DENIM

The word Denim is believed to have evolved from a French fabric known as serge de
Nmes. The cloth from Nmes was a twill woven cloth made of a silk-wool blend; however;
the fabric mix of this cloth casts some doubt on this origin since Denim has always been
made from cotton. Since the mid- 1950s Denim Garments has become a mainstay in the
wardrobe of American youth. Denim represents a rugged cotton twill textile, in which the
weft passes under two or more warp fibers, producing the familiar diagonal ribbing
identifiable on the reverse of the fabric, which distinguishes denim from cotton duck. Denim
was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans though jean represents a
different, lighter cotton textile. Although Denim jeans are favorites among the American
youth, it has changed style and significance throughout the years. Globally, Denim designers
are experimenting with fabric and garment details including embellishments in order to add
value to its garments.
PROCESS FLOW WEAVING
The process of producing a fabric by interlacing warp and weft threads is known as weaving.
The machine used for weaving is known as weaving machine or loom. Weaving is an art that
has been practiced for thousands of years. The earliest application of weaving dates back to
the Egyptian civilization. Over the years, both the process as well as the machine has
undergone phenomenal changes. As of today, there is a wide range of looms being used,
right from the simplest handloom to the most
BASIC WEAVE DESIGNS
1) Plain weave
2) Twill weaves
3) Satin Weave
Most of the other weaves are derived from these three basic weaves.
FINISHING OF DENIM
Finishing is the process done on denim fabric; causing them to change in
appearance, texture and performance.
The term finishing covers all those treatments that serve to impart to the textile the desired
end-use properties. These can include properties relating to visual effect, handle and special
characteristics such as waterproofing and non-flammability. Finishing treatment is done to
achieve the ultimate customer requirements.
These are mostly value added processes.
Mechanical Finish
Chemical Finish
MECHANICAL FINISHING:
Mechanical Finishing is defined as any operation performed to improve fabric appearance or
function by physical manipulation. Steam or water may accompany the physical
manipulation; however, chemicals other than lubricants are seldom used. Fabric luster,
smoothness, softness, residual shrinkage and hand are examples of the properties that can
be altered by mechanical finishing.
Compacting (Shrink-proofing)
Calendaring
Raising (Napping, Sueding)
Shearing
Polishing
Corduroy Cutting
CHEMICAL FINISHING:

Among chemical treatments one can further distinguish between treatments that involve a
chemical reaction of the finishing agent with the fiber and the chemical treatments where
this is not necessary (e.g. softening treatment). Some finishing treatments are more typical
for certain types of fibers like easy care finishes for cotton antistatic treatment for synthetic
fibers and mothproofing and anti-felt treatments for wool. In case of fabric the finishing
treatment often take place as a separate operation after dyeing. In more than 80% of cases
the finishing liquor, in the form of an aqueous solution/dispersion, is applied by means of
padding techniques. The dry fabric is passed through the finishing bath containing all the
required ingredients, and is then passed between rollers to squeeze out as much as possible
of the treating solutions before being dried and finally cured. Washing as final step, tends to
be avoided unless
absolutely necessary. Following are some of the Finishes:
Flat finish (singeing mercerizing- padding- sanforizing)
Regular finish (singeing padding- sanforizing)
Coating
DENIM WASHES ARE OF TWO TYPES:
1. Mechanical washes
- Stone wash
- Microsanding
2. Chemical washes
- Denim bleaching
- Enzyme wash
- Acid wash
Other chemical washes:
Ozone fading
Snow wash
Over dye
Sun washing
BACK STAINING OR RE-DEPOSITION:
The dye removed from denim material after the treatment with cellulose or by a
conventional washing
process may cause "back staining or "re-deposition. Re-coloration of blue threads and blue
coloration
of white threads, resulting in less contrast between blue and white threads.
REMEDY OF BACK STAINING --- Adding dispersion/suspension agent to wash cycle.
- Intermediate replacement of wash liquor.
- Using alkaline detergent like sodium per borate with optical brightener as after wash.
INSPECTION
Quality is ultimate concern; every single yard of the denim goes through inspection
department and rated by a point count system to ensure that quality is up to standard
before packing. Defective fabric pieces are rejected and sold as seconds and relatively minor
defective points are marked clearly using stickers to alert cutters.
Defects
Removable defects
Non-Removable defects
REMOVABLE DEFECTS
Removable defects are those defects which are removed by washing and by cutting. Defects
are:

OIL STAINS
Fabric gets spots of oil lubrication from any part.
SLUBS
It is the collection of the threads at the surface of the fabric. Similarly fibers present in the
form of bunch
at the fabric are called slubs. This defect is removed by combing.
HOLE
When fabric passes through temple it produces holes on the fabric due to its wiry surface.
NON REMOVABLE DEFECTS
Those defects which cannot be removed by mending and these are count in fabric grading.
These are:
JALA
In warp and weft direction there is a gap, it looks like that some warps or wefts are missed.
CRACKS
During weaving when m/c stops and again starts running then there is a gap between the
two wefts. It seems like that the beating is not done properly.
PATTI
It is the dark color or thick weft lines in the fabric.
DOUBLE PICK
The two or more threads are inserted at the same place. It is somewhat emboss and occur at
the full length of the fabric.
BROKEN PICK
If the double or thick yarn is inserted 1/4 or width of the fabric then it is known as cut or
broken pick.
BROKEN END
When the warp end is broken.
KNOT
It comes due to knotting of broken warp end.
WRONG DENTING
When more yarns are passed through dents.
TIGHT END
When warp end becomes tight due to tension in dyeing.
COARSE END
It comes when warp end is coarse.
MISS PICK
If the weft yarn is missing from any place of fabric then it is known as miss pick.
REED MARKS
The lines are formed on the fabric due to reed movement and this defect is called reed
marks.
STARTING MARKS
That mark which is due to the beating motion of the loom is called starting mark.
A GRADE FABRIC
If 30 points come in meter fabric it is considered as A grade fabric.
B GRADE FABRIC
If more than 30 points comes in fabric then it is considered as B
grade fabric.
Skewness in twill Fabric
The skewness in denim fabric, particularly in twill weave creates
a serious problem in subsequent garment manufacturing and its

washing. Leg twist is a major problem in denim manufacturing.

Due to this problem the leg is rotated in the opposite direction of
the twill of the fabric after laundering. Leg twist is assumed to be
happen due to the directional yarn stresses. These are inherent in
regular twill weave fabrics and developed during weaving.
During washing the yarn stresses is relaxed which change the regular position of
interlacement between warp and filling yarns.Due to this reason the legs are twisted.
Normally leg twist not
shown on garment stage. It only observed after laundering of the garment. Although leg
twist appears after first laundering and it increases progressively with repeated launderings.
Shrinkage:
Denim twill fabric is with a warp yarn consisting essentially off 20-95% cotton and balance0
-5% other synthetic fibre based on the end use and the fill yarn consisting essentially of 20
-100% cotton and from 0-2% of other synthetic fibre. Warp yarn having been sized. The
finished woven fabric will have a warp shrinkage varying from 5 -12% and 3-5% in the filling
direction. If the term pre-shrunk is used then the warp shrinkage will be 3-5% and weft
shrinkage will be 0-3%.
TESTING
The fabric shrinkage is determined by measuring the dimensions of the fabric before and
after three wash/ dry cycles. The wash/ dry cycle consists of washing the fabric according to
the desired look (process recipe) and drying in a conventional tumble dryer to a maximum
dryness at a final maximum Temperature of 71C. Usually drying time of 30 minutes is
required.
GLOSSERY
Abrasion The process of making garments look worn and aged by scraping or rubbing the
surface of the fabric causing abrasion.
Acid Wash The finish that gives indigo jeans sharp contrasts by soaking pumice stones in
chlorine and letting the stones create the contrast.
Bartack Stitching that reinforces places on jeans such as flies and pocket openings.
Bleach A chemical used to make denim fade.
Broken twill denim was first used by Wrangler in 1964 as a way to combat the twisting
effect
characteristic of regular twill denim (at the time considered a "fault" by many).
Cotton After blooming, this plant turns from white to purple, providing the well-known
textile that
withstands high temperatures, accepts dyes well, and increases in strength when wet. The
quality of
cotton is determined by the length of fibres; the longer the fibres, the higher the quality.
Crocking A term used to describe how dye rubs off fabric on skin or other fabric.
Denim The word denim is believed to be a derivative of the French term, serge de Nmes,
rugged cotton
twill textile, in which the weft passes under two or more warp fibers, producing the familiar
diagonal
ribbing identifiable on the reverse of the fabric distinguishing denim from cotton duck.
Double Needle A common seam on jeans where two stitches run parallel to each other for
reinforcement.
Enzymes Proteins that speed up chemical processes. They are used in textile processing,
mainly in the finishing of fabrics and garments.

Enzyme Wash A more environmentally sound way to create a stone wash, organic proteins
are used to eat away at the indigo.
Finishing The overall processes performed on a garment giving it its unique look.
Five Pocket Jeans Most frequent design for denim: two back pockets, two front pockets
and a coin pocket inside the right front pocket.
Hand The term used to describe how denim feels.
Indigo A blue dye obtained from indigo plants. The chemical structure was synthetically
produced in 1987. Indigo's inherent features are good colorfastness to water and light and a
continual fading. This allows the blue color in jeans to always look irregular and individual.
Jean Possibly derived from the French work "genes", it was first used to describe the type of
pant worn by Genoan sailors.
Laundry A facility that takes unwashed jeans and processes them; i.e. stone wash,
sandblasting, finishing, etc. It is essential in creating commercial denim and has become as
important as fabric development.
Laser technology, initially used by the military, has developed dramatically in the last few
years as a textile treatment with laser finishes. Used with automated Tonello machines,
lasers can be directed
vertically or horizontally and used to create both-specific detailing or a textured all-over
effect. The
frequency of the laser is set to erode the indigo surface in order to either alter the color or
burn through
the cloth. Laser treatments are used exclusively in the upper end of the denim market and
are considered
a more environmentally acceptable process than the traditional methods of finishing.
Left-Hand Twill A weave in which the grain lines run from the top left-hand corner of the
fabric
towards the bottom right. Usually in piece-dyed fabrics, left-hand twill fabrics are woven
from single
piled yarns in the warp. They often have a softer hand feel to them after washing.
Loop Dyed One of three major industrial methods of dyeing indigo yarn.
Open-End Spinning A spinning process in which individual fibers are fed into a high-speed
rotor shaped like a cup where they begin to accumulate. The yarns produced using this
method is not as strong as the ring-spun yarns of the same size.
Overdye A dying process in which additional color is applied to create a different shade or
cast on the garment.
Oxidation In denim manufacturing, when indigo yarn comes out of the dip and joins
oxygen,
penetrating the fibre.
Pigment Dyes Dye that lack the ability to grab onto the fibers and must be held to the
fabric with resins.
Pima Cotton Originally grown in the 1900's in Peru, Pima Cotton is known for its long fibres,
making it
a very high quality, luxurious cotton. Pima Cotton was brought to America and got its name
from the
Pima Indians, who harvested this particular type of cotton.
Polyurethane Provides a chemical resistance in the washing and dying process in order to
achieve the
desired denim wash/ color. It is the basis of a novel type of elastomeric fiber known
generically as

spandex. It is a man-made fiber (segmented polyurethane) able to stretch at least 100% and
snap back
like natural rubber.
Pumice Stone Lightweight and strong, this stone is used in the process of stone-washing
apparel.
Right hand twill, also know as "z twill", was made famous as Levi's jeans standard fabric
and now is
the most common twill weave used for denim fabrics. Right hand twill can be recognized by
the upward
direction of the diagonal twill on the face of the fabric as it runs from lower left toward upper
right.
Right hand twill is known to have a flatter and smoother surface compared to other twill
fabrics.
Ring Dyeing Describes a quality unique to indigo dye in which only the outer ring of the
fibers in the
yarn is dyed while the inner core remains white.
Rivet A metal accessory that is used for reinforcement of stress points as well as
nonfunctional
ornamentation.
Sanding Process that makes the surface of a garment soft by rubbing aggressively with
paper containing
small loose grains of worn rock.
Selvage The edge of a fabric that is woven so that it will not fray or ravel. Old 28 to 30 inch
shuttle
looms produce denim where selvages are closed, whereas on the larger modern weaving
machines the weft yarn is cut on every pick, creating what is called a fringe selvage.
SPI Stitches per Inch
SPI for Denim garments is around 7 8 as Fewer stitches per inch generally will give a more
contrast stitch appearance.
Spraying & Staining: Spraying color can be added at various stages in the finishing cycle,
either by hand or by automated robot. The effect adds to the aged look of a garment by
introducting stained areas,
color contrast or blotched tints. These appear more natural following laundry treatment.
Overdyeing
and tinting is carried out in giant washing machines, where a dirty or stained effect is
achieved via the
use of a pigment dye. The more subtle and sophistocated effects are hand-applied to
individual areas.
Stone Washing Process that physically removes color and adds contrast using pumice
stones. The
longer the denim and stones are rotated the lighter the color becomes and more contrast
occurs. The
denim is then rinsed, softened, and tumble-dried.
Sulphur Bottoms: Many manufacturers apply a sulphur dye before the customary indigo
dye. This is
known as Sulphur Bottom Dyeing. It can be used to create a grey or yellow vintage cast.
Warp: Yarn that runs parallel to selvedge. In denim, its dyed indigo.
Weft The un-dyed crosswise filling yarns used in denim weave.

Weight: Denim is traditionally graded by its weight per yard of fabric at a 29-inch width.
Early jeans
were nine-ounce Levis, increasing to 10-ounce in 1927. Lee Cowboy Pants were introduced
in the
much heavier 13-ounce weight, and most modern jeans are now 14 ounces.
Whiskering Term used to describe a denim that has a fading of the ridges in creases in the
crotch area
and back of the knees giving the appearance of aged denim.

Indigo Dyeing on a 20 rope range

The softener used is cationic in nature and works best in acidic conditions

warp preparation for rope dyeing-1

Ball Warping: Equipment required to form the rope of yarn. It involves creeling multiple ends of
yarn ( Between 350-500 ends) and collecting them into an untwisted rope for dyeing. the rope is
wound onto a long cylinder called a log on a machine called as a ball warper. Some Notes
1. Packages of yarn are preconditioned before ball warping
2. Packages are loaded into the creel ( larger lots- magine transefer creeL0 and smaller lotsswing gate or truck creel
3. Packages are placed on adapters. An adapter support the package of yarn and ensure that the
package remains aligned to the tensioning devices. Wooden plug type adapter are most effective
as they require least amount of exertion to remove the empty package.
Next Step is threading the tensioner located at each yarn package
1. Post and Disk tensioner. It has two posts mounted onto a flat base. two round disk are placed
onto each post. The yarn is threaded between the disk and wrapped around the post. One of the
parts is movable so that the angle of wrap can be varied. More tension can be added to the yarn
by adding round weights onto the top disk.
Advantages are 1. Inexpnsive 2. does Marginally adequate job of maintaining yarn tension 3.
Simple to thread up 4. Low maintenance requirements.
Disadvantages are 1. Yarn has a tendency to jump out from between the disks at the rear of the
creel. 2. It is labour intensive- when different tension levels are required. 3. There is more
frequency of cleaning up 4. It doesnt control tension well at higher speed.
2. The driven disk tensioner
It also uses twin disk arrangement, however the disks are supported from below- there are no
posts. Tension is applied from above- there are weights or spring loaded.
A gear under each pair of disks is matched to another gear mounted on a continuous shaft which
runs the length of the vertical tension post. This shaft is connected to a 4 rpm motor which rotates
the disk.

Advantage of disk rotation are 1. Thread cutting prevention 2. Dampens out variation due to
ballooning action of yarn. There is mor uniform tension 4. Less effor required to change tension
levels.
Disadvantages are 1. It is more difficult to thread up, there is more maintenance due to electric
motor used and at high speed the tension control is not well.

warp preparation for rope dyeing-II

Oz tensioner: It consists of round cylinderical housing and is located at each running package in
the creel. At the top and bottom of the housing is a small ceramic eyelet. Inside of the housing are
two steel balls.The yarn is threaded up through the bottom eyelet, around the steel balls out
through the top of the housing.
Tension is applied to the yarn as it passes around the steel balls inside of the housing.
Advantages: Tension at the front and back of the creel is constant. 2. Adjustments are never
required. 3. It is almost maintenance free.
Disadvantages:
1. there is a limit to how much tension can be applied
2. Threading of tensioner is difficult
3. It is relatively expensive.
ELECTRONIC TENSIONER
1. Capastan Type
2. Rotating Disc Type
Capastan Type: There is a round capastan mounted on a precision shaft. This capastan is
positioned onto the bearings which are located inside of a round DC coil. The yarn is wrapped
around the outer surface of the capastan. The action of the yarn being pulled out of the creel by
warper rotates capastan. If no voltage is applied to the DC coil, an EM field is created under the
capastan. A hysterisis ring is attached to the inside of the capastan which reacts to this EM field
and as such creates resistance to free rotation of the capastan. This resistance to rotation adds
tension to the yarn on the capastan's outer surface. Varrying levels of DC voltages are applied to
each tensioner in the creel and will provide equal tension to each in the rope.
Rotating Disc Type: Two disks are mounted in the vertical position onto a ceramic shaft. Behind
the inside disk is a DC coil. When voltage is applied to the DC coil, an electromagnetic field is
created. The outside disk is steel and is of course attached to the magnetic field which has been
created. It pulls tightly against inner disk; again depending upon the strength of the EM field

created by the DC coil, the yarn is threaded between the two disks. A 4 RPM AC motor mounted
on each tensioiner, turn these disks to prevent thread cutting.
Advantage of Capstan types:
- No electric motor
- yarn is not distorted due to pinching action of disk
- less maintenance
As speed of ball warping is slow, mechanical tensioner are normally sufficient
5. After that the yarn is then threaded through the eyebrows down the length of the creel. Here
self threading type of ceramic eyelet is generally sufficient.
6. A stop motion device is required
a. The drop wire system
- It is located on each vertical row at the front of the creel bands.It is inexpensive with very short
reaction and response time.However, it is exposed to dust, and if the end should break at or near
the warper, there may be enough residual tension on the yarn, holding it up and preventing the
drop wire from falling.
b. Photoelectric system
Instead of drop wire, this system uses a faller which is attached to a shutter inside of an airtight
housing. Inside this housing is a photocell having a transmitter at one end of the housing and a
receiver at the other end. A light beam is emitted to the receiver and an open electric circuit is
maintained. When an end breaks, the faller drops and the attached shutter passes through the
light beam, thus imitating the stop signer to the warper. it is reliable, comparatively inexpensive,
easy to thread and maintenance free. However,it suffers from the same problem of residual
tension.
c. Electric Motion Sensor
It is normally mounted on the balloon shield at the yarn package. This system actually measures
the motion of the yarn as it exits the package. The yan balloons through a light beam housed in
the balloon shield. As long as the light beam is constantly broken by the ballooning motion, the
system remains open when the end breaks, the ballooning action stops and sensor signals the
warper to stop. The circular motion of the yarn passing through the light sensor keeps the lenses
clean. It is reliable, fast acting and self cleaning. However it is expensive.
7. The yarn exists the creel and is threaded through the lease stand. It houses a unique reed
which allows each adjacent yarn end to be raised or lowered in order to create a shed through the
yarn sheet. A lease string is inserted through this shed at given intervals ( 1000 m) in order to

maintain control of the yarn during reopening at the long chain beamer. It can be manually or
pneumatically operated.

Notes on Yarn for Rope Dyeing in Denim

* Yarn faces stress and stretch at ball warping, rope dyeing, rebeaming, sizing and loom shed so
elongation of yarn should be more than stretch at (ball warping + Robe Dyeing+ Rebeaming +
Sizing )= (2-3%) + Loom shed (about 5%)
* Tension at Ball warping should be less by 7-8% of single yarn strength.
* Strength CV should be within limits as it may give rise to weak points
* The tendency of yarn to migrate at rope dyeing can be countered by less micronaire of yarn
( should be around 3.8-4.2)
* More dropping of short fibers at long chain beaming is good
*The sensitivity settings for neps is set at +280 for rotor spun yarn and not +200 as in case of ring
spun yarn. The reason for this is that the structure of rotor spun yarn is intrinsically different from
that of conventional ring spun yarn. Neps in rotor yarn tend to be spun into the solid yarn body
rather than remaining on the yarn surface, which is typical of ring spun yarns. Although
embedded in the yarn core, these neps still represent a short mass defect and will therefore
trigger the imperfection counter upon exceeding the preset value. However, compared to neps
that are attached to the yarn surface, fully embedded neps are barely perceptible for the human
eye. Thus, in order to balance the typical visual appearance of rotor spun yarn with the
imperfection counts, +280 sensitivity setting is a common convention for rotor spun yarns.
Comparison of Ring Yarn with OE yarn at Ne 7

Practical Notes on Rope Dyeing for Indigo Dyed Denim

The passage of yarn in rope dyeing is as follows:
Pre-scouring -->hot wash-->cold wash --> Dye baths--> hot wash-->cold wash-->
application of softener
lets discuss these processes one by one:
Pre-scouring
1. The objectives of pre-scouring are the removal of wax content from cotton, removal of trapped
air from cotton yarn and Making yarn wet
2. This is done at 90 o C
3. We use the following ingredients at pre-scouring stage:
Caustic Soda: Its quantity depends upon the quality of cotton fibres used in the mixing. Generally
we take 2-4% of caustic soda. It removes the wax by the action of soapanification.
Wetting agent: It is anionic in nature
Sequestering Agent: Even with the use of water softening, it is very difficult to find the desired

softness in water ( about 2-3 ppm) . So we use the agent to make the water soft.
4. Why Trapped Air should be removed. The reason for this can be understood as follows:
In 1 kg of yarn, there is approximately 2 litres of air. 1 litre of air decomposes 1.8 litres of Sodium
Hydrosulphide. It will cause uneven dyeing and more consumption of Sodium Hydrosulphide
( hydro).
5. Absorbency of yarn may be checked after scouring.
Hot wash
As some caustic is carried by the yarn after pre-scouring, so hot water is given at 70-800C. If this
is not done, this yarn will go into the dye-bath which will change the pH of the dye-bath.
Cold Wash
After hot wash, yarn temperature is more. To bring it back to its room temperature, cold wash is
given to it.

INDIGO DYEING
1. Indigo is not a perfect vat color. It may be called a trash vat color. The constant of substantivity
for other colors is 30, for indigo it is only 2.7. So there is a need of 5 to 6 dye baths and make the
use of multi-dip and multi-nip facility to increase the penetration.
2. The dyeing is done at room temperature as indigo belongs to Ik class of vat dyes, where
dyeing is done at room temperature and oxidation is done by air only and not by chemicals. If
oxidizing agents are used, they will cause stripping of colors.
3. Indigo is not soluble in water. So it is reduced with Sodium Hydrosulphide. Then caustic soda is
added to make sodium salt of vat colors to make it soluble. To reduce 1 kg of Indigo, 700 gms of
sodium hydrosulphide is required. However some extra SHS needs to be taken to avoid some
decomposition of SHS.
Practically it is prepared in the following sequence
-Take indigo
-Add caustic
-Then reducing agent
4. When caustic is added to indigo, it is an exothermic reaction. It is allowed to cool down, then
before sending it to feeder, sodium hydro-sulphide is added. Reducing agent is not added first as
it will be decomposed first, so consumption of it will increase. It is also not advisable to take
solubalised vat, as offered by some companies due to the following reasons:

a. If it is used after 6 months, there will be a decomposition of sod. Hydrosulphide. It will become
partially soluble. Then to make it soluble again, more SHS has to be added.
b. Transportation is difficult
c. Cost is more
5. Feeding System
Rate of flow of yarn is given by
((No of ropes x no of ends x speed of machine)/ count x 1.693 x 1000) in kg of yarn / minute
So we can determine the rate of feed of indigo. It is very important that replenishment of indigo is
there as any variation will result in the change of shade and also if level is more, there is a
problem of over-flow.
6. If total capacity of dye bath for example is 15000 litres, then circulation must be 3 times the
volume. If it is less then there are 100% chances of getting a lighter shade.
7. Core and ring dyeing effect
This effect is obtained by multi dip multi nip facility
8. pH of the Dye bath should be kept in between 10.5-11.5. At this pH , sodium salt of Indigo is
mono phenolic form. At this form, the strike rate of dye is very high. So after washing, there will be
a better dye effect. At pH 11.5 to 11.7, at this affinity is less, so dye effect will be less prominent.
pH is controlled by the addition of caustic soda.
9. Testing of Hydro
TOTAL HYDRO
We take 10 ml of indio with SHS in 30-35 ml of water. It is set for one minute and shaken. As air
will decompose SHS. So vacuum created will fetch the water from above. If 3 ml of water is
required, then concentration of hydro is 3 gpl. As a thumb rule, concentration of total hydro should
be min. 1.5 gpl.
REDUCED HYDRO
It is the hydro that is used for the reduction of Indigo. It should be around 0.7 ( 1000 kg of Indigo
needs 700 kg of hydro to reduce it). For testing we take 10 ml of dye solution and 30 ml of water
and 5-6 drops of 40% formaldehyde and shake it for one minute. The water that goes gives the
readings of the reduced hydro.
Total Hydro- Reduced Hydro = free hydro
If Total hydro is min. 1.5 gm/lit. then free hydro must be min. 0.5 gms/ litre which acts as buffer
10. Also hydro reduction capacity is measured by mV meter which measures the Redox Potential.

It should be around 760-800.Through the day, the redox potential should be +- 20 mV of the
norm. If it is more then the process control is a failure.
Caustic--> It is around 0.4 to 0.5 times the hydro used.
Washing
Rubbing fastness of indigo is very important. On a scale of (1-4), it is 2. Washing is done to
improve the rubbing fastness.
Wash at 60 deg.--> Wash at 60 deg.--> Wash at room temperature--> wash with softener
Why Softener:
1. The rope is going to be opened at Long Chain Beamer. It the softener is not used, opening will
be hampered.
2. It is generally 1.2% of the weight of the yarn. It is a cationic softener. It is always having pH in
the range of 4 to 55. Softening is done at room temperature. If high temperature is used there is
always some chance of tendering of yarn.
3. Concept of Buffer pH is given by Virkler USA, they say by addition of this, there is 40% less
consumption of Indigo for same shade depth.
4. Metering Consumption
If solution is of 900 litres
10% Indigo-->90 litres
Hydro--> 90*.7 = 63 kg
Caustic--> 63*0.445= 28 kg.

Process Control of Rope Dyeing for denim

1. Concentration of Hydrosulphite
It is measured by vatometer. It should be from 1.5 gpl to 2.5gpl , or by redox potential of
dye bath which should be from -730 mV to -860 mV.
2. Caustic Soda or pH value
Should be from 11.5-12.5
3. Dye concentration in Dye bath
it is measured by spectrophotometer. It should be in g/l
Guidelines
High Indigo Concentration --> Shade is greener and lighter
Low Indigo Concentration --> Shade is dull and Red.
High pH or Caustic Concentration --> Redder and lighter
Low pH or caustic concentration --> greener and darker
Dipping Time

Longer the dipping time, better will be the penetration and lesser will be the ring dyeing
effect. It varies from 15-22 seconds.
Squeeze Pressure
High pressure will lead to lower wet pick up and result in lesser color and better
penetration. At rope dyeing, squeeze pressure is 5-10 tonnes, ie. wet pick up is as low as
60%. Hardness of squeeze roller is about 70-75 deg. shores. It sqeeze rolls are too hard
then there are chances of slippage and uneven yarn tension.. If squeeze rollers are too soft
then shading will occur. Surface of the squeeze rolls should be ground twice a year.
Airing Time
It should be 60-75 seconds. Longer airing time results in high tension on the yarn and
subsequent processes will become difficult.
Drying
Insufficient or unevenly dried yarns will result in poor re beaming
Calculation of Replenishing Dye feed/min
Conc. of stock vat is g/l= 90
range speed in yards/min=25
count = 7s
totoal ends = 4100
Wt of yarn dyed /min= (4100*25*1000)/(7*840*202)= 7924 gms
shade desired = 2%
Amount of dye to be replenished/min= 158.5 gms
Effect of pH
At pH of 10.5 to 11.5, there will be formation of more monophenolate ions, which lead to
higher color yield, as strike rate of the dye to the yarn bundle is very high, and wash down
activities will be very good.
At pH higher than this, dye penetration will be less and wash down characteristics are also
poor.
Testing
1. Alkalinity in Dye Bath Liquor
Pipette 10.0 ml of vat liquor into 100ml of distilled water in a 150 ml beaker. place under
continuous agitation and insert the electrodes of a pH meter calibrated at pH 7.0 with
standard buffer solution.
Titrate with tenth normal HCl ( 0.1 HCl) to pH 7.0 (ml = A)
calculate: g/l of NaOH = A *0.40
2. Hydro in Dye bath Liquor
Add 2 ml of 37% HCHO to 150 ml beaker. Add 2 ml of dye range liquor . Add 6 ml of 25%
glacial acetic acid solution prepared by diluting 1 part acid with 3 parts water. Add 2 ml of
starch/KI indicator. Add ml of water. Titrate with 0.046 N ( prepared by diluting 460 ml of 0.1
N Iodine to one liter ) solution until the color changes from emarald green to bluish purple.

G/l of hydro= mo fo 0.046N of Iodine

2. Importance of High Concentration of Free Hydrosulphite
The clearest shades with minimum reddish streaks are observed at by relatively high conc.
of hydrosulphite. On the other side, with lack of hydrosulphite, the leuco indigo is less
dissolved and thereby adheres to a greater extent to the fibres. With lack of hydrosulphite
furthermore, the amount of unreduced dyestuff by oxidation at the upper level of the liquor
and through activiation of unfixed dyestuff, gets separated from the fibrous material would
constantly rise as the reducing agent for creating leucoform would be missing. Under these
circumstances a reddish bronze like shade results due to dispersion of not reduced dyestuff
in the yarn. The min. proportion of hydrosulphite should be around 1.3 to 1.5 gpl in case of
rope dyeing and 3-4 gpl in case of sheet dyeing. Also to avoid the lack of hydrosulphite or
Indigo at certain places in the immersion, vat, the whole quantity of the liquor should be
circulated 2-3 times every hour.
Reaction Time
At very short reaction time, an adequate liquor exchange ( i.e. the amount of chemicals
consumed and replaced by fresh addition of reduced indigo) is not assured. This has a
negative influence on dyeing and depth of dye penetration. In addition to this the time
available for diffusion of dyestuff until oxidation commences is too short. To ensure an even
and good depth of dye penetration by dyeing in several passages, the reaction time should
be 20-30 sec. for each vat (eg. at a speed of 20m/min for a reaciton time of 10 seconds,
the immersion path should be maximum 3.3 meters).
A reaction time exceeding 60 seconds should be avoided as the amount of dyestuff again
get reduced and released may again supersede that of additionally take up dye stuff,
resulting in higher shades.Softening Agent: 8 g/lit
Drying: Rest humidity should be 30% and then sized.
Addition of chemicals
1. Red Tinge: reduce addition of NaOH, increase slightly Na2S2O3
2. Darkish Red: increase Hydro
3. Light Greenish: decrease Hydro
4. Dark Green: Increase Caustic

Major Warping Defects- On Sectional warping

Snarlings and Overlappings
These are caused by irregular yarn tension. The broken end is not tied-up by the operative with
the yarn end on the drum.

Different lenghts of sections, High Wastage Rate

This is caused by over-or-under warping of sections, untimely laying of lease cords due to faulty
operation of the counter and the carelessness of operative.
Overlapping/Excessive Distance
The sections overlap each other or there is an excessive distance between them. This is caused
by support improperly set and the careless of warper operative.
Stripiness in the Warp
This is caused by improper mixing of raw material
Irregular Winding
Irregular winding on the warper's beam which is displaced towards one end. This is due to
improper position of the weaver's beam in warp beaming.
Different lenghts of Ends
It also includes irregular distribution of the section in the weaver's beam width. This is caused by
improper fixing of section ends to the weaver's beam.
Excessive or insufficient number of yarn ends in the warp
This is caused by improper calculation at gaiting.
Warp Beaming on a defective weaver's beam
This is caused by carelessness of the assistant foreman and the warper operative.
Incorrect Laying of lease cords, or their absence in some sections
Again this is caused by carelessness of the warper operative.
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Major Warping Defects

Cost of Warping
control of end breaks in warping

Major Warping Defects

On Beam Warpers
1. Lapped Ends
The yarn's broken end is not tied to its end on the warp beam and overlaps the adjacent yarn.

The bem is not properly braked, the signal hook fails to operate.
2. Bulges and yarn ends drawn from the midddle
The broken end has not been correctly found and pieced up to the adjacent yarn.
3. Broken ends on the beam
It is due to reasons mentioned in point 2. A group of ends is broken and tied as a bunch or
worked-in with overlapping
4. Incision of yarn at the butts of the warp beam or slackness of extreme yarns
The reed is improperly set with respect to the warp beam flanges; deformation of the warp beam
flange
5. The number of yarn ends of the beam is excessive or insufficient
Incorrect number of bobbins in warping
6. Conical winding on the beam
Incorrect load applied by the pressure roller
7. Slacks and irregular yarn tension
Improper threading of the yarn into the tension devices; ejection of yarn from under the disc of the
yarn tensioning device, yarn tension devices of poor quality
8.Frequent yarn breakages at the beam edges
Burrs and nicks on the surface of the warp beam flanges
9. Improper length of warping
Malfunction of the counter, and the brakes of the measuring device and warp beams
10. Coarse Knots
Manual tying-up
11. Loose yarn winding
The pressure roller is lightly pressed against the warp roller
12. Working -in of fluff, oily ends and yarn of different density
Careless work of the operative, creeler and oiler.
13. Bulgy winding on the warp beam
Irregular laying of yarn ends in the reed, missing a dent and placing two ends in the adjacent one.

Practical Considerations for indigo dyeing Yarn for Rope Dyeing

* Yarn faces stress and stretch at ball warping, rope dyeing, rebeaming, sizing
and loom shed so elongation of yarn should be more than stretch at (ball
warping + Robe Dyeing+ Rebeaming + Sizing )= (2-3%) + Loom shed (about
5%)

* Tension at Ball warping should be less by 7-8% of single yarn strength.

* Strength CV should be within limits as it may give rise to weak points
* The tendency of yarn to migrate at rope dyeing can be countered by less
micronaire of yarn ( should be around 3.8-4.2)
* More dropping of short fibers at long chain beaming is good
*The sensitivity settings for neps is set at +280 for rotor spun yarn
and not +200 as in case of ring spun yarn. The reason for this is that
the structure of rotor spun yarn is intrinsically different from that of
conventional ring spun yarn. Neps in rotor yarn tend to be spun into
the solid yarn body rather than remaining on the yarn surface, which
is typical of ring spun yarns. Although embedded in the yarn core,
these neps still represent a short mass defect and will therefore
trigger the imperfection counter upon exceeding the preset value.
However, compared to neps that are attached to the yarn surface,
fully embedded neps are barely perceptible for the human eye. Thus,
in order to balance the typical visual appearance of rotor spun yarn
with the imperfection counts, +280 sensitivity setting is a common
convention for rotor spun yarns.
Comparison of Ring Yarn with OE yarn at Ne 7
1. Process of dyeing of sulphur color:
1st Wash tank: mercerisation by taking 22% NaOH ie. 250 gpl
2nd Wash Tank: Hot Wash
3rd Wash Tank: Cold Wash
3.

In 1st and 2nd dye bath take sulphur color 6-8% on the weight of
the yarn sheet. Temperature 90 deg. cel. The solution contains
the following:
1. solubalised sulphur color: 150 gpl
2. Na2S--> reducing agent: It is added to increase its reducing
power
3. Caustinc Soda --> 10 gpl--> reducing agent

4. Wetting agent--> 2gpl

5. Antioxident Sulphide ( Glucose paste--> 5gpl). This is added to
prevent the oxidation of Sulphide solution. It will always remain
in reduced form
( Alos if the shade is slightly greyish, one can add tiny tinge of
sulpher blue--> 20gpl)
in III, IV and V dye bath--> cold wash
in 6th dye bath. We take H2O2(30%)+Acetic Acid(2:1 by weight).
H2O2 acts as an oxidising agent. But as it acts on neutral pH (=7)
and after cold bath the solution is slightly alkaline, to make it
neutral wil add acetic acid. Acs in alkaline pH, oxidising action of
H2O2 will be similar to the bleaching action, which may cause
tendering in the fabric.
7th and 8th Dye Bath: Cold Wash
Wash Box Number 4: Here washing is done with detergent and
soda ash at 60-70 deg.c
5th and 6th Wash Box: Hot Wash
7th wash Box: Here softner is added at 25 gpl. It is cationic
softener with pH 4.5 to 6.5. As during oxidation of sulphur,
strength is reduced by 10%. On a yarn sulphur is of two types :
1. Free Sulphur
2. Reacted Sulphur.
The free sulphur will react with moisture in the atmosphere to
form:
H2O + S --> H2SO4
Which tenders the yarn. Now at acidic pH reaction is much faster.
So we add only a small amount of softener (25 gpl) as against
that in indigo which is 100gpl.
3rd Point
Over all during sulphur dyeing and storing, the yarn strength is
reduced by 15% as compared to Indigo.

4th point
If ball formation takes place of sulphur dyed warp at loom shed,
then we can taken in 4th dye bath little Na2S+Caustic to reduce
the free sulphur.
Practical Considerations in Rope Dyeing for Indigo dyed Denim.
The passage of yarn in rope dyeing is as follows:
Pre-scouring -->hot wash-->cold wash --> Dye baths--> hot
wash-->cold wash--> application of softener

Pre-scouring
1. The objectives of pre-scouring are the removal of wax content
from cotton, removal of trapped air from cotton yarn and Making
yarn wet
2. This is done at 90 o C
3. We use the following ingredients at pre-scouring stage:
Caustic Soda: Its quantity depends upon the quality of cotton
fibres used in the mixing. Generally we take 2-4% of caustic soda.
It removes the wax by the action of soapanification.
Wetting agent: It is anionic in nature
Sequestering Agent: Even with the use of water softening, it is
very difficult to find the desired softness in water ( about 2-3
ppm) . So we use the agent to make the water soft.
4. Why Trapped Air should be removed. The reason for this can be
understood as follows:
In 1 kg of yarn, there is approximately 2 litres of air. 1 litre of air
decomposes 1.8 litres of Sodium Hydrosulphide. It will cause
uneven dyeing and more consumption of Sodium Hydrosulphide
( hydro).
5. Absorbency of yarn may be checked after scouring.
Hot wash
As some caustic is carried by the yarn after pre-scouring, so hot
water is given at 70-800C. If this is not done, this yarn will go into
the dye-bath which will change the pH of the dye-bath.

Cold Wash
After hot wash, yarn temperature is more. To bring it back to its
room temperature, cold wash is given to it.
INDIGO DYEING
1. Indigo is not a perfect vat color. It may be called a trash vat
color. The constant of substantivity for other colors is 30, for
indigo it is only 2.7. So there is a need of 5 to 6 dye baths and
make the use of multi-dip and multi-nip facility to increase the
penetration.
2. The dyeing is done at room temperature as indigo belongs to Ik
class of vat dyes, where dyeing is done at room temperature and
oxidation is done by air only and not by chemicals. If oxidizing
agents are used, they will cause stripping of colors.
3. Indigo is not soluble in water. So it is reduced with Sodium
Hydrosulphide. Then caustic soda is added to make sodium salt of
vat colors to make it soluble. To reduce 1 kg of Indigo, 700 gms of
sodium hydrosulphide is required. However some extra SHS
needs to be taken to avoid some decomposition of SHS.
Practically it is prepared in the following sequence
-Take indigo
-Add caustic
-Then reducing agent
4. When caustic is added to indigo, it is an exothermic reaction. It
is allowed to cool down, then before sending it to feeder, sodium
hydro-sulphide is added. Reducing agent is not added first as it
will be decomposed first, so consumption of it will increase. It is
also not advisable to take solubalised vat, as offered by some
companies due to the following reasons:
a. If it is used after 6 months, there will be a decomposition of
sod. Hydrosulphide. It will become partially soluble. Then to make
it soluble again, more SHS has to be added.

b. Transportation is difficult
c. Cost is more
5. Feeding System

Rate of flow of yarn is given by

((No of ropes x no of ends x speed of machine)/ count x 1.693 x
1000)in kg of yarn / minute
So we can determine the rate of feed of indigo. It is very
important that replenishment of indigo is there as any variation
will result in the change of shade and also if level is more, there
is a problem of over-flow.
6. If total capacity of dye bath for example is 15000 litres, then
circulation must be 3 times the volume. If it is less then there are
100% chances of getting a lighter shade.
7. Core and ring dyeing effect
This effect is obtained by multidip-multinip facility
8. pH of the Dye bath should be kept in between 10.5-11.5. At this
pH , sodium salt of Indigo is mono phenolic form. At this form, the
strike rate of dye is very high. So after washing, there will be a
better dye effect. At pH 11.5 to 11.7, at this affinity is less, so dye
effect will be less prominent.
pH is controlled by the addition of caustic soda.
9.

Testing of Hydro

TOTAL HYDRO
We take 10 ml of indio with SHS in 30-35 ml of water. It is set for
one minute and shaken. As air will decompose SHS. So vacuum
created will fetch the water from above. If 3 ml of water is
required, then concentration of hydro is 3 gpl. As a thumb rule,
concentration of total hydro should be min. 1.5 gpl.

REDUCED HYDRO
It is the hydro that is used for the reduction of Indigo. It should
be around 0.7 ( 1000 kg of Indigo needs 700 kg of hydro to
reduce it). For testing we take 10 ml of dye solution and 30 ml of
water and 5-6 drops of 40% formaldehyde and shake it for one
minute. The water that goes gives the readings of the reduced
hydro.
Total Hydro- Reduced Hydro = free hydro
If Total hydro is min. 1.5 gm/lit. then free hydro must be min. 0.5
gms/ litre which acts as buffer
10. Also hydro reduction capacity is measured by mV meter which
measures the Redox Potential.
It should be around 760-800
Through the day, the redox potential should be +- 20 mV of the
norm. If it is more then the process control is a failure.
Caustic--> It is around 0.4 to 0.5 times the hydro used.
Washing
Rubbing fastness of indigo is very important. On a scale of (1-4),
it is 2. Washing is done to improve the rubbing fastness.
Wash at 60 deg.--> Wash at 60 deg.--> Wash at room
temperature--> wash with softener
Why Softener:
1. The rope is going to be opened at Long Chain Beamer. It the
softener is not used, opening will be hampered.
2. It is generally 1.2% of the weight of the yarn. It is a cationic
softener. It is always having pH in the range of 4 to 55. Softening
is done at room temperature. If high temperature is used there is
always some chance of tendering of yarn.

3. Concept of Buffer pH is given by Virkler USA, they say by

addition of this, there is 40% less consumption of Indigo for same
shade depth.
4. Metering Consumption
If solution is of 900 litres
10% Indigo-->90 litres
Hydro--> 90*.7 = 63 kg
Caustic--> 63*0.445= 28 kg.

It belongs to a VAT class of dyes. It has a dark blue color wit a

bronze lustre. It belongs to KI class of dyes. In this class, dyeing
is done at cold and air oxidation is done to reoxidise the dye. It
can be applied on both cellulosic and protein fibres. For protein
fibres, a weaker alkaline solution is used. It can be reduced by
NaOH and Na2SO4 in water to give monophenolate and
biphenolate ions as complete solution. Reduced form of Indigo is
called leuco indigo. Leuco has got low affinity for cellulosic fibres.
Dye take up can be improved by:
1. Either mercerisation of cellulosic fibres before by dyeing
2. or by adopting multidip, squeeze and airing process, so that
dye is coated on the fibre layer by layer
Indigo can be further developed into Halogenated derivatives and
sulphonated derivatives. Halogenated derivatives give better
fastness properties and brighter shades, whereas sulphonated
derivatives gives a soluble blue dye, good dye and is applicable
on protein fibres.
reaction :
Image 1
Although indigo is a vat dye, it can be regarded as a 'trash' dye,
the dyeing and fastness properties are in no way comparable to

other class of vat dyes. It is due to these properties, that make it

an excellent dye for denim. The on tone fading and the bleach
down properties of indigo blue has generated a lot of denim jeans
fashions like stone, ice faded looks, etc. These special effects
cannot be simulated by the other classes of dyes.
During Preparatiuon of stock vat, the following points must be
remembered:
1. Vatting temperture should be as close to room temperature as
possible.
2. Stirring should be minumum, unnecessary stirring affects the
stability of reduced vat.
3. Volume of the reduced vat should be kept constant for every
stock vat batch, as the constant volume will ensure a constant
replenishing amount.
For rope dyeing system, with chemical replenishment
with Stock replenishment
Indigo: NaOH: Na2SO4 :: 1:0.8:0.8
Without stock replenishment
indigo: NaOH: Na2SO4:: 1:1:1.2
Chemical Feeding
NaOH: Na2SO4: : 1: 1.2-1.6
ie. for approximately 60 gpl of NaOH--> 120 gpl of hydro is
required