Sinking skilfully

Publishing Date 30 Oct 2012 12:35pm GMT Author

Summary
Ed Northcote of Sinclair Knight Merz reviews three methods for vertical shaft sinking in mining, their advantages
and disadvantages, plus the associated risks and costs
A necessary early step in the study phase of any underground mining project is a review of how the ore is to be
hauled to the surface. The decision on which method to use depends on the depth of the mine, tonnages to be
hoisted, local topography, project and operational risks, capital and operating costs and the ability to maintain the
system.
The three most common haulage systems to transfer ore to the surface are trucking fleets, flights of conveyors
and shaft hoisting systems. The first two haulage systems require a decline to be mined. Shaft haulage can be in
a decline, but is more commonly via vertical access to the orebody.
This article looks at vertical shaft sinking as an option and the three methods used to sink the shaft:

raise bore, strip and line;

blind sink; and

Horidiam.

When mine shafts are being considered, all too often the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method is
adopted without exploring the alternatives. Understanding the shaft-sinking cycle and what occurs in each phase
of the cycle provides further insight.
Shaft sinking is rated as one of the highest-risk undertakings in the mining industry, not only from the point of
view of safety of the shaft-sinking crews, but also from the point of view of risk to the project. A shaft-sinking
operation in a greenfield site frequently falls on a projects critical path.
Mechanised shaft sinking uses raise- and blind-boring techniques frequently for short (<500m deep) shafts. In
competent ground, the finish of the shaft barrel can remain unlined. This allows shaft furniture to be bolted
directly onto the country rock. In South Africa, this method has been very successful. For example, it has allowed
a gold-mining company to drill a series of short-lift, small-diameter, raise-bored shafts equipped with Kepe
winders, which were automated as elevators in buildings. This system improved the logistics for moving
consumables and personnel to the internal levels of the mine and therefore improved productivity.
Today, the raise and blind boring of shafts is a sophisticated process using dedicated machines, and this
mechanised process will not be further addressed in this article as it deserves an article of its own.

Raise bore, strip and line

There are five phases in the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method (see Figure 1, page 60). The raisebore phase requires different infrastructure from the shaft strip and line, and the equipment is again different in
the operational phase of the shaft. It also needs access to the bottom of the shaft and, in the case of deep shafts,
a mid-shaft access position may be required.

Figure 1: schematic of raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method

Phase 1 is to drill an accurate pilot hole, using directional drilling techniques. For long shafts, this may have to be
done in two legs: collar to mid-shaft and mid-shaft to shaft bottom. The length of the directionally drilled hole is
limited by the drill rigs ability to lift and control the drill rods. The cost of a directionally drilled hole rises with the
increase in required accuracy and length.
By the time the directionally drilled hole reaches the lower point, the mid-shaft or shaft-bottom excavation should
be completed. It is from this excavation that the raise-bore reamer is attached and the resulting drilling chips are
removed.
Phase 2 is to build a shaft collar that accommodates the loads generated by the raise-bore machine, shaft stripand-line activities and the operational shaft. Thoughtful and knowledgeable design is necessary to cover all the
activities required for quick establishment and demobilisation of this phase and for establishment of the next
phases infrastructure, thereby minimising the impact on the projects critical path.
Establishing the raise-bore machine on the collar is the start of phase 3. Using the raise-bore machine, the
directional hole is drilled to a larger diameter to accommodate the raise-bore machines drill string. Before the
raise-bore reamer gets to the target zone, the decline and the shaft bottom excavation need to be completed.
Attached to the drill string is the raise-bore head reamer. The reamer is then used to increase the diameter of the
hole to at least 2.7m. The reamed hole is used during the shaft strip-and-line phase for the disposal of muck
produced when the shaft diameter is increased. Chips generated by the reaming activities are removed from the
mid-shaft position and trucked to the surface or deposited in underground excavations, if available, to reduce
transport costs.
During phase 3, the construction of the shaft-sinking headgear and installation of the winders commences. In
deep shafts, it is not uncommon to use the permanent headgear for the sinking phase. Careful layout of the
headgear and the sky shaft saves time and cost at the change-over phase from shaft sinking to permanent
operation.
When reaming of the raise-bore hole is complete, the machine is removed, ending phase 3. In the case of long
shafts, the raise bore is then relocated to the mid-shaft position to bore the second leg of the shaft.
Phase 4 starts with the sinking stage for the shaft strip-and-line winding plant, headgear, stage and kibble
winders, and the commissioning of mucking equipment and auxiliary plant, including compressed air, possible
ventilation fans and refrigeration plant, concrete batching and drill-rig maintenance.
A pre-sink is required, which will take the shaft sink from the sub-brace to a depth of approximately 50m or below
the weathered ground zone, whichever is the greater. This zone is required for the sinking stage to be installed to
provide clearance above the shaft bottom and prevent damage from flying rock when the shaft bench round is
fired. The pre-sink is lined with concrete as the shaft-bottom bench progresses. On completion of the pre-sink,
the shaft-sinking stage is installed.
Shaft sinking begins in earnest from this point. A specialist shaft-sinking multi-boom jumbo rig is used to drill the
benches. The holes are charged and fired, advancing the shaft bottom.
Fumes generated from the charge can be drawn down the raise-bore hole into the mines ventilation circuit.
Should the raise-bore hole be blocked by the recently fired round, the fumes are displaced using the air from the
surface ventilation fans.
On re-entry to the shaft after the round has been fired and fumes displaced, the shaft barrel is scaled of loose
rock to make the area safe. The exposed shaft barrel may require rock bolting and, in more onerous conditions,
meshing and possibly shotcreting. There are techniques that allow for the shaft lining to be lowered before the full
6m lift is completed. Under the Western Australian surface-support guidelines, any surface greater than 3.5m
must be meshed or shotcreted, a precaution that others might like to consider even where it is not compulsory.
Once the shaft is made safe, the muck is cleared from the shaft bench using one of many types of mucking
machine. The muck is cleared through the 2.7m raise-bore hole reporting to the targeted excavation. This muck
is loaded into trucks for transport either to surface or, if available, to disused excavations underground.
As soon as the distance below the installed shaft liner is greater than 6m, the shutter curb ring can be lowered
and accurately installed, and concrete poured and cured before the remainder of the tub is lowered.
On the cleaning of the bench, a final compressed air blow-over is given before the jumbo drilling boom is
brought back to drill the next round of holes for charging.
In the case of deep shafts, more than one leg is required, and a mid-shaft position is excavated for the
repositioning of the directional drilling rig and later of the raise-bore machine. This activity can progress as a

parallel activity to the stripping and lining of the shaft. The decline to the shaft bottom and the shaft-bottom
excavation must have been completed before the raise-bore reamer is attached.
Phase 5 is the establishment and commissioning of the permanent equipment, namely the winding plant and
related infrastructure for hoisting, permanent headgear and surface transport of rock. For most of this phase, the
activities for the permanent plant are in parallel with those of phase 4. Only on removal of the sinking stage,
sinking sky shaft, ropes and related sinking infrastructure is phase 5 on the critical path.

Horidiam method
Horidiam is a variation on the commonly employed raise-bore, strip-and-line technique. It has proved to be
successful in competent ground, and is mainly used for the sinking of large-diameter ventilation shafts up to
1,000m deep.
The horidiam method uses six phases. Phases 1, 2 and 3 are similar to the raise-bore, strip-and-line method (see
Figure 1), requiring a directionally drilled hole to a target zone, followed by a raise-bore hole drilled for the
stringer rods and the hole being reamed out. In the case of Horidiam, the reamed-out hole is used to drill the
charge holes for the final shaft diameter.
Phase 4 (see Figure 3) starts with the completion of the removal of the reamer and raise borer, and installation of
the Galloway stage to start the shaft pre-sink to a depth of 50m below the collar. After the blast, rock is removed
from the bench by using compressed air to blow the rock down the raise-bore hole. This rock is removed from the
target zone at the bottom of the raise-bore hole, usually by an LHD and truck combination.

Figure 3: schematic of Horidiam shaft-sinking method (phases 4-6 only)

If, during the pre-sink, the weathered zone has not been traversed, a benching stage is installed to continue the
shaft sink. The benching stage, unlike the single-deck Galloway stage, is a multi-deck construction designed to
provide access for manoeuvring the shaft shuttering, aligning and securing prior to the placing of the concrete
between it and the country rock. Access to the stage is gained using a cage running on the stage suspension
ropes.
Once the weathered zone has been mined through and supported, phase 5 starts with the removal of the
benching stage. A Horidiam stage, equipped with rock drills, is lowered down to the top of the raise-bored hole in
the floor of the recently completed bench.
From the Horidiam stage, about 17 charge holes are drilled on the raise-bore diameter at an angle of 15 below
the horizontal, vertically spaced throughout the hole at 1.2m, drilled to the length of the shafts finished radius.
Where required, spilt sets are used to support the country rock.
On arrival at the bottom of the raise-bore hole, the drilling machines are removed from the Horidiam stage and
replaced with explosive-loading equipment.
Phase 6 begins with the holes being charged and fired from the bottom, that is, near the target zone up the shaft,
in sets of two rings at a time. After each blast, the rock is removed from the target zone at the shaft bottom using
an LHD. Access to the Horidiam stage is via a specially designed personnel cage known as the bullet, which
runs on the Horidiam stage suspension ropes.
This technique does not allow for shaft lining, resulting in a rough wall finish. The rough finish may also have
tolerance issues that could impact on the ovality or vertical alignment of the shaft, which in turn may affect

clearances between the shaft side wall and conveyances running on rope guides, or may reduce ventilation air
quantities through increased friction loss.
Once the diametral holes have been drilled, the limiting factor is usually the blasting times, which need to
coincide with the mines blasting cycle and the rate at which rock can be removed from the target zone. It is
important to keep the raise-bore hole clear at all times from the build-up of broken rock. If the hole becomes
blocked, ventilation in the shaft stops, which can make working conditions on the Horidiam stage unpleasant and
possibly unsafe. It also prevents the water that accumulates in the shaft from draining out of the raise-bore hole.
This presents a safety hazard when the LHD removes the rock and then breaks the seal between the top of the
pile and the raise-bore hole, frequently resulting in a mud rush.
The Horidiam method is only suitable for non-personnel-entry shafts, such as ventilation shafts, as there is no
reinforcement or support to the shaft barrel. The walls are rougher than for a lined shaft and the ground
conditions should be taken into account. As this method is relatively cheap, the diameter of the shaft can be
increased to overcome the roughness factor. The lack of shaft lining and of need for a conventional stage
reduces the cost.

Equipment evaluation
Winders
In all three shaft-sinking methods, the duty of the shaft-sinking winders is usually not as onerous as in the
permanent phase, particularly when the shaft is used for rock hoisting.
If the permanent winders are available at the start of the shaft sink, it is not unusual to use them for shaft sinking.
This can save cost and time on the shaft-sinking project.
In the raise-bore, strip-and-line method, construction, installation and no-load commissioning of the shaft-sinking
winders commence as early activities after the shaft-sinking contractor has mobilised.
Both stage- and kibble-winder duties tend to be light, even in deep shafts. The kibble winder is mainly used for
transport of personnel and equipment to the stage or shaft bench. As the stages functions are usually to move
the barrel shutter work and provide cover, the overall suspended mass is less than 20t. Suspension of the load
presents little problem, as the stage requires a minimum of four ropes for stability which can be achieved by
using two ropes in two falls.
In blind sinking, winder installation and commissioning is a phase 1 activity and, depending on the winder
package, can be the schedules critical path. The winders required in blind shaft sinks are large (typically a
2,200kW double-drum kibble winder and 250kW stage winder are required). For deep shaft sinks, the kibble
payload can be as high as 16t, which is then hoisted approximately 2,000m.
For shallow shaft sinks, the stage winder is usually a simple double-drum or two-drums-coupled winch, while for
deep shaft sinks stage winders are more complex and robust, weighing up to 130t. To suspend large loads at
depth requires multi-fall ropes. This in turn requires large lengths of rope wrapped onto large drums.
A common layout (see Figure 4) is the rope drum, tensioning tower and capstan-style drive. The rope drum
allows for a low-tension coiling of the ropes, which can be achieved during manufacture. The rope pull required
by the stage is generated through the chimes wheel drive.

Figure 4: shaft-sinking equipment

In very deep shafts, the Blair stage winder is used. While similar to the above stage in that there is a rope
magazine and a tensioning tower, there are two chimes wheel drives that are grooved drums rather than a
tapered chimes wheel.
The two chimes drives, while providing more support to the rope, increase the angle of wrap and therefore
increase the T1/T2 ratio, which allows for increases in the rope end load, namely the size of the sinking stage.
Two winders are required for the Horidiam shaft-sinking method. The same winder is used for the Galloway,
Benching and Horidiam stages. In the Galloway and Benching stage cases, the conveyances are suspended
from four ropes, usually achieved using two ropes in two falls. The Horidiam stage is suspended from two ropes.
Stability is not a problem as the Horidiam stage is a close-tolerance fit to the raise-bore hole.
The stage winch is usually fitted with large drums to accommodate the rope length and is typically capable of 50t
rope pull at approximately 0.5m/s.
To access the stage, a small single-drum winch can be used. A rope pull of typically 5t at ~2.5m/s is required for a
shaft approximately 1,000m deep.
Headgear
The layout of the headgear for the raise bore, strip and line and the blind sink shaft presents a challenge to the
designers. In all shaft-sinking methods, the main load frame of the permanent headgear can be used in the shaftsinking phase. However, if the shaft does not require headgear (such as a ventilation shaft), then contractors
usually have a shaft-sinking headgear that can be used, or will get one purpose-built.
Designing the headgear to accommodate the loads for two different functions (sinking and operational), while
keeping the structure simple to reduce not only cost but also time in the change-over from sinking to permanent,
is the real test to the designers experience and ingenuity.
For the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method, the headgear construction commences during phase 3
and is completed at the start of phase 4 for use by the sinking contractor.
The period between awarding the shaft-sinking contract and the headgear being available for shaft sinking tends
to be longer than for a blind shaft sink. This may mean that only part of the headgears construction is on the
projects critical path.
The change-over from the sinking to the permanent, operational headgear needs to be planned at the outset of
the design. There can be cost and schedule benefits in using the load frame for the permanent headgear during
the shaft-sinking phase. Factors that would influence this are the use of the shaft, the layout of the permanent
winders and the availability of the winders.
The A-frame configuration is often favoured, as it allows the main loads to be taken in the headgear and quick
change-out of the sky towers, as required by the various phases and duties.
Commissioning of the headgear for the shaft sinking and permanent phase will be on the projects critical path.
In blind sinking, the headgear construction commences in phase 1 in parallel with the construction of shaft
sinking winders and related infrastructure. Blind sinking needs less design and fabrication time for the headgear
than the strip and line option, and as a result this could be a schedule risk to the project.
Where the permanent headgear is used during the sinking phase, the final duty will more than likely provide the
governing conditions. In the event of only personnel or material hoisting, the defining load may be the shaftsinking activities, which could increase the cost of the permanent headgear. As with the strip-and-line shaft
sinking technique, the A-frame configuration is commonly used, providing flexibility and schedule efficiencies with
the sky tower change-out.
As the Horidiam shaft-sinking method is usually for ventilation shafts, there is no permanent headgear. However,
should the shaft be designed for permanent winding, it is possible to use the permanent headgear for shaft
sinking.
Shaft collar and pre-sink
In the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking technique, the complexity of the shaft collar is increased, as it has to
accommodate the loads imposed by the raise-bore machine, and hence is a higher design risk. This could lead to
conservative design with the consequential increase in cost and time to construct.

The vertical loads resulting from the mass of the machine and the tension induced in the drill string down to the
cutting head are significant. In addition, the torsional load specific to raise boring is an additional load and will
increase the cost of the shaft collar.
An alternative is to raise-bore the first leg from a simple concrete pad before constructing the shaft collar. Given
the timing of the decline arriving at the base of the second leg, this will often be a viable option.
Complexity of the brace design is not significantly increased to accommodate the blind shaft-sinking technique,
and it is therefore a lower-risk structure than for the strip-and-line method.
For Horidiam shaft-sinking methods, the design complexity, associated cost and schedule risks are similar to
those for the raise-bore, strip-and-line method.

Sinking-cycle Activities
Drilling
In the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sinking methods, jumbo drill rigs are commonly used to drill the
shot holes.
Jumbo drill rigs are available in various configurations with up to four booms. Opinion remains divided as to the
best number of booms. Discussions revolve around too many booms making for a crowded shaft bench,
impacting on productivity and safety. On the other hand, if one boom/drifter fails, the remaining booms/drifters
have to complete the drill cycle; thus the more booms on the jumbo rig, the greater the redundancy and lesser
impact on the drilling cycle. The drifters and most booms are hydraulically powered.
For hydraulic drifters, round lengths of between 3.2m and 3.5m can be drilled, with experiments being done at
6.0m. Depending on the ground conditions, drilling rates of between 0.6m/min and 2.1m/min can be achieved.
Cycle times vary with the number of holes to be drilled, but are generally planned to take less than three hours.
Unlike the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sink methods, where the drilling activity is normally done at
the shafts bottom, Horidiam is done from a multi-deck stage. This is a safer option, as each of the stage decks is
guarded from the other and has limited crew, thereby reducing crowding and the potential of safety incidents.
The risk profile is higher for the raise-bore, strip-and-line method than for blind sinking. In the centre of the bench
is the raise-bore hole, down which the waste rock is deposited for removal at the mid-shaft/shaft bottom. This is
normally fitted with a cover during drilling activities. However, there are transition periods when the cover is either
being removed or installed that need specific job safety analysis and management.
Charging the holes
Cleaning and charging the drilled holes is shaft-specific and carries the same risk level in any of the three shaftsinking methods. Safe operating procedures need to be written and the crews trained in their use.
By using pre-prepared charge harnesses, and assuming the holes are dry, charging and firing can be completed
within an hour.
Moving the stage, firing and re-entry
For the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sinking methods, the risk profile in either method will be similar
when moving the stage and firing the round. When moving the stage up, care needs to be taken not to foul shaft
services (ventilation and machine water pipes plus possibly power and communications cables).
After the round has been fired, the shaft bottom has to be re-entered to start the next activity of making the shaft
barrel safe and then mucking. In the strip-and-line method, the raise-bore hole may be blocked with the recently
broken ground. This can block ventilation and result in less than adequate clearing of blasting fumes, creating a
health issue for the crew and delaying the cleaning cycle. It is strongly recommended that an additional
ventilation connection be developed above the base of the raise-bore muck pile if hole blockage is an issue.
Moving the stage for the Horidiam shaft-sinking method is a relatively simple exercise, in that the power cables
can be coiled on the top deck of the stage.
Making safe and cleaning
The strip-and-line method relies on the raise-bore hole for cleaning the round. If the fragmentation is correct,
blocking of the hole is unlikely. However, if there is a change in ground conditions and the drilling, charging and
firing sequence does not take this into account, fragmentation may block the raise-bore hole.
Cleaning rates are affected by the fragmentation achieved and by any water in the shaft. Rates of 110t/h to
140t/h for a Herman Mucker have been reported. Final blow-over is achieved using a 50mm compressed-air

hose.
Where the broken rock is removed by LHD, safe operating procedures need to be enforced to ensure that the
muck pile does not block the raise-bore hole. This will impact on shaft ventilation and could result in water being
trapped. This may result in a mud rush when the broken rock is cleared. Hang-ups are also possible if the muck
is left for some time and concrete lining equipment has been washed out, forming a solid mass at the base of the
raise bore.
Fragmentation in blind shaft sinks is important in that if the rock is too large, loading times are increased, which
impacts on shaft progress. There is an additional risk in the kibbles being overloaded. An overloaded kibble could
drop rocks onto the sinking stage and injure the crew. Common practice is for the stage hand to inspect kibbles
for overloading before leaving the confines of the stage.
Cleaning rates for the 0.87m3 Cactus Grab have been recorded at 160t/h with final clean-up being achieved
using a 50mm compressed air hose.
Clearing the Horidiam round involves similar risks to those of the raise-bore/strip-and-line technique associated
with LHD mucking.
Equipment maintenance
The equipment used in both raise-bore, strip-and-line and the blind-sink methods is similar. The kibble winder
and the interlocking safety circuits are the most sophisticated items of equipment and require an experienced
maintenance crew.
Suspending the kibble from the winder rope are high-tensile chains that connect to the kibble using drop-nose
pins placed through forged lugs on the kibble. The chains and pins need to be inspected daily and nondestructively tested at least once every six months.
To guide the kibble down the shaft, a kibble cross-head (sometimes called a monkey) is used. The monkey
stabilises the kibbles travel by using the stage ropes. To minimise wear on the ropes, sacrificial phosphor-bronze
bushes are installed in the cross-head and run on the ropes. These need to be checked and replaced regularly.
In the blind-sink option, the mucking equipment requires a special skill set. In most countries, the Cryder, Brute or
Herman Mucker is used. This is usually a hydraulically powered bucket-type/clam-shell excavator on a hydraulic
arm suspended from the bottom of the sinking stage. In large shafts it is not uncommon to have two muckers in
the sinking stage.
In South Africa the Cactus Crab is used. This is also suspended from the bottom of the stage, but is usually
pneumatically powered.

Schedule
No matter which shaft-sinking method is selected, the preparation and set-up times are major activities in shaftsinking contracts. These can be influenced by the availability of skilled people and shaft-sinking equipment, the
logistics of getting the equipment to the site, and the level of infrastructure available at the site.
After award of the contract for raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft sinking, six to nine months are required for
mobilisation and site establishment.
During this time, kibble and stage ropes are ordered (a common long-lead item), headgear laid out and, if
necessary, fabricated (another possible long-lead item), and plant and equipment are transported to site, installed
and commissioned. In parallel, recruitment, risk assessments and training are completed for the site-specific
tasks. It is important to note that this shaft-sinking technique is not an option unless timely access can be gained
to the target zone.
Access to the target position or shaft bottom can be on the shafts critical path, particularly if the shaft is a
greenfield site. If it is a brownfield site, the impact on the schedule to access the target zone can be reduced if
the shaft is close to existing excavations.
The cost and the time are usually part of the mines development, and as a result can be completed before the
shaft being required, making raise bore, strip and line an attractive shaft-sinking method.
An average pilot-hole drilling rate of 12m/d to 18m/d, and a rate of 8m/d to 9.6m/d for reaming are commonly
used in planning. Shaft sinking and lining rates are between 4.2m/d and 5.2m/d.
For blind shaft sink, the mobilisation and set-up time is similar to the time for raise bore, strip and line.

During the pre-sink phase, advance rates are always slow as the sinking crew go through their learning curve. In
addition, the pre-sink often includes complex sub-brace arrangements. The shaft sinking rate in this phase is
usually between 1.5m/d and 2.0m/d.
Sinking rates are affected by ground conditions and the support or sealing required. In the sinking contract, it is
common practice to define advance rates through various ground conditions. In competent ground and as the
crew settles down into a production cycle, shaft sinking and lining rates are commonly between 3m/d and
4.5m/d , although rates as high as 6m/d have been recorded.
If the shaft-sinking plant and equipment are ready for use, mobilisation and site establishment for Horidiam takes
between four and five months. The raise-bore schedule for Horidiam would be the same as for the raise-bore,
strip-and-line shaft-sinking method.
Mining of the weathered zone depends on the ground and depth required before the shaft barrel walls are stable.
This mining rate for reasonable ground would be of the order of 3m/d.
Once the benching stage has been removed, the Horidiam stage installed, and the services commissioned,
drilling 3m-deep holes from a three-deck stage using L500 Tamrock drifters will achieve 1.5 rings at 1.2m
intervals per 8h shift.
Commonly, there are three shifts a day for seven days a week, resulting in an advance rate of approximately
7m/d. Limiting this progress is the ability to fire the round when required and remove the muck from the target
zone and out of the mine. Both activities may have to coincide with production cycles.

Risks
The table (below) outlines the different risks of the shaft-sinking systems.
The following are typical risks that are considered as being similar in severity for all shaft-sinking methods:

shaft-sinking winding plant, stages, jumbo drilling rigs, shaft shutter, etc;

headgear availability for shaft sinking;

construction of headgear;

drilling holes;

moving the stage, firing and re-entry;

making safe;

passing kibble through the sinking stage;

moving the drill rig;

lining the shaft barrel; and

availability of suitably experienced and qualified personnel.

Shaft sinking is a hazardous activity and as a result requires strong and vigilant management. Training and
retraining of the crews are imperative in the drive to maintain a safe and injury-free project. Job safety analysis
needs to be implemented and reviewed regularly for continuous improvement.

Conclusion
When deciding which shaft-sinking technique to employ, it is important to look at the project from as many
aspects as possible. Selection needs to take into account cost, schedule, contractors safety record and the risks
pertinent to the project.
The vertical-advance capital cost for blind shaft sinking is marginally more than for raise bore, strip and line.
However, when the cost of the decline to access the target zone is taken into account, the blind sinking option

can become the more cost-effective option. Blind sink also becomes more attractive if mid-shaft access is
required.
The cost associated with removing rock from the shaft bottom is built into the blind shaft sink rate. A common
error is not accounting for this cost in the raise-bore, strip-and-line method. This cost can be significant,
particularly when the rock has to be trucked to the surface. If possible, the rock should be tipped into disused
workings close to the target zone.
While a decline access may be available, or required in the mine plan, the cost to access the mid-shaft position
may more than off-set the additional cost incurred by the blind shaft-sink option.
When using the raise-bore, strip-and-line sinking method, project delays incurred through timing of the blast,
ventilation and waste-rock removal can impact the shafts progress, resulting in the sinking crew being stood
down. However, this is a management issue and the project teams should assess their ability to control these
issues, including in the contractual obligations of underground-mining contractors, as part of the project risk
assessment.
To complete any financial analysis, a net-present-value or economic value-added calculation must be completed.
Project risk needs to be factored into the evaluation. This would cover the availability of plant and contractors,
skills to resource the shaft sink, schedule risks to the project and geological risk.
The intersection of water-bearing geological features needs to be understood particularly the size and flow rate
of these features if the raise-bore technique is to be used. Should a significant structure be intersected and not
detected until it holes into the target zone, it could present a high risk of flooding the mine. In blind sink, cover
drilling provides early warning of these geological structures, and they can usually be sealed without major
impact to the mine.
Where the shaft is being sunk in ground that is not self-supporting or has significant water structures, blind sink
shafts will provide the opportunity to control and isolate these risks.
From a schedule perspective, if access to the shaft bottom is not available for the raise-bore, strip-and-line
method, then the blind sink method is likely to be of shorter duration.
It is hoped this article will be useful in the prefeasibility stage and will generate discussion on the optimal shaftsinking method for a project, resulting in cost-effective and timely outcomes.

Ed Northcote is regional manager business development at Sinclair Knight Merz in Brisbane,

Australia. www.skmconsulting.com

Blind sink method

There are four phases in the blind shaft-sinking method (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: schematic of blind shaft-sinking method

Phase 1 is the establishment of the shaft collar and shaft-sinking infrastructure for the shaft-sinking kibble and
stage winders, headgear, compressed air, ventilation fans, concrete batching, drill rig and mucking equipment
maintenance.
As with the strip-and-line method, a pre-sink is required, which will take the shaft bottom from the sub-brace to a

depth of approximately 50m or below the weathered ground, whichever is the greater.
During this phase, the shaft-sinking crew will be trained in the sinking cycle. It is not uncommon to have a mockup shaft in which the crews practice. This can be beneficial in reducing the learning-curve time and identifying
and improving work practices and safe methods.
Phase 2 is the commissioning and installation period for the shaft-sinking equipment. Where large shaft sinks are
undertaken and, depending on the design, the sinking stage may be too large to install once the headgear has
been erected. In these cases, the stage is constructed and lowered into the pre-sink shaft before the headgear is
constructed over the shaft. Modular construction techniques are used to expedite the erection of the headgear.
The kibble and stage winders are commissioned in parallel with roping up the winders ready for completion of the
headgear. Once roped up, the system is load-commissioned and the training and system practised in the mock
shaft are tested.
Shaft sinking is not unlike a production cycle in that the following activities are repeated until the required shaft
depth has been achieved. Only at stations does the shift activity and cycle change.
The shaft-sinking cycle is:

drill charge holes;

charge holes;

move the stage up;

fire the round;

forced ventilation prior to re-entry; and

make safe and clean the round.

Approximately every 6m of progress in the shaft barrel, the shaft lining is brought down to provide protection from
and support to the country rock. This is the same activity with the same issues as per the strip-and-line method.
Where ground conditions are poor, the shaft country rock can be supported using various techniques. These can
range from bolting and meshing with a shotcrete finish, to lowering the shaft lining down to the shaft-bottom
bench, which increases the shaft-sinking cycle.
In areas where there is evidence or forecast of water or gas that could affect the shafts safety and progress,
cover drilling is required. An allowance of between 24 and 48 hours may be required to install the stand pipes
and complete the cover drilling. Should there be an intersection of water or gas, the cover-drill cycle is extended
to handle and seal the ingress
In phase 3, the shaft-sinking cycle activities have become routine and their durations should have settled down.
The duration, stoppages and material movements during each activity must be recorded. This information can
then be used to forecast problems and solve exiting deficiencies, resulting in an ever-improving cycle as the shaft
advances.
In phase 4, the shaft-sinking equipment is stripped from the shaft barrel, the shaft equipped and brace
commissioned for the shafts operating duty. Good planning will have the majority of this construction being done
in parallel with the shaft-sink activities.

Mid-shaft access
The raise-bore, strip-and-line and Horidiam methods require shaft bottom access, but depending on the shaft
depth may also require a mid-shaft access.
Shaft-bottom and mid-shaft accesses need these zones to be available by the time the raise-bore reamer is
attached. It is possible to start drilling the pilot hole for the raise-bore strings ahead of the mid-shaft access being
available. However, to avoid delays, it is important that the access is available once the pilot hole arrives.

Accessing the mid-shaft or shaft bottom could be the projects longest activity, putting it on the schedules critical
path. Mid-shaft access can add significantly to the capital cost of the project, particularly if the area has no use in
the permanent layout of the shaft. Common functions for mid-shaft access after construction would be:

egress of the rising main run-of-mine dewatering pipes;

ventilation of the upper regions of the mine; and

head rope changing for Kepe winders.

For deep shafts, three excavations (top, centre and lower) are required for the raise-bore, strip-and-line and
Horidiam shaft-sinking methods.
The top excavation provides access and ventilation to the top of the raise-bore chip pile. It will also provide
drainage to the top of the pile, which is a safety feature reducing the possibility of a mud rush.
The centre excavation is used to store and collect the raise-bore chips. These are cleared using an LHD. The
lower excavation provides a covered and protected position from where the directional drilling and raise-boring
are carried out for the lower half of the shaft.
While the central excavation could be re-used in the permanent phase, the upper and lower are an additional
cost to the project required by the strip-and-line sinking method.
For the blind shaft-sink method, no mid-shaft excavation is required, negating any risks associated with mining to
this position. If possible, it is worth considering that levels are best developed before the shaft face arrives at that
location. The alternative is to develop the plats and levels from the shaft floor at the level, which is timeconsuming, inefficient and therefore relatively expensive.

Shaft collar
The shaft collar is an intricate construction that is required to provide some or all of the following:

improved load-bearing capability for the sky tower and possibly the headgear;

exit of services from the shaft to the brace area;

entrance to the shaft for power and communications cables;

intersection of the bulk ventilation duct with the shaft barrel;

headgear foundations;

sub-brace foundations and lining;

sealing of the shaft barrel through the weathered upper geological formations;

sealing of brace to suit mine ventilation requirements; and

protection of crews working in the shaft during sinking (brace doors) and kibble-handling facilities.

Shaft lining
The risks associated with the placement of the shaft lining are similar for the raise-bore, strip-and-line and for the
blind shaft-sinking methods.

There is an opportunity to reduce the shaft-sinking cycle by running the activities of shaft shutter lowering,
alignment and filling with concrete concurrently with shaft-bottom mucking. This needs to be risk-assessed and
suitable safety procedures identified and practised.
The Horidiam sinking method does not allow for shaft lining.

Cover drilling
In all shaft-sinking methods, a curtain grout can be achieved from the shaft collar. Also, cover drilling can be done
from the bottom of the pre-sink to a depth limited by the geology of the area. In most sites, reliable cover at depth
is difficult to achieve.
Where there could be a significant water intersection at depth, the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus Horidiam shaftsinking methods are at high risk. When drilling the pilot hole for the raise-bore reamer rods, there is no control
over the ingress of fissure water. There are techniques that can be used to seal the pilot hole.
In the blind-sink method, there are tried and tested cover-drill practices that provide advance warning of water
and gas intersections. Coupled with this knowledge, there are well-known grouting procedures that are capable
of controlling and, in the majority of cases, sealing the aquifer. Should sealing of the aquifer not be possible,
pumping arrangements can be installed to pump water to the surface.
There are also tried and tested methods of recovering flooded shafts where the cover drilling has failed to detect
large ingress of water. While this is not ideal, it is a lower risk than flooding the mine.

Cost comparison
To arrive at the range of capital costs below, data from a number of tenders has been collated for concrete-lined
shafts that are approximately 1,000m deep and 7m in diameter.
The shafts were to be used for rock hoisting and equipped with rope guides for the conveyances. The capital cost
of the shaft furniture and hoisting system is not included. Also excluded from the percentages are logistics to get
the plant to and from the site and the cost of preparing the site. These can be significant in remote or
mountainous locations.

Comparisons of risks

Risk

Raise bore strip

Blind sink

Risk Type

and line
Directional
drilling

Accuracy required
to intersect mid- N/A
shaft position.

Schedule and
cost

Shaft collar

Complex structure
to accommodate
the raise bore
N/A
activity with the
permanent
requirements.

Technical

Raise bore

Lose rods in pilot

N/A
hole.

Schedule

Reamer head
losses a cutter.

Schedule

N/A

Removal of raise
bore chips by
others.
Underground
N/A
mining contractor
interface with
shaft sinking
contractor.

Schedule and
cost

Logistical issues
in removing the
muck out of the
mine impacted by N/A
possible mine
production taking
precedence.

Schedule and
cost

Access to midshaft position

Timely access
required for shaft
sinking ventilation N/A
and removal of
raise bore chips.

Schedule

Intersection of
aquifers in the
shaft barrel

Cover drilling
available to
detect and
Not able to seal
possibly seal
water if an
aquifer
intersection is
intersection.
Cost and
encountered in
Where total
schedule
directional or raise
sealing is not
bore hole. Risk of
possible, able to
flooding mine.
control ingress of
aquifer water and
pump out.

Bench strip

Risk of raise bore

rock pass
Not applicable.
blocking.

Traffic generated
by the removal of
waste rock
generated from the
Removing waste shaft sink can
rock
conflict with
operations
production traffic
shaft sinking can
stop.

Falling from
heights

Risk of
overloading the
kibble resulting
in rocks falling
out and down to
shaft.

Interface with
open raise bore in
transition from
Not applicable
mucking to bench
floor activities and
prior to blasting.

Schedule

Traffic issue
becomes a
schedule delay.
Falling rock
can result in an
injury or
fatality.

Injury or
fatality

Aspermont UK (Mining Communications Ltd) Albert House, 1 Singer Street, London, EC2A 4BQ