pin BQFP
6 - 84 pin PLCC (J-Lead)
12 - 44 LCCC
60 - 1206 Chip Resistors (Alumina)
60 - 1206 Chip Capacitors (Barium Titanate)
There were five boards tested for each alloy, so that there
were 60 LCCC per alloy, 300 resistors/alloy, etc. Like devices
were daisy-chained together with by-pass pads that allowed a
failed device to be bypassed thereby enabling further testing
of the remaining devices.
The LCCC's were the first to fail as expected. The
significant difference in CTE between the organic laminate
and alumina chip package results in great stress on the solder
joints.

aom

?ma

Figure 5 1206 Resistors on FR4

RTV-TH - Since there were fewer parts available for the
through hole test vehicle, the results were less conclusive.
There were several important conclusions from the NCMS
work. There was not a 'drop-in' replacement for SnPb
eutectic solder. Bismuth and Lead together yielded a very
wide pasty range which exacerbated what was referred to as
'fillet lifting'.

Figure 6 'Fillet Lifting"

'Fillet Lifting' was really a misnomer. As the module
cooled, the alloy solidified. As the module cooled further the
organic laminate with it's much greater CTE pulled away from
the fillet. This was not caused by a lack of wetting or lack of
adhesion as shown in the next figure which is an enlargement
of the previous figure. The intermetallic layer can be clearly
seen on the lower pad layer which indicates that the solder did
wet the surface.

Figure 4 LCCC on FR4 for Two Different

Thermal Profiles

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melting points, this introduces significant stress on through

hole joints during solidification and cool-down.

Table 1 CTE of Typical Assembly Materials

Material
FR4QY)
FR4(Z)

16 to 22 C Tg 5 t o 11
53 t o 79 T p 303 t o 425

Comer

SnPb Solder

1
1
-

Figure 7 Fillet Lift Showing Intermetallic on

Lower Pad *
While reliability data was encouraging, there was a
significant amount of work that remained to be done. The
alloys of interest, in general, had higher melting points and
would therefore increase thermal stress on components some
of which were already operating on the edge with present
SnPb reflow profiles.

Delphi Delco Electronics Systems Assembly Experience

with Lead-Free Solder
Electric Vehicle PCM During that same period, an
Electric Vehicle Power Control module was hand assembled
at Delphi Delco Electronics Systems using two Lead-free
alloys. The assembled PCMs were fully functional, though
they were not subjected to reliability testing.
Audio Receiver Board - In 1997, 200 Lead-free audio
receiver boards were assembled using Lead-free solder, an
existing product, and normal manufacturing tools.
With
normal SnPb product used as controls, 96 of these Lead-free
modules were subjected to typical Product Validation Testing.

Figure 9 Variation of CTE(s1ope) with Temperature

above Tg for X,Y and Z Direction in FR4(from
ThermaYMechanical Analyzer)
The higher melting point of the lead-free alloys used in the
assembly resulted in the alloy solidifying significantly above
the T, for the most commonly used FR4 (T,
125C).
Because of this, there is significant stress on the solder joint
during cool-down. Factors impacting the stress include board
thickness, pad diameter, z-axis CTE for the FR4 board,
through pin diameter, and modulus for the materials.

Figure 8 Lead-Free Audio Receiver Board

I75C

The fillet lifting problem described earlier, played a major

role in the experimental design of the Audio Receiver Board
build. From earlier work, the Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion (CTE) of the FR4 board was known to increase
significantly above the glass transition temperature, Tg as
shown in Figure 9. The slope of the curve corresponds to the
CTE of the material. The X and Y CTEs are roughly the
same, but the Z axis CTE increases significantly above the Tg
as shown in the figure. With low Tg material, and elevated

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170C
3 Board Surface Finishes
OSP / Copper
OrganoSilver
Ami
The good news from the assembly and subsequent testing
was that there was no apparent fillet lifting observed. In fact
the Lead-free assemblies out performed the associated SnPb
assemblies as shown below. Figure 11 is typical of normal
SnPb eutectic solder subjected to thermal shock. The second
is a

small hand-held security device which utilizes RF to open

automotive door locks. A number of production units were
built for test purposes using Lead-free solder.

Figure 13 Lead-free Keyfob

Figure 11 Cracked SnPb Joint from Thermal Shock

With the keyfob build, we discovered that in general the

reflow profile used to form the solder joints of the SMT
components was too cool. Upon examination of earlier
NCMS cross-sections the same effect is observed.

Figure 12 Lead-free Solder Through Joint subjected to

Thermal Shock
Validation test results of the audio receiver boards were
positive. There were two functional failures observed for the
96 units. Both of these were component failures. In one case
a capacitor was cracked by torsional handling of the thinner
than normal boards. In the other case, a semiconductor part
failed. No failures were related to Lead-free solder joints.
A m i had the best wetting with Organo-Silver close
behind.
As one might expect at the higher reflow
temperatures,OSP/Cu had the poorest wettability. There were
no differences in reliability
Keyfob - In 1998 there was interest in Europe at our
Texton subsidiary in a lead-free keyfob. The keyfob is the

Figure 14 SOIC with Cool Reflow

In the preceding figure voids can be seen which were
created by the flux as a result of a cool reflow. After several
iterations, the reflow profile temperature was increased and
voiding was minimized.
Once again the product passed all validation testing.
Later Development Work - There is increased concern
about the impact the higher reflow temperatures will have on
components. LEDs in particular are quite temperature
sensitive with internal delamination and subsequent failure.

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Some PLCCs have also been observed to delaminate because

of entrapped moisture. This well known popcorn effect will
be aggravated by the higher reflow temperatures and steeper
ramm.

Figure 15 Silicon Die Delamination at the

Paddle Interface

Internal Testing
External Testing
3. Identifying new tests that may be required by the new
processing and materials.
4. Identifying industry reliability standards that may be
impacted by Pbfree processing.
5 . Proposing changes for those standards identified above,
to the main Lead-free group.
The current plan encompasses several different tests:
Electromigration and Dendritic Growth - One of the
concerns in migrating to a new solder alloy is the introduction
of a new failure mechanism. Silver and Tin are known
dendritic growth elements that are present in the new alloys.
The IPC B25 test coupon will be used by alloy suppliers to
extensively test solder pastes containing the proposed new
Tin, Silver, Copper ternary eutectic alloy.
Thermal Shock - Thermal shock testing has been defined
as a thermal ramp exceeding 20C/minute. Typically the
testing involves a dual chamber oven with two different
thermal reservoirs, one at the high temperature and one at the
low temperature of the thermal cycle. Parts are moved
mechanically between the two chambers with a transition time
of minutes. As a result of the dynamic nature of the transition,
the temperatures of board and components may vary widely
during the transition.
Thermal Cycling - Thermal cycle testing is typically
done in a single chamber which is heated and cooled in a very
tightly controlled manner with a typical thermal cycle as
shown in Figure 1.
In contrast to Thermal Shock testing, thermal cycle testing
is characterized by a thermal ramp of less than 15C/min with
10CImin typical. The thermal profile is controlled by heating
or cooling the air which is rapidly circulated through the
modules mounted in the chamber. While the air temperature
is tightly controlled, the profile of the actual modules in the
chamber is dependent on thermal load, so the profile often has
to be modified in order to assure that the profile experienced
by the modules is close to that shown below.

Figure 16 Enlarged View at the Dieaddle Interface

Clearly, the effort required to requalify components for
higher reflow temperatures will be an enormous task. The
Lead-free component finish problem pales by comparison.

NEMI Leadfree Effort and Reliability Plan

Beginning in late 1999, the National Electronics
Manufacturing Initiative (NEMI) has facilitated an extensive
Lead-free Solder Task Force. The Pbfree Reliability Team is
a sub-group of that Task Force. The Objective of the
Reliability Sub-Group is to identify the reliability impact of
conversion to Pb-free Solders.
The task group will accomplish the objective by:
1. Identifying current tests used to determine reliability
2. Developing information on the relative performance of
the alloys suggested by the Alloy Sub-Group along with
the components including PWBs suggested by the
Component Sub-Group. This may be accomplished by:
Literature Review
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Figure 17 Desired Thermal Profile

2000 Electronic Components and Technology Conference

With this process, the board and component temperatures

are closer together than with the thermal shock process,
though they still vary somewhat.
Its important to note that the thermal profile agreed to by
the NEMI reliability team is not adequate for underhood or
on-engine applications in the automotive environment.
Typical thermal profiles there are significantly warmer
approaching 160C in some cases.
Bend Testing - Handling of boards during manufacturing
or during field use can lead to failure because of board
flexure. This is particularly true with newer attachment
methods such as BGA, CSP, and Flip Chip attachment. The
rigid semiconductor structure will not flex with the organic
laminate board. This can lead to solder joint failure. Testing
of this mode of failure is important, since the weakness of the
solder joint contributes directly to this failure mechanism.
Three and four point bend tests have been designed which
explore the curvature of the board that will lead to solder joint
failure.
High Temperature Soak - The purpose of high
temperature soak testing is to determine whether or not
intermetallic growth at the solder/substrate or solder/device
boundary will be a problem. Often, at elevated temperatures,
solid state migration can take place. As a result, more mobile
elements will migrate rapidly leaving voids behind which can
weaken the joint. This test is not planned in the current round
of NEMI testing because of resource limitations.
Vibration Testing Vibration testing is normally used
with system level testing. In this case, the module is rigidly
mounted to a platform which is vibrated with a prescribed
frequency and amplitude spectrum. It is very important in the
automotive industry where there are abundant acoustical
sources capable of generating resonant modes in an electronic
module. Well designed modules are expected to pass
vibration testing without incident. In the military and avionics
world, the parts are often tested to failure by increasing the g
forces until failure occurs. There is some interest in vibration
testing coupled with high temperature soak though I know of
no current standard test for this. This test is not planned in the
current round of NEMI testing because of resource limitations.

The NEMI testing which is currently underway will

provide information on newer packages that were not
available at the time of the original NCMS tests. A major part
of the NEMI effort will focus on updating the IC package
moisture standards to reflect the higher reflow temperatures.
Opinions expressed here are solely those of the author. No
approval by Delphi Delco Electronics is expressed or implied.

Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and
support given by the Lead-free Reliability Team of the
National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative and the earlier
Lead-Free Solder Project of the National Center for
Manufacturing Sciences. The author also acknowledges
significant contributions from the Lead-free team at Delphi
Delco Electronics Systems. Special thanks to Pascal Bezier,
Pam Sneller, Del Walls, and Matt Walsh who provided
significant input for this paper.
References
National Center for Manufacturing Science, 3025
Boardwalk, Ann Arbor, MI 48108-3266
ITRI Ltd, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex, U 3 8 3PJ,
UK, www.itri.co.uk/index.htm
Institutet for Verkstadsteknisk, Forskning, Argongatan 30,
SE-431 53 Molndal, Sweden, www.ivf.se
Japan Institute of Electronic Packaging, 3- 12-2 Nlshiogikita,
Suginami-ku, Tokyo 167-0042, Japan, www.jiep.or.jp
BriteEuRam 111, Project Number BE95-1994, D.M.
Jacopson and M.R. Harrison, GEC J Research, 14(2),
1997, www.cordis.lu/brite-euram/src/1994.htm
National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative, 2214 Rock
Hill Road, Suite 110, Herndon, VA 20170-4214,
www.nemi.org
Lead-Free Solder Project Final Report, NCMS Report
0401RE96, National Center for Manufacturing Sciences,
3025 Boardwalk, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108-3266
* Photos courtesy of Denis OConnell, Alpha Metals,

Conclusions
The electronics industry is moving aggressively towards
lead-free solder implementation. While legislation was the
early driver, market pressures are beginning, and they may be
more important ultimately. The increase in market share in
the European market experienced by a Japanese AudioCD
player demonstrates that the market may be moving to
environmentally friendly products.
Reflow soldering will probably be implemented first since
it requires only a change in paste. A major hindrance at this
time is the availability of components qualified at the higher
temperatures required for the new SnAgCu alloy. Ultimately,
lead-free component finishes will be required for a truly leadfree assembly.
Wave soldering has been less fully characterized, so it is
expected that wave solder products will follow somewhat
later.

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2000 ElectronicComponents and Technology Conference