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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain how observations may be used as an assessment technique

Discuss how and what to observe in the classroom
Justify the role of oral presentations in subjects other than language
Discuss how oral presentations may be used to assess learning in different
subjects
Explain the role of portfolio assessment as an alternative assessment strategy

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6.0 Introduction
6.1 What is Observation?
6.2 Assessing Behaviour Through
Observation
6.3 Assessing Students Through Oral
Presentations
6.4 Example 1: Oral Presentation in
Primary School Science
6.5 Example 2: Oral Presentations in
Economics
6.6 Portfolio Assessment
6.7 Summary
Key Terms
References

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: What to Assess
Chapter 3: Using Objective Tests
Chapter 4: Using Essay Tests
Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Chapter 6: Using Observations, Oral Tests,
and Portfolios
Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of
Assessment Methods
Chapter 8: Item Analysis
Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores and
Reporting

In the last chapter we discussed the role of projects and practicals in the assessment
of student learning. In this chapter, we will examine another three types of
assessment tools commonly used in assessing student learning in certain subject
areas. These assessment tools are observation checklists, oral tests and portfolio
assessment. Educators are always observing behaviour in the classroom and making
decisions based on their observations. Oral tests which are often used in the language
arts is becoming a popular evaluation technique in other subject areas. Increasingly,
portfolio assessment is gaining importance as an assessment strategy seeking to
present a more holistic view of the learner.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

6.1 WHAT IS OBSERVATION?

What is observation? Generally, it refers to the process of gaining information

through ones senses especially, from seeing and hearing. Behavioural observation
refers to the observation of behaviour other than that obtained from paper-and-pencil
tests (such as a science test or an attitude scale). There are two basic approaches to
observation qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative observation is essentially descriptive. The observer begins without

preconceived ideas about what will be observed and describes behaviour that
seems important. The observer can be actively involved (i.e. active observer) and
joins the group being observed and participates in its activities. Alternatively, the
observer only watches what is occurring. Whichever, technique is used prolonged
periods of observation are required. Qualitative observations may reveal an indepth understanding of the subject observed but they are difficult to implement
because they require sophisticated and highly trained observers, the analysis of
data collected takes a long time; the notes kept by the observer may be difficult to
interpret and summarise; and more importantly it is difficult to maintain
objectivity and reliability (Suen and Ary, 1989).

Quantitative observation involves determination of the behaviours that are to be

observed. The time and place for observation are carefully selected and specified.
Usually, the frequency of occurrence of a particular behaviour is recorded using a
predetermined rubric. A major criticism of the quantitative approach is that, it may
oversimplify the meaning and interpretation of behaviour. Despite this criticism,
quantitative analysis of behaviour has proven to be very useful in developing
theory and practice related to the modification of human behaviour.

6.2 ASSESSING BEHAVIOUR THROUGH OBSERVATION

As humans, we are always monitoring the behaviour of others. How often

have we described the behaviour of a colleague as unreasonable, temperamental or
disgusting based on our observation! Teachers are constantly monitoring their
students. Sometimes they are just keeping an eye on things to make sure that their
classrooms are orderly or just keeping track of how things are going on. Often they
notice behaviour or situations that seem important and require their attention. For
example, Radzi is wandering around the classroom, Kumar is asleep, Chee Seng is
looking out of the window and so forth. In other situations, teachers look for specific
behaviour to observe such as social behaviour that should be reinforced (e.g. to say
please), attention to task (e.g. look at the wall-map), performance of particular skills
and so forth. Information obtained from observations can be used to make academic
and instructional decisions for example, planning a lesson for students who appear
to be uninterested in mathematics. The are two types of observational systems:
obtrusive and unobtrusive.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

Obtrusive Observation: In this type of observation, students are aware that

they are being observed. For example, the teacher has an observational
checklist and observes how students behave during group activities or in the
science laboratory. With this type of observation, students who are conscious
that they are being observed may put on their best behaviour and respond
enthusiastically to impress the teacher.
Unobtrusive Observation: In this type of observation, students are not aware
that they are being observed. For example, observers can sit behind or at the
side of a classroom, and they can avoid eye contact and verbal interactions
with students. Gradually, most students become desensitised to observers
when the observers become part of their daily environment.

DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOUR
Behaviour is observable and behaviour is measured in terms of its observable
attributes. Salvia and Ysseldyke (1995) propose that behaviour may be measured
based on four dimensions: duration, latency, frequency and amplitude (see Figure
6.1).

Duration

Frequency

Latency

Amplitude

Figure 6.1 Assessing Dimensions of Behaviour in a Classroom

Duration: The duration of a behaviour may be assessed if it has a distinct

beginning and ending. For example, in a 30 minute activity, Shalin was
walking around for about 10 minutes.

Frequency: Similarly, the frequency of a behaviour may be assessed if it has a

distinct beginning and ending. It refers to the occurrences of a particular type
of behaviour. For example, in one period of 45 minutes, Kumar walked to the
back of the class four times.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

Latency: The term latency refers to the length of time between an instruction
is give and the beginning of the behaviour. For example, a teacher might
request students to take out their history textbook. Teik Leongs latency for
that task is the length of time between that teachers instruction and Teik
Leong s placing his book on his desk.

Amplitude: The term amplitude refers to the intensity or strength of a

behaviour.

SELF-CHECK 6.1

a) What is the difference between obtrusive and unobtrusive

observation of classroom behaviour?
b) Discuss the FOUR dimensions of assessing behaviour
through observations?

WHY USE OBSERVATIONS?

Observational techniques are commonly used to informally assess student behaviours,
attitudes, skills, concepts or processes. Anecdotal notes, checklist, video, audio
recording or photos may be used to formalise and document the observations made.
Observations are used:
To collect data on behaviours that are difficult to assess by other methods
(e.g., attitude toward problem solving, selection and usage of a specific
strategy, modelling a concept with a manipulative skill, ability to work
effectively in a group, persistence, concentration and so forth).
To observe and record the way students solve problems and complete tasks.
To ascertain whether students (individually or in a group) are attaining the
intended objectives with observational tools (Do I need to reteach? Are
students ready to move on?).
HOW DOES ONE USE OBSERVATIONS TO ASSESS STUDENTS?
Record and date your observations during and soon after the observation.
Develop a shorthand system and be careful that you avoid making inferences or
judgement but record what you actually observe. It is best that you observe in a
natural classroom setting so that you can see how they respond under normal
conditions. It is easier to observe students behaviour if they are working in small
groups rather than alone. Have an observation plan, but be flexible enough to note
other significant behaviours. You may find it helpful to record either many behaviours
for one student or one behaviour for many students.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

CRITERIA
Behaviour Exhibited:
Makes detailed observations
Able to make inferences from observations
Uses right measurement units
Measures accurately
Listens carefully
Communicates clearly
Recognises patterns
Controls variables
Interprets results cautiously
Makes predictions based on data

Student A

Student B

Student C

Attitudes:
Confidence in using science
Flexibility in doing science
Self-reflection in scientific thinking
Persevering at scientific tasks
Table 6.1 Observational Checklist for Science Process Skills and Attitude
[source: Alaska Department of Education & Early Development.
Curriculum Framework. June. 1996]
Table 6.1 is an example of an Observational Checklist that may used in assessing
behaviours in the science laboratory. Note that TWO kinds of student behaviours are
observed, namely; the actual behaviours exhibited and their attitudes (which is
inferred from their behaviours).

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

GENERAL OBSERVATIONAL CHECKLIST

OF STUDENT BEHAVIOUR
This is a checklist which may be used in observing student behaviour in any
classroom. However, not all the statements listed will apply.
1. Which students appear to be leaders? Note behaviours that suggest this.
2. Which students finish their work first? What might contribute to this behaviour
and what are the apparent outcomes?
3. Which students finish their work last? What might contribute to this behaviour and
what are the apparent outcomes?
4. What do the students do with free time? How are these activities structured?
5. What behaviours indicate the degree of involvement of students with assigned
work and unstructured activities?
6. Which students tend to get off task easily? Under what conditions are these
behaviours observed?
7. Which students consistently participate in group activities? Under what conditions
are these behaviours observed?
8. Which students appear reluctant to participate in group activities? Under what
conditions are these behaviours observed?
9. Which students seem to be dependent on the teachers time or attention? What
behaviours suggest this?

6.1 ACTIVITY

a) Using the above General Observational Checklist, observe

student behaviours in one of the classes you teach.
b) Discuss your findings with your classmates.
c) What modifications would you have to make to the
Checklist to use it in your subject area?

6.3 ASSESSING STUDENTS THROUGH ORAL PRESENTATIONS

WHAT IS MEANT BY SPEAKING

Students consistently use oral language as their primary vehicle for explaining,
clarifying (by asking questions), giving their opinion, expressing their feelings and so
forth. Oral expression is the core process in formulating and sharing human
experience (Marzano, 1992). It is a key pedagogical method through which students
make meaning by stating what they have learned in their own words. When students
do this, they are demonstrating ability to speak clearly (intelligibility), ability to adapt

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
the forms of speech to suit the occasion, ability to express ideas without hesitation and
an in-depth understanding of the knowledge acquired. This ability to express oneself
orally cannot be captured in a paper-and-pencil test.
ORAL ASSESSMENT IN LANGUAGE SUBJECTS
Most of us are aware that oral tests are widely used in the language classroom
(Bahasa Malaysia, English, Mandarin, Tamil, Arabic and so forth) focusing on the
ability of students to communicate ideas and articulate clearly. Macintosh and Hale
(1976) suggest that oral assessment ought to focus on three areas of assessment:
Technical Excellence: This would include such factors as clarity of
enunciation, fluency, quality of voice, extent and range of vocabulary,
correct emphasis and intonation and freedom from serious grammatical
error
Ability to Communicate: This would include, for example, the ability to
follow, develop and maintain an argument, and the ability to convey ideas
to another person in a clear and coherent manner.
The Human Factor: This would include for example, the natural flow of
ideas, evidence of a sense of humour, signs of originality and sincerity,
signs of interest in others and in the world around the student.
The oral assessment of language can be highly structured or it can relatively
unstructured. When it becomes too structured, it may loose some of the elements of
authenticity and the testing situation may be artificial. Measurement of speaking
ability is a difficult task because you need to convert a common everyday activity
such as speaking into a testing context. The challenge is to find a balance between
authenticity and objectivity. If the testing situation is unstructured, it may be authentic
but you may sacrifice objectivity and vice-versa. According to Frith and Macintosh
(1984), the most frequently used techniques in the oral assessment of language are:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Reading a piece of prose, poetry or drama

Reading from a book which the student has enjoyed
Picture-bases tests
Role playing
A short talk, based upon some recent experience of the student
Answering questions asked by the examiner, or by other pupils in a group
situation
o An individual interview which remains a popular technique in many
examination settings
ORAL ASSESSMENT IN OTHER SUBJECTS
In its simplest form, speaking can be defined as saying words. However,
when using speaking as a tool for assessment, most teachers tend to focus on the more
narrow definition of public speaking which is making a speech before an audience.
Using this more narrow definition, assessment of speaking has tended to focus only
on the mechanics of giving the speech such as delivery, organisation, audience, and so
forth.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Here, we want to broaden the
definition of speaking to include
oral discourse. Oral discourse is more
than mere speaking but also includes
talking about the content (Marzano,
1988). Teachers have tended to focus
on the language aspects of oral tests
and ignored the content aspect of such
tests. If content is included as an
important component of oral tests,
than this form of evaluation may be
adopted in other subjects in the
curriculum
such
as
science,
geography,
history,
religious
education, moral education and so
forth (see Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2 Oral Assessment in Science at
One of the most common
the Primary Level
approaches adopted by many teachers
is to ask students to get up in front of the class and give an oral report on some
subject. How can an oral report assignment become a vehicle for students to
demonstrate their content understanding? The following two examples, illustrate how
oral assessment may be used in the assessment of science economics learning
outcomes.
6.4 EXAMPLE 1:
ORAL ASSESSMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOL SCIENCE

Gosh.. I have
to make an oral
presentation of
my experiment

It may seem strange for teachers to include oral

presentations as a teaching-learning strategy in science. It
may be even more strange to use it as an assessment
technique. Traditionally, many educators tend to relate
oral assessment to the language arts. The following is an
example of how a teacher has incorporated oral
assessment in science teaching [source: Oregon State
Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for
Primary School Science]. The class consists of Year
Three students who were given the task of gathering
information in the library on an animal of their choosing
(see Table 6.2).
Students were instructed write their notes on cards
on basic information about the animal and prepare a 3-4
minute speech to present in front of the class. The main
emphasis of the task was how to stand in front of the
group, maintain eye contact, and project one's voice.
Students are given a short list of questions to answer
which also focussed on the content of the speech.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

Primary Science: Instructions for the Oral Presentation

Here is your task:

Select an animal from the following list. Select an animal that you find
interesting and that you would like to learn more about.

Frog, Spider, Bear, Tiger, Butterfly, Cat, Whale, Dolphin, Hornbill, Cobra, Sparrow,
Crow, Buffalo, Dog.

Find out as much as you can about the animal you have selected. Get
information form books, magazines, people and the internet. The media
specialist will also help you how to use the Internet to more information.

Focus on the following:

o How does this animal's looks change from when it is a baby until it
becomes an adult?
o Where is this animal's habitat? What does this animal's home look
like?
o What does this animal eat when it is a baby? When it is young? When
it is an adult?
o What does this animal do in different seasons (spring, summer, winter,
and fall)? How does the animal change based on the weather?

As you find out more about your animal, write notes about what you learned on
note cards.

Prepare a speech about your animal. The speech should be about 34 minutes
long. Use the information on your note cards to create your speech.

Table 6.2 Guidelines on What Students are Required to Do

Students were told that they could use props to help them when they made their oral
presentation. For example, they could use pictures of the animal they were going to
speak about. They could refer to the notes jotted down on cards but they should try
not to read from the notes. Students were also told that it is OK to have someone
listen to them practice their speech and give feedback on how to improve their

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
presentation. What kinds of skills do you think are being developed by these
instructions to students?

Primary Science:
Sample Scoring
Presentation

Guide

for

the

did

a I am doing I need to
on
job in this area
this
area

Oral really great OK in this work

Knowledge About My Animal

I told what my animal looks like as an

adult.
I told what my animal looks like as a baby
to show how it changes over time.
I told where my animal lives and what its
home is like.
I told what my animal eats when it is a
baby, when it is young and when it is an
adult.
I told what my animal does in different
seasons (spring, summer, winter, and fall)
and how it changes based on the weather.
I answered questions from the audience.

Delivery

I looked up at the audience.

I spoke loud enough for everyone to hear.
I spoke clearly.
I spoke at a good rate, not too fast or too
slowly.

Organisation

I had a good beginning to my speech.

My ideas made sense and flowed one to
the other.
I had a good ending for my speech.

Table 6.3 Criteria for Scoring the Oral Presentation

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Note that students are also told on how their oral presentations is going to
assessed (see Table 6.3), Focus is on delivery, organization and content knowledge;
and students are told that a good speech has a beginning, a middle, and an end.
6.2 ACTIVITY

a) Are oral presentations widely used as an assessment

tool in your school or institution?
b) Do you think oral tests are appropriate as an assessment
technique in your subject area? Elaborate.

6.5 EXAMPLE 2:
ORAL ASSESSMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ECONOMICS

The following is an example using oral

presentation as an assessment method in
secondary school economics [source: Oregon
State Education Department, 2004, Content
Standards for Secondary School]. In an
economics class among 15 year olds, students
examine the topic on Social and Environmental
Responsibility in Business.
The instructional strategy adopted is
different from Example 1. Instead of making a
presentation based on their research, students do
research, write a paper and a debate. In groups
of four or five, students research a company
selected by the teacher such as companies
producing soft drinks and sports equipment (see
Table 6.4). In the assignment for the oral Figure 6.3 Oral Presentations are
presentation, two groups studying the same Widely Adopted as an Assessment
company argue in support of or in opposition to Technique in American Schools
a company's environmental and social record (see Figure 6.3).
Secondary School Economics:
Guidelines for the Topic on Social and Environmental Responsibility
Name _______________________ Date ________________
Member of my group are __________________________________
My group will research this company

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
_________________________________
Research
Each person in your group will research this company in order to answer the
following questions:
1. What do we mean when we say social responsibility? Environmental
responsibility?
2. What does this company manufacture and market?
3. What is its gross sales and profit for the last five years?
4. How many employees does the company have?
5. How does the company operate (franchise, public corporation, etc.)?
6. Who owns the company? What other companies does it own?
7. Where is the company located, and is it a local, regional, national,
multinational company?
8. Is this company socially responsible? Why or why not?
9. In this company environmentally responsible? Why or why not?
After completing your individual research, you can work together as a group
to combine and strengthen your ideas for your upcoming team debate on this
company. You must be prepared to speak either in support of or in
opposition to the company's environmental and social record. You will need
to cite a minimum of five sources in support of your position. You must also
cite a minimum of five sources to discount or refute that position.
Oral Presentation
The day before your presentation, the flip of a coin will determine which
team will speak supporting the motion and which team will speak opposing
the motion. The presentation format will be as follows:
Both Teams: Respond briefly to the above questions 1 through 7 to introduce
the rest of the class to your company (67) minutes.
Team One: Present your case citing sources to show that this company is
environmentally and/or socially responsible (5 minutes).
Team Two: Present your case citing sources to show that this company is not
environmentally and/or socially responsible (5 minutes).
Team One: Challenge the arguments of team two and reinforce your position
(3 minutes).
Team Two: Challenge the arguments of team one and reinforce your position
(3 minutes).

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Team One: State your conclusions (35 minutes).
Team Two: State your conclusions (35 minutes).
Both Teams: Respond to questions submitted by the audience (67 minutes).
Completing The Work
You will complete this task over the next three weeks, working both in class
and outside of class.
Everyone in your group must participate in the debate by presenting at least
one point or counterpoint. You will also be expected to respond to questions
from the teacher about your sources: where you found them, whether they
are primarily or secondary sources, and whether you consider them to be
reputable.
You will be given time to work in the library. You will also have an
opportunity to pursue information on the World Wide Web. Your team must
develop a plan for using your group time and for recording and organising
your data.

[source: Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for Secondary
School].
Table 6.4 Guidelines on What Students are Required to Do

SCORING OF THE ORAL PRESENTATION

Students are provided with a scheme for scoring their oral presentation (i.e.
their conduct of the debate). The Guidelines for Scoring the presentation is shown in
Table 6.5.

Secondary School Economics:

Criteria for Scoring the Oral Presentation on Social and
Environmental Responsibility
Name _________________________ Date _________________________

Check the appropriate column: yes or no. An overall score will be given from 6 to
1 in the bottom Overall Score Box. A score of 6 equals a strong performance; a
1 represents a weak performance.

Content

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Yes

No

Were the focus questions answered in the presentation?

Were five sources identified in support of/in opposition to

the issue?

Were responses to the opposing arguments handled well?

Were the ideas supported adequately by evidence?

Was research evident, or was the presentation based upon

personal experience and supposition?

Were questions from the audience handled well?

Overall Content Score

Organisation

Yes

No

Could the main ideas be easily identified?

Was the presentation put together in such a way as to make

it easy for the audience to understand?

Were details placed in the speech for optimum impact?

Did the presentation have a credible introduction?

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Did the presentation have a strong conclusion?

Overall Organization Score

Language

Yes

No

Was language carefully selected to emphasize the main

points and impress the audience?

Were the usage and grammar correct?

Was concise, vivid, and varied language used?

Overall Language Score

Delivery

Yes

No

Was eye contact maintained throughout the presentation?

Was the use of gestures, movements, and other nonverbal

techniques effective?

Did the presenters speaks clearly and fluently?

Overall Delivery Score

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

Table 6.5 Scoring Rubric for the Oral Presentation

[source: a) Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for
Secondary School
b) R.J. Marzano, D. Pickering, and J. McTighe, (1993), Assessing
student outcomes, Performance assessment using the Dimensions of
Learning model (p. 30), Alexandria, VA: ASCD]
Even though the debate method was adopted, the assessment of the oral
presentation still emphasised FOUR aspects, namely; Content, Organisation,
Language and Delivery.
.
6.3 ACTIVITY

a) Comment on the appropriateness of the Oral Test

Checklists above in relation to your subject area.
b) What are the oral skills that you will test in your subject?
c) Propose an Oral Test Checklist for testing oral skills
in your subject.

6.6 PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS A PORTFOLIO?
Portfolios tend to be associated with art,
where a student keeps his or her pieces of work in a
kind of folder to be presented for evaluation. Some
people may associate portfolios with the stock
market where a person or organisation keeps a
portfolio of stocks and shares owned. Hart (1994)
defines a portfolio as a container that holds evidence
of an individuals skills, ideas, interests and
accomplishments. A portfolio is a purposeful
collection of the works produced by students which
reflects their efforts, progress and achievements in
different areas of the curriculum.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
According to Paulson, Paulson and Meyer (1991), portfolios offer a way of
assessing student learning that is different from traditional methods. Portfolio
assessment provides the teacher and students an opportunity to observe students in
a broader context: taking risks, developing creative solutions, and learning to
make judgements about their own performances (p. 63).

A portfolio tells a story. It is the story of knowing. Knowing about things...

Knowing oneself... Knowing an audience... Portfolios are students' own stories of
what they know, why they believe they know it, and why others should be of the
same opinion. A portfolio is opinion backed by fact... Students prove what they
know with samples of their work. (Paulson & Paulson, 1994, p.2)

WHAT IS PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT?

The collection of works by students are assessed and hence the term portfolio
assessment. The portfolio provides for continuous and ongoing assessment (i.e.
formative assessment) as well as assessment at the end of a semester or a year (i.e.
summative assessment). Emphasis is more on monitoring students progress towards
achieving the learning outcomes of a particular subject, course or programme.
Portfolio assessment has been described as multidimensional because it allows
students to include different aspects of their works such as essays, project reports,
performance on objective tests, objects or artefacts they have produced, poems,
laboratory reports and so forth. In other words, the portfolio contains samples of work
that over an entire semester, term or year, rather than single points in time (such as
during examination week only).
Portfolio assessment represent a significant shift in thinking about the role of
assessment in education. Teachers who use this strategy in the classroom have shifted
their philosophy of assessment from merely comparing achievement (based on grades,
test score, percentile rankings) toward improving student achievement through
feedback and self-reflection.
WHY PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT?
In has frequently been suggested that paper and pencil tests (objective and
essay tests) are not able to assess all the learning outcomes in a particular subject area.
For example, many higher-level cognitive skills and the affective domain (feelings,
emotion, attitudes, values) are not adequately assessed using traditional assessment
methods. Portfolio assessment allows for the evaluation of a wider range of skills and
understandings and most importantly, it provides an opportunity for the teacher to
trace or monitor change and growth over a period of time. Since portfolio assessment
is an ongoing process, it provides an opportunity for students to reflect about their
own learning and thinking. They have an opportunity to monitor their understanding
and approaches to solving problems and decision making (Paulson, Paulson and
Meyer, 1991). Upon reflection, students can identify where they went wrong or how
they can improve themselves.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
Epstein (2006), Introduction to Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited in
Teachervision.com, argues that portfolio assessment:
Allows the teacher to see the student as an individual, each with his or her own
unique characteristics, needs and strengths.
Emphasises improving student achievement rather than ranking students
according to their performance on tests.
Help students to be more
accountable for their work
Allow the adaptation of instruction
to the learning styles of students
Involves students in the assessment
process
Invite students to reflect upon their
growth and performance as learners

Figure 6.4 Teachers may set the

criteria on what to include in the
portfolio

However, Epstein (2006) also lists some of

the problems with portfolio assessment.
Portfolio assessments may be less reliable
because they tend to be more qualitative
rather than quantitative. Society is still
strongly oriented towards grades and test
scores and added to it most universities and
colleges still use test scores and grades as
the main admission criteria. Also, portfolio
assessment may be time consuming for
teachers and data form portfolio assessments
can be difficult to analyse.

ARE THERE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PORTFOLIOS?

There are two main types of portfolios: process oriented and product oriented
portfolios.
Process-Oriented Portfolios: These portfolios tell a story about the student
and how the learner has grown. It will include earlier drafts and how these
drafts have been improved upon. For example, the first draft of a poem written
by a Year Three student reworked based on the comments by the teacher and
the student reflecting on his or her work. All the drafts and changes made are
kept in the portfolio. In this manner, student works can be compared providing
evidence about the how the students skills have improved.

Product-Oriented Portfolios: These portfolios contain the works of a student

which he or she considers the best. The aim is to document and reflect on the
quality of the final products rather than the process that produced them. The
student is required to collect all his or her work at the end of the semester, at
which time he or she must select those works which is of the highest quality.
Students could be left to make the decision themselves or the teacher can set

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
the criteria on what a portfolio must contain and the quality of the works to be
included (see Figure 6.4).

HOW IS A PORTFOLIO DEVELOPED?

The design and development of a portfolio involves FOUR main steps:
Collection, Selection, Reflection and Connection (Epstein, 2006. Introduction to
Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited in Teachervision.com).

Collection: This step simply requires students to collect and store all of the
work. Students have to get used to the idea of documenting and saving their
work which they may not have done before.
o How should the works be organised? By subject, by themes?
o How should the works be recorded and stored?
o How to get students to form the habit of documenting evidence?

Selection: This will depend on whether it is a process or product portfolio and

the criteria set by the teacher. Students will go through the work collected and
select certain works for their portfolio. This might include: examination papers
and quizzes, audio & video recordings, project reports, journals, computer
work, essays, poems, artwork and so forth.
o How does one select? What is the basis of selection?
o Who should be involved in the selection process?
o What the consequences of not completing the portfolio?

Reflection: This is the most important step in the portfolio process. It is

reflection that differentiates the portfolio as being a mere collection of student
work. Reflection is often done in writing but it can also be done orally.
Students are asked why they have chosen a particular product or work (e.g.
essay); and how it compares with other works, what particular skills and
knowledge were used to produce (e.g. the essay) it and how it can be further
improved.
o Should students reflect on how or why they chose certain works?
o How should students go about the reflection process

Connection: As a result of reflection, students begin to ask themselves,

Why are we doing this?. They are encouraged to make connection between
their school work and the value of what they are learning. They are also
encouraged to make connection between the works included in their portfolio
with the world outside the classroom. They learn to exhibit what they have
done in school to the community.
o How is the cumulative effects of the portfolio evaluated?
o Should students exhibit their works?
6.4 ACTIVITY

a) To what extent is portfolio assessment used in your

institution?
b) Do you think portfolio assessment can be used as an
assessment technique in your subject area? Explain.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

6.7 ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS

With the rapid expansion of digital technology and the internet electronic
portfolios is gaining popularity in many colleges and universities and school systems.
However, its use would be more widespread if teachers and educators had a better
understanding of how electronic portfolios can be used for formative assessment to
improve student learning. As mentioned earlier, a portfolio is a collection of a
learners work to show understanding and growth over time as well as the learners
reflection on individual pieces of work or artifacts.
What is an electronic portfolio? The electronic portfolio uses electronic
technologies as the container such as CD, DVD or the web, allowing students to
collect and organise artifacts in many media types (audio, video, graphics and text)
and to use hypertext links to organise material, connecting evidence to appropriate
outcomes, goals and standards (Barrett, 2006, p.3).
How is the electronic portfolio different from the traditional portfolio?
According to Barrett and Wilkerson (2004), an electronic is a digital archive of a
learners work which uses the learners authentic voice and serves as a database to
collect teacher-generated assessment based on tasks and rubrics. These different
characteristics of the electronic portfolio are allowed to talk to each other.
IMPLEMENTATION OF ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS
It is important that when implementing an electronic portfolio initiative, each
school or district or state must determine from the onset the primary purpose for
having students create an electronic portfolio. The purpose and goals of using
portfolios will determine the content to include, creation process and the assessment
system (Barrett, 2006). Once the purpose and goals are stipulated, the next step is to
select the tools needed in the development and management of electronic portfolios.
What are the tools available? The development tools commonly used are word
processors (Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, Adobe Acrobat). These tools allow
students to publish their portfolio on to CDs or a local area network server or on to the
Internet. Publishing on to the web requires the students to become web developers
such as learning HTML or using web authoring tools such as Dreamweaver,
FrontPage and others. It is also possible educational institutions to purchase
commercial electronic portfolio software and storage facilities.
MERIT OF ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS
Using technology can be a motivating force in encouraging students to
develop portfolios electronically or digitally. Todays young generation are growing
up with digital technology by their bedside! We have seen how much students are
motivated with networking online using MySpace, FaceBook and other social
networking sites. The electronic portfolio is able to capture this level of motivation
and enthusiasm in furthering the goals of deep learning and reflection.
However, it is important to realise that the electronic portfolio is not a
replication or a digital version of paper-based artifacts. Neither is it a data-base-type
portfolio system that allows students to fill in blanks on a web-based form (Barrett,

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment
2006). The electronic portfolio is much more than that! How? To truly engage
students, the new technologies should be used to motivate and engage students
express their own voice and carve their own identity in their portfolios. For example,
students are provided opportunities to tell stories digitally, develop and upload
multimedia artifacts, use podcasting and blogging and maintain a reflective online
journal so as to exhibit their individuality, creativity and ownership (Barrett, 2006).

SUMMARY

Observation is generally referred to as the process of gaining information through

ones senses especially, from seeing and hearing.

In qualitative observation, the observer begins without preconceived ideas about

what will be observed and describes behaviour that seems important.
In quantitative observation, the behaviours that are to be observed are predetermined through a checklist.

In obtrusive observation, students are aware they are being observed while in
unobtrusive observation, students are not aware they are being observed.

Behaviour may be observed and measured based on four dimensions: duration,

latency, frequency and amplitude.

Observations are used to collect data on behaviours that are difficult to assess by
other methods, to observe and record the way students solve problems and
complete tasks, and to ascertain whether students (individually or in a group) are
attaining the intended objectives with observational tools.

Oral expression is the core process in formulating and sharing human

experience.

Oral discourse is more than mere speaking but also includes talking about the
content.

Oral assessment has tended to be confined to the language arts.

The definition of oral assessment has been widened to include the assessment of
content.

Oral assessment can be implemented in the assessment of subjects such as science

and economics.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

A portfolio is purposeful collection of the works produced by students which

reflects their efforts, progress and achievements in different areas of the
curriculum.

An electronic portfolio is a digital archive of a learners work which using the

learners authentic voice.

KEY TERMS
Observation
Qualitative observation
Quantitative observation
Obtrusive observation
Unobtrusive observation

Observation checklist
Portfolio
Behavioural observation assessment
Oral assessment
Electronic
Speaking
portfolio
Oral discourse

REFERENCES:

Alaska
Department
of
Education
Curriculum Framework. June. 1996.

Barrett, H.C. (2006). The reflect initiative researching electronic portfolios:

Learning, engagement and collaboration through technology. Connected
Newsletter.

Barrett, H. and Wilkerson, J. (2004). Conflicting Paradigms in Electronic

Portfolio Approaches. [Retrieved April, 21, 2008 from:
http://electronicportfolios.org/systems/paradigms.html]

Hart, D. (1994). Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. Menlo

Park.CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

Epstein, J. (2006). Introduction to Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited

in Teachervision.com

Macintosh H. and G. Firth (1986). A teachers guide to assessment. Nelson

Thornes Ltd.

Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with

dimensions of learning. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

&

Early

Development.

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Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

Marzano, R.J. and D. Pickering, and J. McTighe, (1993), Assessing student

outcomes, Performance assessment using the Dimensions of Learning model
(p. 30), Alexandria, VA: ASCD]

Paulson, F.L. Paulson, P.R. and Meyer, CA. (1991), February. What Makes a
Portfolio a Portfolio? Educational Leadership. 60-63.

Paulson, F.L. & Paulson, P. (1994) Assessing Portfolios Using the

Constructivist Paradigm in Fogarty, R. (ed.) Student Portfolios. Palatine: IRI
Skylight Training & Publishing. 1-22.

Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for Primary

School Science.

Young, J. (2002). Creating online portfolios can help students see 'Big
Picture,' Colleges Say. February 21

Suen, H.K., & Ary, D. (1989). Analysing quantitative behavioural observation

data. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Salvia, J and Ysseldyke, J. (1995). Assessment. New York: John Wiley.