Topic 3

2 Distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their structure

and ultrastructure.

Eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, prokaryotes do not

Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, prokaryotes do not have a

nucleus
Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotes
DNA is linear in eukaryotes, DNA is circular in prokaryotes
3 Describe the ultrastructure of an animal (eukaryotic) cell (nucleus,
nucleolus, ribosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus) and recognise
these organelles from EM images.
Nucleus - Controls what enters and leaves the cell. Has a
porous nuclear envelope . Site of DNA transcription.
Nucleolus - Inner region of the nucleus which contains
Chromatin, the genetic material of proteins and chromosomes.
Ribosome - Site of mRNA translation in protein synthesis. Floats
free or is attached to rER. Has an mRNA binding site.
rER - System of flattened membranes in fluid space which are
studded with ribosomes which modify proteins
sER - System of flattened membranes in fluid space that do
not have ribosomes on its surface. Synthesises lipids
Mitochondria - Double membrane bound organelle which
contain inner folds called cristae, cytoplasmic matrix. Site of aerobic
respiration where ATP is produced.
Centrioles - Hollow cylinders made from rings of microtubules.
Form the mitotic spindle fibres used in nuclear division
Lysosome - Single membrane bound structure which contains
digestive enzymes. Used to break down unwanted structures in the
cell.
Golgi Apparatus - A group of fluid filled membrane bound
flattened sacs which packages proteins. The proteins enter via
vesicles which fuse and pinch off the membrane
(exocytosis/endocytosis)
4 Explain the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi
apparatus in protein transport within cells and including its role in formation of
extracellular enzymes.


which

Ribosomes produce the sequence of amino acids (polypeptide chain)

is the primary structure of a protein
The ribosomes are on the surface of the rER membrane
The polypeptide chain enters the rER
As it travels through the rER it modifies and folds itself to a 3D protein

structure.
The protein is then placed within a vesicle which travels to the Golgi
apparatus and fuses with the membrane
Whilst travelling through the Golgi, the protein is modified again (eg.
more sugar chains are added or trimmed)
This protein (extracellular enzyme) then is packaged into a vesicle and
transported to the cell surface membrane.
The vesicle fuses with the cell surface membrane releasing the protein
by exocytosis.
Intracellular enzymes will be synthesised at ribosomes floating freely
in the cytoplasm.
Not all vesicles that are pinched off the Golgi contain proteins
that are extracellular, they are simply transported around to
different regions of the cell.
5 Describe how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into
tissues, tissues into organs and organs into systems.
Cells are the smallest unit of life in organisms that can replicate
independently, that perform together to carry out the same function.
Tissues are groups of cells that perform together to carry out the
same function.
Organs are a group of tissues that perform together to carry out
the same function.
(Organ) systems are a group of organs that perform together to
carry out the same function.
6 Explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual
reproduction.
Human somatic cells have a chromosome number of 46
Mitosis only occurs in somatic cells
Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell
During mitosis, the chromosome number is kept constant division after
division
Therefore a diploid parent cell will have diploid daughter cells
Mitosis is only ONE stage of the cell cycle

Cell Cycle

Interphase
G1 - Gap intervals where cell grows before DNA
replication
S - DNA is duplicated (chromosomes are duplicated)
G2 - Cell prepares itself for division
Mitosis
Prophase - Centrioles move to the opposite poles of the
cell. Nuclear envelope breaks down. Chromosomes condense.
Metaphase - Chromosomes become lined up at the
equator. Spindle fibres from the centriole join to the centromeres of
the chromosomes.
Anaphase - Spindle fibres pull apart two sister
chromatids of each chromosome to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase - The chromatids at each pole of the cell
decondense and uncoil and become long and thin. Nuclear envelope
reforms around each.
Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides and two genetically identical
daughter cells are formed

7 Describe the stages of mitosis and how to prepare and stain a root tip
squash in order to observe them practically.
1. Cut tip from growing root (e.g garlic root squash)
2. Place tip on watch glass and add a few drops of HCl
3. Add a few drops of Toluidine blue so chromosomes are darker and
easier to see under a microscope
4. Warm the watch glass slowly through a bunsen flame
5. Place root tip on a microscopic slide and use a mounted needle to
break
6.
7.
8.
9.

it open and spread the cells out thinly

Add a few more drops of stain and place a coverslip over it
Squash the cover slip down gently
Warm the slide again for a few more seconds. This intensifies the stain
Stages of mitosis are visible under the microscope

8 Explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and genetic variation
through recombination of alleles and genes including independent assortment
and crossing over (details of the stages of meiosis are not required).
Meiosis produces a diploid daughter cell (zygote) from two haploid
sex cells (sexual reproduction)
Production of gametes stem from cell division by Mitosis
a. DNA replicates so there are two identical copies of
each chromosome (chromatids)
b. DNA condenses to form 2 chromosomes made of two
sister chromatids

c. Chromosomes arrange themselves into homologous

pairs
d. First division - homologous pairs are separated,
halving the chromosome number
e. Second division - The pairs of sister chromatids are
separated
f.

Increases genetic variation

a. Crossing over - Homologous pairs of chromosomes
pair up and twist around each other and swap chromatids,
exchanging genetic material. This gives a different combination of
alleles for the same genes. Therefore 4 new cells with different
alleles are formed
b. Independent Assortment - All four daughter cells
from meiosis have different combinations of chromosomes. Half is
maternal and the other is paternal, which are in different
combinations when gametes are produced.

Explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions.

Female gamete in mammals is the ovum and the male gamete is the
sperm
Sperm
Lots of mitochondria to provide energy for movement
Flagellum to allow sperm to move towards the ovum
Acrosome contains digestive enzymes to break down the
zona pellucida and penetrate the egg
Haploid nucleus
Arrow head (I think thats what its called) - reduced
friction

Ovum (egg)
Cell membrane to control what enters and leaves the cell
Follicle cells to form a protective coating
Zona pellucida - protective layer for sperm to penetrate
Cortical granules - vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane releasing enzymes to thicken the zona pellucida
Haploid nucleus

10 Describe the process of fertilisation in mammals and flowering plants

(starting with the acrosome reaction in mammals and pollen tube growth in
plants and ending with the fusion of the nuclei) and explain the importance of
fertilisation in sexual reproduction.

Fertilisation in mammals
Acrosom
e reaction
Sperm swims towards the egg cell (in the
oviduct)
Sperm makes contact with the zona pellucida
and releases digestive enzymes from the acrosome
Enzymes digest the zona pellucida allowing
sperm to move towards the cell membrane of the ovum
Sperm head fuses with the cell membrane of
the ovum
Cortical
reaction
Triggered by the sperm head fusing with the
egg cell membrane
Cortical granules fuse with the plasma
membrane
They release enzymes
This causes the zona pellucida to thicken,
therefore making it impenetrable to sperm
Sperm enters the egg cell and tail is discarded
Sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form
a diploid zygote

Fertilisation in plants
Occurs in the embryo sac of flowering plants
This is double fertilisation
1) Pollen grain lands on the stigma
of the flower
2) Pollen grain (absorbs water and
splits open) and pollen tube grows down the style
3) This style contains two male
(gamete) nuclei, one tube nuclei at the tip which makes
enzymes for the pollen tube to digest down the style

4) When the tube reaches the ovary

it grows through the micropyle into the embryo sac within
the ovule
5) In the embryo sac, the tube
nucleus disintegrates and tip of the pollen tube bursts
releasing the two male nuclei
6) Embryo sac contains an egg
nucleus, and two polar nuclei
7) One male nucleus fuses with the
egg nucleus to form a zygote
8) The other male nucleus fuses
with the two polar nuclei to make a triploid endosperm,
which acts as a food store for the mature seed

Fertilisation in sexual reproduction

The moment when male and female gametes fuse
Each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes
and join to create a diploid zygote
This restores the chromosome number
The zygote has two sets of chromosomes, one from each
parent
This combines genetic material from each parent, making
the offspring more genetically unique

11 Explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency and discuss
the way society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of stem cells in
medical therapies (eg regulatory authorities relating to human embryo research, ability of
stem cells to develop into specialised tissues, potential sources of stem cells, who could
benefit from the therapies, procedures to obtain stem cells and their risks).
Stem Cell An undifferentiated cell which has the potential to
differentiate into a specialised cell.
Pluripotency Cells with the ability to differentiate into many but not
all cell types. (except extraembryonic cells)
Multipotent Cells with the ability to differentiate into some but not
all cell types.
Totipotency - The ability for a cell to differentiate into all cell types
and potentially form a complete human being.
Use of stem cells in medical therapies.

Ability of stem cells to develop into specialised tissues

cells.

As embryo develops, cell becomes more differentiated.

Most lose their capacity to develop into a wide range of

Totipotent stem cells can be used to replace damaged

tissues
Potential sources of stem cells
Embryonic stem cells -> after 3 cell cycles, there are 8
totipotent cells. 5 days after conception -> Blastocyst forms. Within
the blastocyst, approx. 50 cells are pluripotent embryonic cells.
As embryo develops, cell becomes more
differentiated.
Most lose their capacity to develop into a
wide range of cells.
Adult stem cells in Bone marrow

Regulatory authorities relating to human embryo research.

UK law allows embryo stem cell research to be used
Treatment of infertility
Causes of congenital disease
Miscarriage
Contraception
Detecting gene or chromosome
abnormalities
Look at proposal of research to see if it is carried out for
a good reason
Make sure fully trained and licensed staff carry out the
research
Produce guidelines and codes of practice
Provide advice and information to governments and
professionals

Those who benefit from therapies involving stem cells

Transplant patients pluripotent stem cells can be
used to grow organs (e.g. Heart) helps reduce the waiting time for a
donor transplant
Therapeutic cloning Diploid cells taken out and
fused with an ovum to produce a diploid cell like a zygote. This would
be stimulated for nuclear division.
Patients who are blind or suffering spinal cord injuries can replace damage eye tissue and nervous tissue and improve their
quality of life

Procedures and risks to obtain stem cells

Stem Cell transplant injection or transfusion of stem
cells into the body to repair damaged or diseased stem cells.
RISKS: The rise of new cancers, death,
infections, stem cell failure

Ethics from use of embryonic stem cells

Destruction of embryos that are viable are unethical

 The moment of fertilisation is when an individual is formed

and they have a right to life
Unfertilised embryos are more ethical to use as they are
made from egg cells that havent been fertilised by sperm
Only use adult stem cells as they do not involve
destroying embryos
Have to take into account everyone vies when making
decisions about scientific work

12 Describe how totipotency can be demonstrated practically using

plant tissue culture techniques.
1. Single cell is taken from growing area of a plant (e.g. root or
shoot)
2. Cell is placed in growth medium (e.g agar) with growth
hormones
3. Growth medium is sterile
4. Plant cell grows and divides into mass of unspecialised cells.
5. If under the right conditions, it will divide into specialised cells
and differentiate into an entire plant
6. This shows totipotency
13 Explain how cells become specialised through differential gene expression,
producing active mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which in turn control
cell processes or determine cell structure in animals and plants (details of
transcription factors are not required at AS).

The template strand of DNA used in transcription to form mRNA

contains genes from the original DNA

Some of the genes are active and some of the genes are inactive
Only the active genes are transcribed
The active mRNA strand is translated
This forms a polypeptide
Forms proteins.
These proteins modify the cell (structure and control cell processes)
Changes cause cell produced to differentiate

14 Explain how a phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype

and the environment (eg animal hair colour, human height, monoamine
oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers), but the data on the relative contributions of
genes and environment is often difficult to interpret.

Phenotype The physical characteristics expressed by an organism, due to the

interaction between its genotype and environment.
Animal Hair (skin) colour

Dark pigment in skin is called Melanin.

To synthesise melanin, animals use the enzyme tyrosinase.
This catalyses the conversion of tyrosine (amino acid)
into melanin.
Melanin is produced in melanocytes.
Melanocytes are activated by MSH (melanocyte- stimulating hormone)
MSH binds to receptors on the melanocyte membrane.
Melanocytes are activated and place melanin in
melanosomes.
Transferred to nearby skin cells and accumulate around
the nucleus to protect the DNA from UV light.
Ultraviolet (UV) light increases the amount of MSH produced and the
number of receptors on the melanocyte surface.
People with darker skins have more MSH receptors.
Sometimes the tyrosinase enzyme is unstable (mutant alleles), and is
inactivated at body temperature (produces white hair) and at cooler
temperatures.
Human height
Average height has increased over recent years.
Genes for height are inherited, however they may be affected by diet
(e.g. malnutrition)
MAOA (Monoamine Oxidase A)
MAOA is an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters in the brain
High levels of MAOA decrease the build-up of neurotransmitters
(associated with mood)
This reduces aggression.
Cancer
Occurs when the rate of cell multiplication is faster than the rate of cell
death.
Cell cycle goes out of control -> leads to the formation of a tumour
(abnormal mass of cell)
Common places of tumour growth (places with a high rate of mitosis)
Bone marrow
Lung
Gut
Bowel
Cervix

 Caused by damage to DNA through Asbestos, UV light, Carcinogens

(chemicals)
If a tumour is not removed, cancer cells can spread to other parts of
the body, through the bloodstream and lymphatic systems, causing new
cancers in organs (metastasis)
DNA is copied incorrectly in gamete formation leads to an inherited
cancer.
Genes that trigger cancer:
Oncogenes Code for proteins that stimulate the cell
cycle. Mutations in these genes can lead to the cell cycle being
continually active and causes excessive cell division.
Tumour suppressor genes (p53) Produces suppressor
proteins which stop the cell cycle. Mutations that inactivate these
genes causes the cell cycle to continue cell division and not stop.
Cancer cells have a lack of p53 -> cell cycle
cannot stop entry into the S phase, loss of control of the cell
cycle.
Environmental causes
Ultraviolet light
Exposure to asbestos
Virus Viral DNA contains oncogenes from
host which is transferred to potential cells.
Prevention: No smoking, eat fresh fruit and veg
antioxidants (free radicals)
15 Explain how some phenotypes are affected by alleles at many loci (polygenic
inheritance) as well as the environment (eg height) and how this can give rise to
phenotypes that show continuous variation

Polygenic inheritance (loci)

A single characteristic that is controlled by more than 2
genes.
Increasing the number of genes controlling a trait,
increases the number of phenotype combinations
Until the number of phenotypes to which an individual
can be assigned are no longer discrete, but continuous.
Continuous variation - There is an extended range of data, and
there are no distinct categories (e.g. human height). Has a normal
distribution (many cluster around the mean with a small number of outliers)
Affected by the environment.
Continuous variable Variables that are controlled by many genes
(polygenic)
Discontinuous variation Discrete or distinctive categories.
(polygenic/monogenic) Unaffected. (e.g Blood group)
Gene locus The location of a gene on a chromosome.