Gh.

Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

POSTELASTIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1. Basics of postelastic analysis
In plastic analysis and design of a structure, the ultimate load of the structure as a whole is
regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load is
found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is rapid and provides a rational
approach for the analysis of the structure. It also provides striking economy as regards the weight of
steel since the sections required by this method are smaller in size than those required by the method
of elastic analysis. Plastic analysis and design has its main application in the analysis and design of
statically indeterminate framed structures.

Fig, 1 Mathematical models for steel

Many mathematical models are considered in nonlinear structural analysis. Choosing the
appropriate mathematical model for the material from which a structure is made is the main key for a
successful structural response evaluation (Fig. 1). The plastic method is applicable to structures
constructed with an ideal elastic-plastic material that exhibits the stress-strain relationship shown in
Figure 2. The moment-curvature relationship for any section of the structure is assumed to have the
ideal form shown in Figure 3. Thus, on applying a uniform sagging moment to a member the momentcurvature relationship is linear until the applied moment reaches the value of Mp the plastic moment
of resistance of the section. At this stage, all material above the zero-strain axis of the section has
yielded in compression and all material below has yielded in tension, and a plastic hinge has formed.
Then the section can offer no additional resistance to deformation, and increase in curvature continues
at a constant applied moment. In addition, in determining the collapse load of a structure, it is
assumed that elastic deformations are negligible and do not affect the geometry of the structure. It
1

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

means that the width-thickness ratio of plate elements is small so that local buckling does not occur
in other words, the sections will classify as plastic. Thus, the structure behaves in a rigid-plastic
manner with zero deformation until the formation of sufficient plastic hinges to produce a mechanism.
With these assumptions, it can be said that the section will reach its plastic moment capacity and then
undergo considerable rotation at this moment. With these assumptions, we will now look at the
behaviour of a beam up to collapse.

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

2. Formation of plastic hinges

Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a uniformly distributed working load of total
magnitude w, as shown in Fig. 4. The elastic bending moment at the ends is wl2/12, and at mid-span is
wl2/24, where l is the span. The stress distribution across any cross section is linear (Fig. 5.a). As w is
increased gradually, the bending moment at every section increases and the stresses also increase. At a
section close to the support where the maximum bending moment is, the stresses in the extreme fibers
reach the yield stress. The moment corresponding to this state is called the first yield moment My, of
the cross section. But this does not imply failure as the beam can continue to take additional load. As
the load continues to increase, more and more fibers reach the yield stress and the stress distribution is
as shown in Fig 5.b. Eventually, the whole of the cross section reaches the yield stress and the
corresponding stress distribution is as shown in Fig. 5.c. The moment corresponding to this state is
known as the plastic moment of the cross section and is denoted by Mp. In order to find out the fully
plastic moment of a yielded section of a beam, we employ the force equilibrium equation, namely the
total force in compression and the total force in tension over that section are equal.
w
wu
plastic hinges

wl 2/12

Mp

wl 2/24

wl 2/12

collapse mechanism

Mp

Mp

Mp /2

Fig. 4 Formation of a collapse mechanism in a fully fixed beam

Mp

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

a) Elastic limit

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

b) Elastic-plastic

c) Quasi-fully plasticized
cross-section

Fig. 5

Finally, as the applied load is increased still further, a plastic hinge forms in the center of the
beam, and the distribution of bending moment is as shown. The beam has now been converted to the
unstable collapse mechanism shown above, and collapse is imminent under the ultimate load wu. The
ratio of the collapse load to the working load is:
w
= u
w
where is the collapse the load factor. Since the structure is statically determinate at the point of
collapse, the collapse load is readily determined as:
16 M p
wu =
l
and this value is unaffected by settlement of the supports or elastically restrained end connections.
M

Mp
formation of plastic hinge

Fig. 6 Elastic-plastic response

of beams with different cross-sections

1/R

Fig. 7 Mathematical model

elastic-perfectly plastic

Fig. 8 - Ideal plastic hinge formation - M ip M p + M ip

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic rotations occur.
Thus the length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero. However, the values of moment, at the
adjacent section of the yield zone are more than the yield moment up to a certain length L, of the
structural member. This length L, is known as the hinged length. The hinged length depends upon
the type of loading and the geometry of the cross-section of the structural member. The region of
hinged length is known as region of yield or plasticity.

3. Plastic moment of resistance

After the formation of a plastic
hinge in the section shown above, the
rectangular stress distribution shown at is
produced.
Equating
horizontal
compressive and tensile forces:
Pc = Pt

f y' Ac = f y At

where fy and fy are the yield stresses in

tension and compression (which may be
assumed to be equal) and At and Ac are
the cross-sectional areas in tension and
compression. Thus, the plastic moment of
resistance is:

M p = Wp f y
where Mp is the plastic bending moment, Wpl is the plastic section modulus, and fy the yield limit;
For the cross sections subjected to pure axial efforts:
Np = A fy
where Np is the plastic axial force, and A the cross section area.

5. Shape factor
The shape factor is defined by the following relationship:

s =

Wp
Wel

where Wel is the elastic section modulus. The shape factor value strongly depends by the crosssection shape:
- for hot rolled elements:
(y)
(z)
I cross section:
s = 1.85, s = 1.15 1.17;
(z)

(y)
U (or C) cross section:
s = 2.10 , s = 1.20;
- rectangular hollow cross section: s = 1.27 ;
- full rectangular cross section:
s = 1.50 ;
- circular cross section:
s = 1.70 ;
- rhombic cross section:
s = 2.00 ;
- triangular cross section:
s = 2.37.
Thus, for a rectangular section the plastic moment Mp is about 1.5 times greater than the
elastic moment capacity.
4

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

If the section is thin walled, due to local buckling, it may not be able to sustain the moment for
additional rotations and may collapse either before or soon after attaining the plastic moment. It may
be noted that formation of a single plastic hinge gives a collapse mechanism for a simply supported
beam. The ratio of the ultimate rotation to the yield rotation is called the rotation capacity of the
section. The yield and the plastic moments together with the rotation capacity of the cross section are
used to classify the sections.

6. Application
Let find the shape factor of the cross section shown in Figure 9:
8

12

12

zG = 10 .43

AN

[ cm]

G 1+

[ cm]

z1 = 6.02

16

16

AN

z2 = 9.37

zp = 9

11.57

G2

22 - yp = 13

Fully plasticized cross-section

Elastic behaviour

Fig. 9

Solve for the centroid position and for the elastic section modulus:
zG =

18 4 2+16 4 12+24 2 21
= 10.43 cm
18 4+16 4+24 2

18 43
4 163
24 23
+ 18 4 8.432 +
+ 4 16 1.57 2 +
+ 24 2 10.57 2
12
12
12
Wel =
= 1047.07 cm3
11.57
Now, considering that the cross section is fully plasticized, in order to find the plastic
section modulus the new position of the neutral axis must be founded:

A( ) = A( + )

(8+4+12) 2+(22-z p -2) 4=(8+4+6) 4+(z p -4) 4

48+80-4 z p =72+4 z p -16 z p = 9 cm

z :=
1

( 8 + 4 + 6) 4 7 + ( 9 4) 4 2.5
18 4 + 5 4

= 6.02

z :=
2

( 8 + 4 + 12) 2 12 + ( 13 2) 4 6.5
24 2 + 11 4

Wpl := ( 18 4 + 5 4) 6.02 + ( 24 2 + 11 4) 9.37 = 1415.88

cm3

= 9.37

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

The shape factor is:

s =

W pl
Wel

1451.88
= 1.352
1047.07

7. Principles of plastic analysis

Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis
- Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is
formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a mechanism.
- Equilibrium condition: Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Mxy = 0

- Plastic moment condition: The bending moment at any section of the structure should not
be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.
Collapse mechanisms

When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will deform and will show a resistance
against deformation. Such a body is known as a structure. On the other hand if no resistance is set up
against deformation in the body, then it is known as a mechanism. Various types of independent
mechanisms are identified to enable prediction of possible failure modes of a structure.
a) Beam mechanism

Fig. 4 (right) shows a fully fixed beam and the corresponding mechanism.
b) Panel or Sway mechanism

The Figure 10.a shows a panel or sway mechanism for a portal frame fixed at both ends.

a) Panel (sway) mechanism

b) Gable mechanism

c) Joint mechanism

Fig. 10

c) Gable mechanism

Fig. 10.b shows the gable mechanism for a gable structure fixed at both the supports.
d) Joint mechanism

Fig. 10.c shows a joint mechanism. It occurs at a joint where more than two structural
members meet.

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

Combined mechanism

Various combinations of independent mechanisms can be made depending upon whether the
frame is made of strong beam and weak column combination or strong column and weak beam
combination. The one shown in Fig. 11 is a combination of a beam and sway mechanism. Failure is
triggered by formation of hinges at the bases of the columns and the weak beam developing two
hinges. This is illustrated by the right hinge being shown on the beam, in a position slightly away
from the joint. From the above examples, it is seen that the number of hinges needed to form a
mechanism equals the static redundancy of the structure plus one.

Fig. 11

8. Plastic load factor and theorems of plastic collapse

The plastic load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p) is defined as the lowest multiple of the
design loads which will cause the whole structure, or any part of it to become a mechanism. In a limit
state approach, the designer is seeking to ensure that at the appropriate factored loads the structure
will not fail. Thus the rigid plastic load factor p must not be less than unity. The number of
independent mechanisms (N) is related to the number of possible plastic hinge locations (X) and the
number of degree of redundancy or the static indeterminacy (ns) of the frame by the equation.
N = X - ns

The three theorems of plastic collapse are given below.

(I) Lower bound or Static theorem
A load factor (s) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed bending moment diagram
which is in equilibrium with the applied loads and where the fully plastic moment of resistance is
nowhere exceeded will always be less than or at best equal to the load factor at rigid plastic
collapse, (p). In other words, p is the highest value of s which can be found.

(II) Upper bound or Kinematic theorem

A load factor (k) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed mechanism will always be
greater than, or at best equal to the load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p). In other words, p is the
lowest value of k which can be found.

(III) Uniqueness theorem

If both the above criteria are satisfied, then the resulting load factor corresponds to its
value at rigid plastic collapse (p).
7

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

9. Mechanism method
In the mechanism or kinematics method of plastic analysis, various plastic failure mechanisms
are evaluated. The plastic collapse loads corresponding to various failure mechanisms are obtained by
equating the internal work at the plastic hinges to the external work by loads during the virtual
displacement. This requires evaluation of displacements and plastic hinge rotations. As the plastic
deformations at collapse are considerably larger than elastic ones, it is assumed that the frame remains
rigid between supports and hinge positions i.e. all plastic rotation occurs at the plastic hinges.
Considering a simply supported beam subjected to a point load at midspan or a uniform
distributed working (Fig. 4), the maximum strain will take place at the centre of the span where a
plastic hinge will be formed at yield of full section. The remainder of the beam will remain straight,
thus the entire energy will be absorbed by the rotation of the plastic hinge.

10. Stability
For plastically designed frames three stability criteria have to be considered for ensuring the
safety of the frame. These are:
1. general frame stability,
2. local buckling criterion,
3. restraints.
Effect of axial load and shear

If a member is subjected to the combined action of bending moment and axial force, the plastic
moment capacity will be reduced. The presence of an axial load implies that the sum of the tension
and compression forces in the section is not zero. This means that the neutral axis moves away from
the equal area axis providing an additional area in tension or compression depending on the type of
axial load. The interaction equation is:
Mx
N2
= 1
Mp
Ny

The presence of shear forces will also reduce the moment capacity.

fy

fy

h/2

fy

=
h

z1

fy

fy

Total stresses

Fig. 12

Bending

Axial compression

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

Plastic analysis for more than one condition of loading

When more than one condition of loading can be applied to a beam or structure, it may not
always be obvious which is critical. It is necessary then to perform separate calculations, one for each
loading condition, the section being determined by the solution requiring the largest plastic moment.
Unlike the elastic method of design in which moments produced by different loading systems can be
added together, plastic moments obtained by different loading systems cannot be combined, i.e. the
plastic moment calculated for a given set of loads is only valid for that loading condition. This is
because the principle of superposition becomes invalid when parts of the structure have yielded.

11. Application
Let find the collapse mechanism of the following frame system using the combined
mechanism method.
The number of elementary mechanism is:
N= X n = 10 6 = 4

two beam mechanisms (fig. 13.a, b), one sway mechanism (fig. 13.c) and one joint mechanism
(fig. 13.d).

4 5
6

2Mp

Mp

Mp
10

8m

4m
2

4Mp

Mp

4m
Mp

4Mp

2Mp

4Mp

2Mp 2Mp

a)

8m

4Mp

b)
Fig. 13

Mp

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp

c)

2Mp

d)

2Mp
Mp

2Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp
e)

Fig. 13 (cont.)

For the elementary mechanisms the following relationships could be written:

- for the beam mechanism shown in Figure 13.a:

2 4 = M p + 2 M p + 2 M p + 2 M p (a) =

7
M p = 0.875M p
8

- for the beam mechanism shown in Figure 13.b:

13
M p = 0.406M p
32
- for the floor (or displacement) mechanism shown in Figure 13.c:
6
4 = 6 M p (c) = M p = 1.5M p
4
The combined mechanisms are obtained as follows:
- Combining the elementary mechanisms (a) and (b), another possible mechanism results
(Fig. 12.e); the joint mechanism (d) is not useful, because rotating the joint high values for the
internal work are obtained (8Mp - Fig. 12.g clockwise rotation) and, 6Mp, respectively, (Fig.
12.h counterclockwise rotation), higher than the value of the internal work when the joint is
not rotated (Fig. 12.f).
4 8 = 3 4M p + M p (b) =

2Mp

2Mp

Mp
f) La = 3Mp

2Mp

4Mp

4Mp

Mp
Mp

g) La = 8Mp > 3Mp

Fig. 13 (cont.)

10

h) La = 6Mp > 3Mp

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

For the mechanism shown in Fig. 12.e, the equilibrium relationship could be written
in two forms:
inchise
a) L(Fa ) + L(Fc ) = L(aa ) + L(ac ) Larticulatii
a

4 + 2 4 = 7 M p + 6M p 2M p (e) =

11
M p = 0.917 M p
12

b) or directly on the combined mechanism:

4 + 2 4 = 5 M p + 3 2M p (e) =

11
M p = 0.917 M p
12

- Let now combine the mechanisms (12.a), (12.b) (12.i), and (12.d) clockwise joint
rotation (Fig. 12.l, comparing with Fig. 12.k fixed joint, and Fig. 12.m counterclockwise joint
rotation). Thus, on the mechanism shown in Fig. 12.j, the following equilibrium equations could
be written:

4Mp

Mp

Mp
Mp

Mp
4Mp

Mp

4Mp

Mp

Mp

i)

2Mp

Mp

Mp

Mp
4Mp

Mp

4Mp

Mp

Mp
j)

4Mp

2Mp

4Mp 4Mp
4Mp

Mp
k) La = 5Mp

Mp
l) La = 7Mp > 5Mp
Fig. 13 (cont.)

11

2Mp

Mp
Mp

m) La = 12Mp > 5Mp

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

inchise
deschise
a) L(Fb ) + L(Fc ) = L(ab ) + L(ac ) Larticulatii
+ Larticulatii
a
a

4 + 4 8 = 13 M p + 6M p ( M p + 4M p ) + 2M p (j) =

16
M p = 0.444M p
36

b) or directly on the combined mechanism:

4 + 4 8 = 6 M p + 2M p + 2 4M p (j) =

16
M p = 0.444M p
36

Consequently, the collapse load factor is:

u = min im = (b) = 0.406 M p

corresponding to a partial collapse mechanism (beam mechanism) in a second bay of the frame.

12. Biographical method

In what follows, a computer program is presented for evaluating the collapse mechanism of
plane frames applying the biographical method, or, in other words, finding the order of the plastic
hinge formation. The frames must be loaded only with concentrated forces applied strictly in the
joints of the frames, and not on the beams. It means that a beam which is loaded with a concentrated
force somewhere along its span must be divided into separate beams having joint connections where
the forces are located. If a uniform distributed load is applied on to a member, it must be replaced by
its resultant load.
First, an elastic analysis will be done for
the given external loads Poi. The load factor of a
(1)
(2)
cross section is defined by the ratio between the
2
1
3
plastic moment and the corresponding elastic
one produced by the load combination Poi. This
load factor is calculated for all possible critical
(1)
(2)
cross-sections, thus for all beam ends. (The
NO
bending moment diagrams have linear variations
1
2
3
on all the beams because the frame is loaded
only with concentrated forces applied in the
joints.) The smallest load factor will identify the
(1)
(2)
YES first plastic hinge the first cross-section which
will be fully plasticized.
2
3
1
Then, different parameters will be
computed (displacements, reactive forces etc.) corresponding to this first plastic hinge formation,
multiplying the load factor with all the values already founded from the load combination Poi.
In that cross-section a hinge is now introduced, and the stiffness matrix of the structure is reassembled. This plastic hinge is considered loaded with its corresponding plastic bending moment,
and the modified structure will be used for the next step, to find the second plastic hinge, applying the
same linear structural analysis.
When increasing the magnitudes of the external loads applied on the structure, the variation of
the plastic bending moment is null, but a free cross-section rotation being allowed). All the other
beams of the frame have an elastic structural behaviour.
12

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

INPUT DATA
- joints coordinates
- beam mechanical properties
- boundary conditions

Assembling
the stiffness matrix

LOADS INPUT

HINGE=HINGE + 1

Inverting the N-th stiffness

matrix of the auxiliary
structure

IMPOSSIBLE

POSSIBLE
RESULTS
IN THE N-th AUXILIARY STRUCTURE
- joint displacements
- beam internal efforts
- hinges rotations

THE PLASTIC HINGE IS

CLOSING?

NO

THE NEXT PLASTIC HINGE IS FORMED

- finding the new plastic hinge
- internal efforts in the auxiliary structure
- load factor
- joint displacements
- beam internal efforts
- plastic hinge rotations

Modifying the stiffness matrix of the N-th

auxiliary structure and updating and reassembling
it for the (N+1)-th structure

13

YES

STRUCTURAL
COLLAPSE!

Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai

Department of Structural Mechanics

Hyperstatic structures
Cezar Aanici, Dr. Eng.

The load factors between the plastic hinges formations are obtained by multiplying the load
factor already founded in the earlier step in the attached (auxiliary) structure, subjected to the load
combination Poi , with the next load factor. This step-by-step technique will continue till the plastic
hinges will form a collapse mechanism, meaning that on the main diagonal of the assembled structural
stiffness matrix a null or negative coefficient will be identified (a singular matrix could not be
inverted).
Closing the plastic hinges

During a proportional load combination, a plastic hinge could be unloaded. The plastic
bending moment of the corresponding cross section could decrease, having a linear elastic behaviour,
but with a remanent (residual) plastic rotation. Such situations are quite frequently possible because
the new plastic hinges developed into the structure modify the internal efforts distribution decreasing
their magnitudes, or having opposite senses
M
in the auxiliary (attached) structure, but only
if the structure has a linear elastic behaviour
between two consecutive steps. When this M
p
case is happening in the auxiliary structure
(the k plastic hinge formation) the hinge
closing
plastic hinge
rotation is in the opposite sense of the (full)
the plastic hinge
formation
hinge rotation. Thus, the auxiliary structure
must be modified (being unacceptable) by
replacing it with another structure with a
removed plastic hinge in the corresponding
cross section, and the stiffness matrix of the
structure will be updated and reassembled.
o
1/R

Fig. 13 Closing the plastic hinge

14