CONFIRMATION OF THE THIRD THEORY

By Fred C. Bond
Since t h e Third Theory of Comminution w a s pres e n t e d eight y e a r s ago (I) i t h a s found increasing u s e
in crushing and grinding problems. T h e practical utility of i t s w o k index equation i s quite generally acknowledged ( 2 ) . However, i t s theoretical b a s i s h a s
been questioned in a t l e a s t three technical a r t i c l e s
( 3 ) ( 4 ) ('). T h e purpose of t h i s paper i s to present experimental proof that i t i s scientifically correct.
Parti c l e s under compressive s t r e s s a r e strained
and deformed. They absorb strain energy, and when
t h i s locally e x c e e d s the breaking strength, a crack
tip forms. T h e surrounding strain energy flows t o the
crack tip, which rapidly extends and s p l i t s t h e rock,
releasing t h e s t r a i n energy as heat. T h e initial energy
flow c a u s e s additional crack t i p s in highly strained
areas. If the compression i s rapidly applied by impact, crack t i p s may form before the strain energy
h a s reached equilibrium in the particle, t h u s decreasing the total work input required for breakage. T h e
energy n e c e s s a r y t o break i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e energy
n e c e s s a r y to produce crack tips, s i n c e the energy
n e c e s s a r y to extend the c r a c k s to breakage i s already
present a s strain energy in the deformed particles.
After breakage nearly a l l of t h i s energy a p p e a r s a s
heat.
The crack length cannot b e measured directly.
However, in p articles of regular and similar s h a p e
the crack tip length i s considered a s equal to the
crack depth, or crack extension n e c e s s a r y to break,
s o that the crack length e q u a l s the s q u a r e root of onehalf of the s u r f a c e area.
T h e T h i r d T h e o r y s t a t e s that the useful work done
in crushing and grinding i s directly proportional to t h e
total length of the n e w c r a c k s formed. I t can be confirmed by showing that a constant work input produces
a constant length of n e w c r a c k s when reducing t h e
s a m e material t o different product s i z e s . T h i s i s done
in the present paper on a wide variety of material.

T h e c o n s t a n t work input w a s supplied by o n e

revolution of the 12" x 12" laboratory ball mill used
in making indability t e s t s by the Allis-Chalmers
method ( I 2 (I3). T h e n e w crack lengths produced
per mill revolution were measured from a l l available
grindability t e s t r e s u l t s a t 28, 35, 48, 65, and 100
mesh on fifteen different ores, and were found to remain substantially constant for each o r e a t a l l mesh
sizes.
A new technique i s u s e d for t h e measurement of
crack lengths. Size distribution p l o t s of t h e mill feed
and product a r e made by the Third Theory method (9)
and the crack lengths are obtained from t h e s e p l o t s
by t h e procedure described in the present paper. T h e
energy input required to produce a unit length i s of
fundamental importance in the s i z e reduction of brittle
solids.
T h e crack length C r i s e x p r e s s e d in centimeters
per c u b i c centimeter of solid material. I t b e a r s a defin i t e relationship to t h e external surface a r e a of the
crushed o r ground solid.
A uniform
shape must be a s s u m e d before
the surface a r e a and crack length can be evaluated.
In t h i s paper i t i s assumed that the relationship between the surface a r e a and the particle volume of a
p a r t i c l e d m i c r o n s in diameter i s t h e same a s that of
cubed-microns on a side. T h e external surface a r e a s
of particles with a cubical breakage probably agree
approximately with t h i s rule, and correction factors
can be applied when physical measurements of the
surface a r e a s a r e a v a i l a b l e for comparison. However,
the assumption of equivalent c u b e s h a s been found
satisfactory for most calculation purposes.
Assuming equivalent cubes, one cubic centimeter
of p a r t i c l e s d microns in diameter will have a crack
length Cr of J 30.000/d centimeters, and a surface
a r e a of 60,00O/d square centimeters. T h e s p e c i f i c
crack length i s t h u s equal t o the square root of onehalf the specific surface area.
Where Sa i s the surface area in square centimeters
per gram and Sg is the s p e c i f i c gravity of the ground
solid, then

F. C. BOND is Consulting Engineer, P r o c e s s ing Machinery Dept., Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing

Co., Milwaukee. TP 59B32. Manuscript, Nov. 5,
1958. AZME Trans., Vol. 217,1960. S a n F r a n c i s c o
Meeting, February 1959.

'Y

Determination of t h e c r a c k l e n g t h of a c r u s h e d
o r ground s o l i d r e q u i r e s (1) a s u i t a b l e method of
p l o t t i n g t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , (2) a c c e p t a n c e of a
l i m i t i n g f i n e p a r t i c l e s i z e , or "grind limit", a n d (3)
m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f the s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n plot.
T h e s e three requirements are developed below and
i n the a p p e n d i x .
THIRD T H E O R Y S I Z E D l S T R I B U T I O N

a n d c r o s s e s t h e b a s e l i n e y = 20 a t the v a l u e of w
found from E q u a t i o n (3).

Where P1 i s the s c r e e n o p e n i n g in m i c r o n s . T h e l i n e s
c r o s s w/2 a t y = 44.72%, w/4 a t y = 66.87%, a n d w / 8
a t y = 81.78%.
A s e t of f o u r d i f f e r e n t b a c k i n g s h e e t s i s c o n v e n i e n t , with d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s of t h e work input r a n g e x
a s l i s t e d b e l o w i n T a b l e I.

When rock i s b r o k e n u n d e r c o m p r e s s i o n the produ c t p a r t i c l e s formed e x t e n d through a l a r g e s i z e r a n g e .

TABLE I
Some of t h e p r o d u c t p a r t i c l e s m u s t b e c r u s h e d t o a
Racking
Range of x
s m a l l s i z e and p a r t i a l l y r o t a t e d o u t of t h e i r o r i g i n a l
S e e t No.
(Work Input)
U s e For
p o s i t i o n b e f o r e the major c r a c k s c a n b e c o m p l e t e d
0 to0.14
Crushing
a n d the l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s s e p a r a t e d . T h i s d i s i n t e g r a t ( 1)
0 t o 0.70
(2 )
Coarse Grinding
ing a c t i o n , t o g e t h e r with the p r e f e r e n t i a l e x p o s u r e of
0 to 1.40
Medium Grinding
( 3)
the l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s to s u c c e s s i v e b r e a k i n g o p e r a t i o n s ,
0 to 3.50
F i n e Grinding
(4 )
r e s u l t s in a s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e product h i c h i s
t h e o b j e c t of i n t e n s i v e s t u d y .
T h e v a l u e s with l e s s than 1 0 % Cum. r e t a i n e d o n
T h e n a t u r a l s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a h o m o g e n e o u s
can b e plotted if n e c e s s a r y , by p l a c i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l
c r u s h e d o r g o u n d p r o d u c t undoubtedly f o l l o w s a
p a p e r below t h e s h e e t c o v e r i n g 1 0 % to 1 0 0 % Cum.,
m a t h e m a t i c a l l a w , a n d k n o w l e d g e of t h i s l a w i s n e c and e x t e n d i n g t h e m e s h s i z e l i n e s from t h e b a c k i n g
e s s a r y b e f o r e t h e work i n p u t can b e c o m p l e t e l y e v a l sheets.
u a t e d i n t e r m s of p a r t i c l e s i z e produced. 'The p o w e r
T h e e x p o s u r e r a t i o Er i s the e f f e c t i v e s l o p e of
l a w a d v a n c e d by
~ a u d i n , ( ? )and Schuhmann
t h e p l o t t e d s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e , a n d e q u a l s t h e inh a s b e e n much u s e d for t h i s p u r p o s e . However,
t e r c e p t wq a t 1 0 0 % Cum. r e t a i n e d , d i v i d e d by the v a l u e
when it i s p l o t t e d o n l o g - l o g p a p e r w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e
in m i c r o n s a s a b s c i s s a a n d p e r c e n t p a s s i n g a s ordin a t e , i t d e m o n s t r a b l y d o e s n o t follow a s t r a i g h t l i n e ,
s o t h a t i t s s l o p e ~ p r o b a b l yi s n o t a c o r r e c t i n d i c a tion of the s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n down to t h e g r i n d limit.
'The T h i r d T h e o r , e x p o n e n t i a l s i z e d i s t r i b ~ t i o n ( ~ '
of a h o m o g e n e o u s m a t e r i a l a p p a r e n t l y d o e s follow a
s t r a i g h t l i n e , and i s u s e d in t h i s p a p e r to e v a l u a t e
t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e and work input. S i n g l e c y c l e semil o g a r i t h m i c p l o t t i n g p a p e r s u c h a s l e t t e r s i 7 e Ilietzgen Vo. 340-L110 i s u s e d t o plot t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T h e v e r t i c a l l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e e x t e n d i n g from 1 0 % t o
1006 i s u s e d a s the y s c a l e t o plot t h e p e r c e n t cumulative retained on, and t h e horizontal linear s c a l e , or
x s c a l e , r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l work i n p u t LVt in kilowatth o u r s p e r ton d i v i d e d by t h e work i n d e x W i . T h e 2 0 %
cumulative retained line represents 80% passing, and
t h e b a l u e of x a l o n g t h i s b a s e l i n e i s d e s i g n a t e d as
w, and e q u a l s W t / W i . T h e
s i z e P in m i c r o n s ,
o r t h e s i z e which 8 0 % of the m a t e r i a l p a s s e s , i s found
from

T h e v a l u e of P can be f o u n d more a c c u r a t e l y from

which i s
t h i s t y p e of p l o t than from t h e log-lop
c o n s t r i c t e d a n d curved in t h i s s i z e r a n g e . T h e n w i s
u n i t y a t o t a l of o n e work i n d e x k i l o w a t t - h o u r s per ton
h a s b e e n a p p l i e d tc, the r o c k , and P i s 100 m i c r o n s .
Several backing s h e e t s can be prepared to b e
paper. Itadiatp l a c e ( l behind t h e l e t t e r s i z e
i n g s t r a i g h t l i n e s are drawn o n e a c h s h e e t from t h e
upper l e f t hand corner of the plot. E a c h l i n e repres e n t s a m e s h s i z e in the ,: 2 s t a n d a r d s c r e e n s c a l c .

. I

C o u r s e g r i n d i n g p l o t in a s t r a i g h t l i n e of a
irlaterial w h i c h y i e l d e d c u r v e d l i n e s w h e n
p l o t t e d by 1 2 o t h c r m e t h o d s . 1 0 I t i s morle
on two-cycle semi-log paper t o covPr t h e
r a n g e from 1 p c t t o 100 p c t C u m . r e t a i n e d on.

of w a t 20% retained. It v a r i e s from 1 to 10 a s t h e

amount of f i n e s present d e c r e a s e s . If a l l particle
s i z e s present were equally exposed to s i z e reduction
then the plotted distribution l i n e would be vertical,
xa would equal w, and the exposure ratio Er would
equal unity. If the product c o n s i s t e d of particles a l l
of one s i z e the plotted distribution l i n e would l i e
above the mesh s i z e l i n e , and Er would equal zero.
In Fig. 1 Er e q u a l s 0.330, and P e q u a l s 6510 microns.
Where b i s the y intercept of the distribution line,
then the exponential s i z e distribution equation i s

and log b =

2 1 . 3 0 1 Er
1 Er

When Er e q u a l s 0.500 each standard s c a l e s i e v e

s i z e fraction h a s absorbed the same amount of work
input under the Third Theory, and the most nearly
of the log-log plot would b e 1/2.
equivalent s l o p e
In t h i s c a s e the constant a in Equation (4) e q u a l s
3.219/w, a n d b i n Equation (5) e q u a l s 500.
The value of Er t e n d s to i n c r e a s e with finer
grinding in open circuit. T h e average of 5 0 lotted
v a l u e s on different materials gives approximately
Er = 0.24 when P i s 10,000, Er = 0.33 when P i s
1000, and Er = 0.45 when P i s 100; with considerable variation.
Curved s i z e distribution l i n e s result from natural
or induced grain s i z e segregations. T h e plotted curves
tend t o return t o the straight tangent line, a s shown
in Appendix A.
T h e previous paper on t h i s subject(') included a
quantity called the exposure constant. T h i s e a s derived empirically to e x p r e s s a n approximate relations h i p between the work input a n d the exposure ratio.
Since i t s publication the method was developed for
calculating t h e crack length of a comminution product, which i s described in t h i s paper. The crack
length calculation g i v e s much more accurate results,
and should supersede u s e of the empirical exposure
constant.
G R I N D LIMIT

When a rock i s crushed or ground i t theoretically

produces p a r t i c l e s of every possible s i z e between
that of the f e e d and that of the unit l a t t i c e a t about
0.0005 micron. Flowever, the practical s i z e limit of
p r t i c l e s produced by the ordinary grinding of rock
now s e e m s to l i e in t h e vicinity of 1/10 micron or
1000 Angstrom Units. I t i s believed that the regular
lattice structure of c r y s t a l s i s interrupted by zones
of misalignment a t intervals in t h e order of 200 linear
unit l a t t i c e groups. T h e s e constitute z o n e s of weakd
e a c h rock crystal into mosaic blocks
n e s s , a ~ divide
of a diameter approximately equal to the grind limit.
Since the rock i s more difficult to break within a
single mosaic block than i t i s along the mosaic
boundary zones, crushing and grinding to coarse and
intermediate s i z e s effectively ends a t the grind limit

s i z e . A large increase in t h e fine grinding work input i s required to reduce rock appreciably below t h i s .
size. In support of this reasoning i t i s observed that
f i n e filaments of quartz or a s b e s t o s , which presumably do not contain many regular mosaic boundaries,
have a much higher specific tensile strength than
larger s e c t i o n s with a mosaic structure.
T h e former grind limit of 0.700 micron was determined y e a r s ago under the Rittinger Theory with
the power law s i z e distribution.('') When i t became
possible to calculate crack lengths under the Third
Theory i t was immediately apparent that t h e grind
limit should be smaller. Many calculations were made
from grindability t e s t s a t different mesh s i z e s on the
same ore to try out different grind limits. I t was found
that with a grind limit of 0.100 micron each revolution
of the t e s t mill would p o d u c e the same crack length
on t h e same ore ground a t different mesh s i z e s . T h e
grind limit i s not precisely defined by t h e s e calcul a t i o n s and probably v a r i e s somewhat with different
materials. However, it s e e m s to l i e within the limits
of 0.200 to 0.050 micron and one-tenth micron i s a
satisfactory average value. T h e grind limit t e s t calculations were too extensive to b e included here.
I t i s assumed in this paper that a l l crushing and
ordinary grinding effectively terminate a t t h e grind
limit, a n d the work required i s calculated down to
this size.
MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS

T h e Third Theory statement that the work input

i s proportional to the crack length produced r e s u l t s
in t h e m r k index equation (6). When W represents
the kilowatt-hours required to reduce a short ton from
80% p a s s i n g F microns to 80% p a s s i n g P microns,
and W i i s the work index, then

Rh en any three of t h e four quantities are known

the fourth can be found by transposing the equation.
T h e work input in joules, or watt-seconds, per gram
i s 3.97 W.
T h e work index i s a crushing and grinding parameter, which can be determined from plant operation
or laboratory testing. Numerically, i t i s the Kwh required to reduce a short ton from theoretically infinite feed s i z e to 80% passing 1 0 0 microns. I t i s u s e d
to design crushing and grinding installations and to
compare mechanical e f f i c i e n c i e s in existing plants.
T!le work index of any homogeneous
material
under homogeneous reduction conditions should continue constant for a l l feed and product s i z e s . However, natural or induced grain s i z e segregations frequently c a u s e the work index to i n c r e a s e o r decrease
a s t h e product s i z e becomes smaller. T h e same effect i s produced by a s e l e c t i v e action of the reduction machine toward certain particle s i z e s , which
c a u s e s variations between the s l o p e s Er of the
plotted s i z e distribution l i n e s of feed and product.

T h i s response of the work index to any s e l e c t i v e

change in crushing and grinding conditions makes i t
a valuable practical criterion of the actual work input required.
According to the Third Theory the specific work
input varies (a) a s t h e crack length produced, (b) a s
the square root of the new surface a r e a produced, and
(c) a s t h e s i z e in microns 80% of the product p a s s e s
to the exponent - 1/2, a s in Eq. (6), when the work
index remains constant. T h e 8 0 % passing s i z e P i s
s e l e c t e d a s a convenient and practical reference
point. T h e Third Theory s i z e distribution plot s h o w s
t h a t the s i z e 100% p a s s e s i s an indeterminate extrapolation.
T h e three c r i t i c s of t h e Third Theory previously
referred to ( 3 ) (4) ( 5 ) contend that variations in the
work index a t different product s i z e s indicate that
the work input v a r i e s a s the product particle s i z e to
a negative variable exponent which may be greater,
equal to, or l e s s than -1,1'2 in individual c a s e s . If i t
can be shown that the crack length produced by a
constant work input remains constant at different
p o d u c t s i z e s , while t h e work index i n c r e a s e s or dec r e a s e s , the validity of the Third Theory i s confirmed.
B that t h e total crack
I t i s shown in Appendix
..
length i s represented by the following equation:
C r =-

173.2
V f T

[ y l ( 1 - Er) t 6 9 . 9 2 E ~ G ]

(7)

where y 1 i s l e s s than 100% cumulative retained on

the grind limit of 1/10 micron, and G i s a finite integral. T h e relationship between y l and G i s shown in
T a b l e B-I. C h a r t s can be prepared on log-log paper
from T a b l e B-I1 by means of which the total crack
length C r can b e found graphically for any value of
the 80% passing s i z e P and t h e plotted s i z e distribution s l o p e Er. With t h e s e c h a r t s the crack l e n g t h s of
feed a n d product can he obtained immediately from
the s i z e distribution plots, and the crack length per
unit of work input can be rapidly calculated.
P R O O F T H A T C R A C K L E N G T H P R O D U C E D IS
P R O P O R T I O N A L T O WORK I N P U T

T h e method described for plotting screen anal y s e s and measuring t o t a l crack l e n g t h s down t o t h e
grind limit of one-tenth micron supply the e s s e n t i a l
tools for t e s t i n g the Third Theory of Comminution.
However, the variations between the breakage chara c t e r i s t i c s of different materials a r e s o wide that
t e s t s on o n e or two o r e s a r e not sufficient to e s t a b l i s t any theory. Conforming t e s t s on a wide variety
of o r e s are n e c e s s a r y before a theory c a n b e considered a s proved.
Fortunately, such a s e r i e s of t e s t s e x i s t . Standard closed circuit ball mill g i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s have

been made in the Allis-Chalmers Research Laboratory

a t various mesh s i z e s on more than a thousand differe n t materials, with publication of the resulting n e t
grams per mill revolution and the work index values.
( I 2 ) ( I 3 ' Seventeen m a t e r i a l s were found in t h i s l i s t
which had been tested by grinding to all p a s s i n g
s i z e s of 28, 35, 48, 65, and 100 mesh, with a few exceptions. T h e crack l e n g t h s of minus 150 mesh and
200 mesh grindability products cannot be found accurately u n l e s s the s i z e distribution a n a l y s i s of the
products extends to s i z e s below 200 mesh.
Of the 1 7 s e t s of t e s t s a v a i l a b l e one ( T e s t 1477A
on Anaconda Copper ore) was rejected b e c a u s e of obvious i n a c c u r a c i e s in some of the product screen anal y s e s ; and another ( T e s t 1036A on Quincy copper ore)
w a s rejected because the mill feed w a s a blend of
irregular fine s i z e s . T h e remaining 1 5 t e s t s were all
used to confirm the Third Theory with r e s u l t s l i s t e d
in T a b l e s 11, 111, a n d IV.
T h e screen a n a l y s i s of each minus 6 mesh feed
sample and each mesh undersize product sample w a s
plotted by the Third Theory method, and the exposure
ratio straight l i n e w a s drawn to determine the slope
Er. In most c a s e s t h i s line w a s tangent t o the plotted
line a t t h e 80% p a s s i n g (20% Cum. on) s i z e .
If the plotted product line followed the straight
tangent line the ore w a s d e s i g n a t e d a s type I; if the
plotted l i n e curved to t h e right a t the finer s i z e s , indicating a natural grain s i z e deficiency, the ore was
designated a s type 11; if the plotted line curved to
the left a t the finer s i z e s , indicating a natural grain
e x c e s s , the ore was designated a s type 111. T h e
amount of departure of curves of type I1 a n d 111 from
a straight line w a s indicated by the l e t t e r s S, M, or
L for small, medium, or large. If t h e plotted curve
indicated a return to t h e straight tangent l i n e a t 200
mesh or above, the letter R w a s added. None of the
plots extended beyond 200 mesh.
T h e crack length C r of e a c h feed and product w a s
found from the 80% p a s s i n g s i z e P and the slope E r
by the c h a r t s prepared from T a b l e B-11. F i n a l l y , t h e
crack length in centimeters produced per revolution
of t h e t e s t mill was computed from Equation (8) in
Col. 10

(Gross G/Rev.) (Crp Crf)

-Cm
Specific Gravity
Rev. where Crp i s the crack length of e a c h mesh undersize
product a n d Crf i s t h e crack length of the new mill
feed. Gross Grams/Rev. e q u a l s n e t Grams/Rev. divided by the fraction of the feed retained on t h e mesh
s i z e tested. Since one mill revolution r e p r e s e n t s a
constant work input, t h e constancy of the Cm/Rev.
a t different mesh product s i z e s i s t h e confirmation of
the Third Theory.

Comparison of Col. (10) with Col. (3) in T a b l e

111 s h o w s t h a t i n c r e a s e s or d e c r e a s e s in the work
index with finer grinding do not c a u s e changes in
t h e crack length produced per mill revolution. T h e
centimeters of new crack length per revolution continue as nearly constant a s t h e accuracy of t h i s type
of testing allows. T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e a definite confirmation of the Third Theory of Comminution, and
indicate that the work index variations result from
individual heterogeneities of material or treatment.
Appendix C contains a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n
of the d a t a in T a b l e 111, together with a method for
calculating t h e e f f e c t of removing f i n e s from t h e feed,
a n d for making grindability t e s t s with undersize feed
and products.
Appendix D d e s c r i b e s a t e s t showing that an
i n c r e a s e in the circulating load d e c r e a s e s the work
index but d o e s not d e c r e a s e the crack length produced per mill revolution.

T a b l e I1 l i s t s t h e s p e c i f i c gravity and type of

e a c h ore t e s t e d .
r a b l e 111 l i s t s t h e r e s u l t s of e a c h t e s t on e a c h
ore. The ores a r e arranged and numbered in the order
of their work index variations. Ore No. 1 h a s the most
rapidly increasing W i from 28 mesh to 1 0 0 mesh, ores
in the middle of the l i s t h a v e W i v a l u e s approximately
constant a t a l l mesh s i z e s , and ore No. 15 h a s the
most rapidly d e c r e a s i n g W i values. T h i s arrangement
permits the comparison of other properties with the
work index variations. Under the s y s t e m adopted by
the c r i t i c s of the Third Theory ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , the work
done would vary a s the product particle diameter to
the exponent-> 1 / 2 for t h e No. 1 ore = -1/2 for the
o r e s near the center of the T a b l e , and -< 1 / 2 for the
No. 15 ore.
T a b l e IV l i s t s the a v e r a g e s from Table111 for e a c h
mesh s i z e . T h e estimated v a l u e s below 100 mesh were
obtained by extrapolation. T h e y are useful for comparison with individual ball mill grindability r e s u l t s .

TABLE II
A-C T e s t
No.

Sp.
Gr.

-6M Feed

lOOOF

2.63

11-L-R

Copper

White P i n e (Copper Range)

Sandstone

913A

2.65

111-L

Copper

Morenci ( P h e l p s Dodge)
Porphyry

1060A

2.65

11-L

Copper

Chino (Nevada Cons.)

Porphyry

lOOOB

2.68

111-L

Copper

White P i n e (Copper Range)

Sandstone Mixture - Hard & Soft

1167A

4.00

111-L

Iron

Reserve 'Mining
Magnetic Taconite

504B

2.71

Gold

Springs Mines, South Africa

Quartz

570A

2.64

11-U

Gold

L i t t l e L o n g L a c , Ontario
Quartz

910A

3.23

Copper

Anaconda, Montana
Silicious

550B

2.66

11-M

Gold

Benquet, P . I .
Quartz

10

730A

2.78

Gold

San L u i s , 'Mexico
Quartz

11

938A

2.86

11-S

Copper

Utah Copper, Arthur Mill

Porphyry

12

lOOOG

2.97

11-L

Copper

White P i n e (Copper Range)

Shale

13

lOOOA

2.93

11-S

Copper

White P i n e (Copper Range)

Amygdaloid

14

1592

2.90

11-M

Gold

Malartic, Quebec
Quartz

2.68

11-L

Copper

Ajo (New Cornelia)

Porphyry

No.

15

684A

TYPC

Ore

Company

T A B L E I11
(1)

(2)

(3)

Mesh

Wi

No.

TYPe
(1)

III-M
I
I
I
I

(2)

I
I
I
I
I

(3)

II-L
II-L
II-L
I
I

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

7.2
10.1
12.0
14.8
16.0
12.02

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

9.3
10.1
10.6
10.7
11.7
10.48

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

(4)

III-S
III-S
III-S
I
I

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
rlv.

(5)

II-M
II-S
II-S
II-S
II-S

(6)

II-S
II-S
II-S
II-S
Il-S

(7)

II-L
II-M
11-51
II-h1
I

(8)

11-L

I
I
I
I

144

Feed
28
35
48
65
100

9.3
10.7
9.8
10.9
12.4
10.62

12.0
10.6
10.9
11.8
13.0
11.66

Av.

10.2
10.3
9.9
10.7
11.0
10.42

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
4v.

17.4
17.1
16.8
14.9
15.8
16.40

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

17.0
16.7
16.6
16.2
15.4
16.38

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

11.4
12.5
12.1
11.4
12.0
11.88

(4)

(5)

Net

Feed

G/Rev.

%On

(6)

(7)

(8)

Er

~r

(9)

(10)

(1 1)

Cm
~

6
Rev.

T A B L E I11 ( C o n t ' d . )

No.

TYF

Mesh

Wi

Net
G/Rev.

Feed

28
35
48
65
Av.

16.6
16.8
15.2
15.4
16.00

Feed

28
35
48
100
.4v.

16.9
15.2
15.0
16.4
15.88

Feed

28
35
48
65
100
Av.

13.9
11.5
10.7
10.6
10.7
11.48

Feed

28
35
48
65
100
Av.

16.0
14.4
13.5
12.5
12.0
13.68

Feed

28
35
48
65
A v.

23.5
21.7
19.8
19.1
21.02

Feed

28
35
48
65
100

15.0
14.7
13.4
12.4
12.3

Av.

13.56

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

17.6
15.9
14.8
13.2
13.0
14.90

Feed
%On

Er

GJP

Cm
-

Rev.

T A B L E IV

- AVERAGES

FROM T A B L E 111

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(14)

Mesh

Wi

Net
Grams
Rev.

Feed
%
On

Er
(Calc.)

Cr

Cr
(Calc.)

~m
Rev.

Feed
28
35
48
65
100
Av.

14.22
13.89
13.41
13.19
13.21
13.59

2121
447.3
325.8
235.3
163.9
112.8

.315
.290
.285
.262
.262
.265

12.77
23.00
25.97
28.51
32.86
38.68

589
487
469
4 38
420
411

4.092
3.119
2.581
2.070
1.666

66.34
72.30
77.09
80.91
84.31

17.75
17.41
17.13
17.15
17.23
17.33

20.97
22.35
22.83
23.70
24.38
22.84

ESTIMATED

SUMMARY A N D C O N C L U S I O N S

E x t e n s i v e evidence h a s been presented which

confirms the Third Theory of Comminution. All available grindability t e s t s a t minus 28, 35, 48, 6 5 , and
100 mesh on 15 different ores were analyzed. T h e s e
t e s t s show that one revolution of the laboratory t e s t
ball mill produced a constant new crack length on
e a c h ore, regardless of the mesh s i z e of the product
and the work index variations a t e a c h mesh s i z e .
T h e crack length in centimeters per c c of a
crushed or ground material containing i t s natural fines
e q u a l s by definition the square root of one-half of i t s
surface a r e a in s q . cm. per c c . T h e crack length i s
found by c h a r t s calculated from the Third Theory exponential s i z e distribution plot ( 9 ) . Curves in the s i z e
distribution l i n e s represent natural or induced grain
s i z e segregations; the curves c a u s e variations in the
work index, but they presumably o s c i l l a t e about the
straight tangent line u s e d in the crack length calculation, and do not a f f e c t the crack length
produced.
T h e crack length i s calculated down to the new
g i n d limit of one-tenth micron. T h i s grind limit had
been previously determined by e s s e n t i a l l y the same
method that w a s u s e d to confirm the Third Theory,
but from other t e s t d a t a . T h u s the experimental evidence submitted confirms both the Third Theory and
the grind limit.
T h e c a s e for the Third Theory would be fortified
by a check determination of the grind limit u s i n g a
different method. A direct check i s not available a t
present, but there i s considerable indirect evidence
that a grind limit e x i s t s a t about this s i z e . T h i s inc l u d e s analogy with r e c e n t work on the structure of
m e t a l s , the frequent observation that there i s a pronounced change in the properties of s o l i d s a t the
colloidal s i z e range, the increased s p e c i f i c tensile
strength of fine filaments of s u c h minerals a s quartz
-

and a s b e s t o s , and the n e c e s s i t y of using.. empirical

.
Equation (C 3) to i n c r e a s e the plant work index v a l u e s
a t fine product s i z e s . T h e equations submitted permit
calculation of the crack lengths a t grind limits other
than 0.10 micron. Such calculations show that doubling or halving t h i s grind limit h a s comparatively little
effect on the crack length values. T h e grind limit
used i s not c r i t i c a l to confirmation of the Third Theory,
and probably represents a n average value for different
. .
materials.
If the grind limit concept i s not allowed, the
correspondence of the figures in Col. 1 0 of T a b l e 111
must be otherwise explained, a n d no other explanation s e e m s available.
T e s t s a t different circulating l o a d s show that the
work index d e c r e a s e s a s the circulating load increase s , while the crack length produced by a constant
work input remains constant.
Knowledge of characteristic v a l u e s of the quantity
Cr J P c a n be u s e d to e s t i m a t e the probable s i z e d i s tribution a t any 80% p a s s i n g s i z e P. However, s u c h
e s t i m a t e s will not include any s i z e segregation effects.
T h e laboratory work index i s calculated from the
n e t grams made per mill revolution. However, t h i s
value i s affected by the configuration of the f e e d s i z e
distribution both above and below the mesh s i z e t e s t ed. Any curvature resulting from natural grain s i z e
e x c e s s e s or deficiencies, and any variation from the
normal relationship between the feed and product tangent line s l o p e s , affect the n e t Grams/Rev. and the
W i value. T h i s i s a l s o true in commercial plant measurements. If the work index i s to s e r v e a s a n accura t e measure of the work input required for reduction i t
must n e c e s s a r i l y vary in response to breakage heterogeneities of the material.
Variations in the work index result from particle
s i z e s e g r a t i o n s a n d from variations in the efficiency

of reduction t o 80% p a s s i n g different s i z e s . T h e y d o

not c a u s e variations in the total crack length produced down to the grind limit, a n d do not a f f e c t the
validity of the Third Theory of comminution.
REFERENCES

(1) F r e d C. Bond: T h e Third Theory of Comminution,

AItlE Trans., May 1952, Vol. 193, p 484.
(2) A. S. Kannewurf: ROCK PRODUCTS, may, 1957.
(3) R. J . C h a r l e s : Energy-Size Reduction Relations h i p s in Comminution, AIME T r a n s . , Vol. 208,
8 0 (1957).
(4) J . A . Holmes: A Contribution to the Study of Comminution, Institution of Chemical Engineers, England. T r a n s . Vol. 35, No. 2 (1957).
(5) J o n a s Svensson and Jakob Murkes: An Empirical
Relationship between Work Input and P a r t i c l e Size
Distribution before and a f t e r Grinding. International
Vineral Dressing Congress, Stockholm, 1957.
(6) A. 0. G a t e s : An Experimental Investigation in Rock
Crushing performed a t Purdue University, AIME
T r a n s . , Vol. 55, P. 875-909 (1916).
(7) A. 21. Gaudin: An Investigation of Crushing P h e n omena, AIME T r a n s . 1926, Vol. 7 3 , pp 253-316.
(8) R. Schuhmann: P r i n c i p l e s of Comminution, AIME
T P , 1189, J u l y , 1940.
(9) F r e d C . Bond: Comminution Exposure C o n s t a n t by
the Third Theory, MINING ENGINEERING, December, 1957, AIME T r a n s . 1958.
(10)A. F . Taggart: Handbook of Mineral Dressing. Sec.
19, pp 145-150, with reference to original papers.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
(11)Fred C. Bond and Walter L. Maxson: Grindability
and Grinding C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Ores. AIME T r a n s .
Vol. 134, p 296 (1939).
(12)Fred C. Bond: Standard Grindability T e s t s Tabulated. AIME T r a n s . Vol. 183, p. 3 1 3 (1949).
(13)How to Determine Crusher and Grinding Mill S i z e s
. . . Accurately. Allis-Chalmers Bulletin 07R7945A,
Milwaukee, Wilconsin.
(14)A Study of the F e a s i b i l i t y of Hydraulic Transport
of a T e x a s Lignite, U.S.B.M. - R.I. 5404 (1958).
T a b l e 9, page 19.

APPENDIX A

s u c h a curve i s continued by a n a l y s i s a t increasingly

finer s i z e s , the curve will reverse i t s direction, return to the straight line, and c r o s s it. When the straight
line i s properly chosen the plotted curve will presumably describe equivalent loops on both s i d e s of i t ,
a n d will follow i t upward to the grind limit, possible
with additional smaller o s c i l l a t i o n s around it. The
straight line, called the tangent line, t h u s defines the
equivalent s l o p e of the curved s i z e distribution line
of a crushed or ground material containing a l l of i t s
natural fines. T h e curves a r e c a u s e d by natural or
induced grain s i z e s in the material, and affect the
work index v a l u e s a s well a s the lotted s i z e distribution a t those particle s i z e s . A n a l y s e s over a very
large range a r e n e c e s s a r y to define t h e s e curves.
T h e three main types of s i z e distribution l i n e s
a r e illustrated in F i g . A-1. T h e s e hypothetical l i n e s
differ in their curvature, but a l l represent materials
with the same crack length C r of 32.6 c m i c c , and
with w = 0 . 5 8 0 , ~= ~0.258, Er ~ 0 . 4 4 4 , a n dP = 297
microns, or 80% p a s s i n g 48 mesh.
In analyzing t h e s e lots the increasing constriction near the top of the chart should be remembered. A
small loop near the top i s equivalent t o a larger one
below, and a curve near the bottom of the chart may
appear to be almost a straight line.
Curve I in Fig. A-1 represents a material with
homogeneous breakage, a n d no natural or induced
grain s i z e . I t lots in a straight line which c o n s t i t u t e s
the tangent l i n e s of t y p e s I1 and 111. I t s work index
continue 'Onstant
at
mesh sizes.

GRAPHS

N A T U R A L GRAIN S I Z E S A N D C U R V E D
DISTRIBUTION LINES

Computation of the Third Theory crack length

requires a determination of the s l o p e Er or the plotted s i z e distribution line. If the plotted line is
s t r a i g h t representing a type I material with homogene o u s breakage, it i s merely extended upward to the
top of the chart, a n d the s l o p e E r i s found precisely.
However, t h e plotted line may curve to the right
(type 11) or to the l e f t (type 111) a s i t i s traced up the
chart. T h e meaning of t h e s e c u r v e s must be considere d , and the s l o p e of a straight line representing a n
e q u i v a l e n t crack length must be found.
T h i s i s made p o s s i b l e by the discovery that when

71,
i

L3

<.

I\\\\
*

..0

10

FIG. A-1

Three main t y p e s of s i z e distribution l i n e s .

'The c u r v e s in l i n e s I1 a n d 111 r e s u l t frorn l o c a l i z e d grain s i z e d e f i c i e n c i e s a n d e x c e s s e s . T h e s e

may be i n d u c e d g r a i n s i z e s r e s u l t i n g from a p a r t i c u l a r
r e d u c t i o n rliachine o r p r o c e s s . However, t h e y more
o f t e n r e p r e s e n t n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e rock or
o t h e r m a t e r i a l b e i n g broken, in which c a s e t h e y a r e
called natural grain s i z e s . Natural grain s i z e s can
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d froni i n d u c e d grain s i z e s by t h e i r
p e r s i s t e n c e with d i f f e r e n t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s .
A t y p i c a l n a t u r a l grain s i z e d ~ r i a t e r i a li s a l o o s e ly c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e w h i c h b r e a k s niore r e a d i l y between the cemented particles than a c r o s s the individu a l g r a i n s . I t s work i n d e x i n c r e a s e s a s t h e n a t u r a l
grain s i z e i s r e a c l l e d . I t s p l o t t e d s c r e e n a n a l y s i s
a b o v e t h e n a t u r a l g r a i n s i z e b e l o n g s t o t y p e 11, a n d
s h o w s a marked grain s i z e d e f i c i e n c y . C u r v e I1 in
F i g . A-1 s h o w s a maxirnurrl grain s i z e d e f i c i e n c y a t
150 rnesh. w h i c h d i s a p p e a r s w h e r e i t c r o s s e s t h e t a n g e n t l i n e a t 200 rnesh; t h e n a t u r a l grain s i z e e x c e s s
c e n t e r s a t a b o u t 325 m e s h , a n d i t r e t u r n s t o the t a n g e n t l i n e a t a b o u t 18 rnicrons. 4 n y p o s s i b l e c u r v a t u r e
a t s i z e s c o a r s e r t h a n 65 rnesh i s n o t showrl l ~ e c a u s e
of t h e e x p a n s i o n o r t h e c h a r t n e a r t h e b o t t o m , a n d
t h e t a n g e n t l i n e i s tlrawn through t h e p l o t t e d l i n e
w h e r e i t c r o s s e s t h e b a s e l i n e a t 20%. Cunl. r e t a i n e d
o n 48 rnesh. I t s work i n d e x s h o u l d i n c r e a s e from 100
m e s h t o 200 rnesh, s i n c e grinding of t h e hard individual sandstone erains increases.
C u r v e 111 r e p r e s e n t s a much c o a r s e r s a n d s t o n e
with ;I n a t u r a l prain s i z e e x c e s s c e n t e r i n g a t 100
mest1 antl c r o s s i n g t h e t a n q e n t l i n e a t 200 r n e s l ~ .with
a conlpensatins s i z e dericiency centering a t about
37 rnicrons. \Yhen grouncl t o 80'; p a s s i n g '1.8 m e s h a n y
n a t u r a l g r a i n s i z e d e f i c i e n c y a t t h i s s i z e i s imperc e p t i b l e , a n d t h e t a n g e n t 1 i n e . i ~drawn t l ~ r o u g l ii t .
I t s work i n d e x s h o u l d i n c r e a s e frorn 28 m e s h t o 65
rnesh a n d l ~ r o l , a b l yd e c r e a s e s l i g h t l y a t 200 m e s h .
Ul'l~en i i material h a s a n a t u r a l g r a i n s i z e i t s work
i n d e x t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e w i t h finer ?rinding a s t h e n a t u r a l g a i n s i z e i s r e a c h e d , t o rerr~ainc o n s t a n t a t m e s h
s i z e s w h e r e t h e n a t n r a l grain s i z e p e r s i s t s , a n d t o
d e c r e a s e s o l n e w h a t a t rllesh s i z e s f i n e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l grain s i z e .
When a s c e n d i n g up t h e c h a r t t h e minimum work
i n d e x i s o b t a i n e d w h e r e the s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e
b e a r s t o t h e r i ~ h of
t the tangent line direction a t the
g r e a t e s t a n q l e , antl t h e maximum work i n d e x i s o b t a i n e ( l w h e r e i t \ ) e a r s t o t h e l e f t of t h e t a n g e n t l i n e dir e c t i o n a t the g r e a t e s t a n g l e .
'The t a n g e n t l i n e which properly d e f i n e s t h e s l o p e
Er i s u s u a l l y d r a w n t a n g e n t t o t h e c u r v e d p l o t t e d l i n e
a t t h e \ l a s e l i n e . O n l y in e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e s i s t h e r e
sufficient curvature a t the b a s e line to require changi n g the s l o p e of t h e t a n g e n t l i n e ; in t h e s e c a s e s :idJit i o n a l s i z e a n a l y s e s of t h e m a t e r i a l c a n a i d in indicatinq the proper slope.
F i g u r e -2-2 g i v e s a n a c t u a l e x a m p l e of a l a r g e
t y p e 11 c n r v e . I t r e p r e s e n t s ~ n i n u s1/:2 i n c h l i g n i t e c o a l
a f t e r b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d in a w e t s l u r r y 7 1 . 5 n i i l e s
through a ~ i ~ e l i n (eI.4 ) I t s h o w s a p r o n o u n c e d g r a i n

s i z e d e f i c i e n c y p r e s u m a b l y i n d u c e d by s e l e c t i v e d e q a d a t i o n d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , which s t a r t e d a s
c o a r s e a s 20 m e s h a n d c e n t e r e d a t a b o u t 30 m i c r o n s .
R e l o w t h i s s i z e the p l o t t e d l i n e r e t u r n s to t h e t a n g e n t l i n e , a n d c r o s s e s i t a t 6 niicrons. 'The s i z e a n a l y s i s e x t e n d s t o 5 m i c r o n s a n d s h o w s t h e s t a r t of the
incluced grain s i z e e x c e s s below 6 m i c r o n s . T h e c r a c k
l e n g t h Cr i s 17.6 c m / c c , with w = 0.220, x 2 =0.121,
Er = 0.550, a n d t h e 80% p a s s i n g s i z e P e q u a l t o 2065
microns.

FIG. A-2

Actual e x a r ~ l ~ of
l e a large type I1 curve.

'I'he 'l'liird T h e o r y s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n e q u a t i o n s ( 9 )
s h o w t h a t w h e r e d i s a n y micron s i z e , then
X =

10 Er

6-

( 1 - Er

L&-

- log Y

log b

log y

- 0.0699

(131)

10

l o g b - 1.301
\&herey r e p r e s e n t s the percent cumulative weight
r e t a i n e d on a n y q i n d l i m i t s i z e i n m i c r o n s G I then
log y = 2

~7
-

(2-1.301 Er)
L/%

(1-Er)

(113)

E q u a t i o n ( B 3 ) i s u s e d t o find the p e r c e n t curnulnt i v e r e t a i n e d o n t h e grind lirnit G I , o r o n a n y nlicron s i z e

d which nlay be s u b s t i t u t e d for G I . S e v e n p l a c e l o g
t a b l e s s h o u l d be u s e d t o e v a l u a t e Y a c c u r a t e l y .

,4ssurninK equivalent c u b e s , one cubic centimeter

of p a r t i c l e s d microns in diameter will have a crack
length C r of d 3 0 , 0 0 0 / d centimeters, a n d a surface
area of 60,000.ld square centimeters. I t follows from
Equation (Bi) that
Cr;-

173.2

Jb

12.12 x

2 - logy

Uy substitution in Equation (B2) a n d Equation

(5) C r i s found a s a function of y

The total crack length in a crushed or ground product extending down to the grind limit i s the summation of the C r v a l u e s from y = 0 to y = yl, or

i'

7 = C r3 (Total)
.
=

( 2 - l o g ~ ) - - E r ( 2 - l o g ~ ) +0.699Er
2 -log y

d~
(R7)

= y1 ( 1 - E r ) +

1.610 E r

Khen ,4.605 - 1og.y

integral becomes

("

dy

CALCULATION S T E P S

T h e crack length calculation of a comminution

product which contains i t s natural f i n e s i s made in
the following s t e p s :
(1) T h e s i z e distribution a s percent cumulative retaine d on i s plotted in the Third Theory exponential
manner.(9) T h e product s i z e P a n d s l o p e E r a r e
obtained from the plot. If the plotted s i z e distribution line i s curved, the s l o p e line i s ordinarily
drawn tangent to it a t 20% Cum. retained.
(2) The grind limit GI in fractions of a micron i s taken
as 0.100, with 6 i e q u a l to 0.3162.
T h e value of y l is found by a s e v e n place table of
logarithms from Equation (B11).

(3) The value of G for y l is found from the chart constructed from 'Table (B-I).
(4) T h e total crack length C r in centimeters per c c i s
found from Equation (R10).
(5) T h e total surface a r e a above the grind limit i s found
from Equation (B12) where S g i s the specific gravity.

Vihere Cr i s defined by Equation (11) then

~

A P P E N D I X 0 - CALCLTLA'TIONS

(n8)

4.605 - logey

= -loge$, , then the last

Surface Area

ST. Cm. = 2 (~r)'

-----Gram

Sg

(El21

(6) T h e crack energy C e in joules per c e n t i m e t e r b e tween the feed and product s i z e s is found from
Equation (B13) when C r p i s the total crack length
of the product a n d Crf is the total crack length of
the feed.
Ce

3.97 it' Sg
Crp -Crf

T h e surface energy required S e in ergs per square

centimeter of new surface a r e a produced i s

(7) When Crf i s not available the crack energy C e atlove

the product s i z e can be found from Equation (015).

s o that
Cr
'Total

173.2
-

,/F

[ y1 (1 - Er) + 69.92 E r G ]

where W t e q u a l s W i times w
(1310)

'rile numerical value of the integral G i s finite

for any value of
l e s s than 100. I t i s considered as
positive to avoid confusion of s i g n s . I t s value f o r y
1'
99.00; retained on the grind limit w a s found by careful planimeter n l e a s u r e ~ n e n t sto be 9.50. Values of G
for other v a l u e s of y l were found by other planimeter
m e a s u r e ~ n e n t s ,and adding or subtracting a r e a s frorr~
9.50. 'L'hese a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e B-I
F o r a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s of crack l e n g t h s and
s u r f a c e a r e a s the v a l u e s of yl a n d G l i s t e d in T a b l e
F3-I should be plotted to a large s c a l e on linear paper.

and
Se =

1.985 x l o 7 W t S g
(crPj2

A useful approximate relationship between the e x posure ratio E r a n d the s l o p e of the Schuhrrlann loglog plot i s given in Eq. (R17) below:

T A B L E B-I

T h e micron s i z e d a t a n y percent cumulative weight

y r e t a i n e d o n d i s found from Eq. (B18 below:
-

'

14.31 (log b

d= -

- 1.301) (2 - l o g

w (log b

- log rn)

) (B-18)

CRACK LENGTH CHARTS

C h a r t s h a v e been constructed s o t h a t the crack

length can be found graphically, and t h e laborious
c a l c u l a t i o n s described can b e avoided. T h e v a l u e of
Cr w a s c a l c u l a t e d for each decimal u n i t value of P
from 80% p a s s i n g o n e micron to 80% p a s s i n g one million microns, a n d for each decimal u n i t v a l u e of the
s l o p e Er from 0.1 to 0.9 i n c l u s i v e ; a t o t a l of 63 calc u l a t i o n s . T h e s e a r e shown in T a b l e R-11. Then t h e s e
a r e plotted on single-cy cle log-log p a p e r with C r on
t h e vertical s c a l e a n d P on the horizontal s c a l e ,
s t r a i g h t l i n e s can be drawn for each d e c i m a l s l o p e
v a l u e Er, and intermediate l i n e s c a n be i n s e r t e d u s i n g
a logarithmic rule. Such a plot i s shown in outline in
F i g . B-I.

FIG. B-1

Crack length plotted graphically.

T A B L E R-11
CRACK L E N G T H VALUES

FOR PLOTTING C r (cm/cc)

P Microns

10

100

Er (Slope)

0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

3.76
5.25
6.60
7.87
9.00
10.04
11.00

1.37
1.93
2.47
2.96
3.44
3.91
4.37

0.495
0.735
0.936
1.136
1.337
1.523
1.699

Cr

207.0
212.0
208.5
202.0
191.9
183.0
176.0
165.8

79.8
93.0
102.1
110.0
115.2
119.4
123.0
125.8

27.3
36.6
42.5
48.1
52.7
57.1
60.8
64.3

NOTE: Eq. (B6) w a s integrated with the a s s i s t a n c e o f

Mr. J o s e p h Wegerer, formerly of the Allis-Chalmers
P r o c e s s i n g Machinery Dept.

10.65
14.00
16.89
19.56
21.95
24.25
26.35
28.40

A s e t of s i x of t h e s e crack length c h a r t s constructed from T a b l e B-11 c a n be u s e d t o find the value

of the crack length C r in centimeters per c c of .solid
over practically t h e entire range of crushing and grinding s i z e s directly from a Third Theory s i z e distribution plot. T h e crack length i s a measure of t h e total
work done in crushing and grinding. T h e s u r f a c e area
of equivalent cubes in cubic centimeters per gram
down to the grind limit of 0.100 micron i s found by
doubling the s q u a r e of the crack length and dividing
by t h e s p e c i f i c gravity.
APPENDIX C

- COMMENTS

D A T A IN T A B L E S 111 and IV

No t e s t w a s made a t 6 5 mesh or ore No. 10, and

no t e s t s were made a t 100 mesh on o r e s No. 9 and
No. 13. T h e s e a r e the only omissions in t h e Table.
T h e d a t a represent 72 grindability t e s t s on 15 o r e s ,
or about 500 complete grindability periods. No d a t a
were omitted b e c a u s e of l a c k of conformity.
In three c a s e s , those of o r e s No. 2, 4 and 5 , the
s l o p e value E r of t h e s t a g e crushed minus 6 mesh
ball mill grindability feed w a s greater than that of
the tangent a t t h e b a s e line. In a l l t h e s e c a s e s the
plotted line abruptly changed direction to the right a t
20 mesh or coarser, instead of gradually curving to
t h e right to indicate a typical type I1 natural p a i n
s i z e deficiency. In t h e s e three c a s e s the s l o p e line
E r of the feed was drawn through the intersection of
the plotted s i z e distribution line with the b a s e l i n e
parallel to the direction of the plotted line a t s i z e s
finer than 20 mesh. T h e grindability product l i n e s
were a l l drawn tangent in the usual manner.
O r e s No. 4 and No. 5 a r e known to c o n s i s t of a
mixture of s u b s t a n t i a l portions of harder and e a s i e r
grinding materials, and the feed sample of ore No. 2
had a similar s i z e distribution plot. Mixtures of nearly equal portions of relatively hard and s o f t materials,
when crushed to such a s i z e that t h e s e materials a r e
effectively segregated in different s i z e fractions, may
require a somewhat different s i z e a n a l y s i s treatment
than that described for natural grain s i z e s .
Figure C-1 g i v e s a n example of the plotted
curves. T h e type I1 s i z e distribution l i n e s and t h e
s t r a i g h t tangent l i n e s of t h e minus 6 mesh feed and
the minus 28, 35, 48, and 6 5 mesh products of o r e
No. 11 a r e shown. T h e numerical v a l u e s a r e listed
in T a b l e Ill.
T h e most a c c u r a t e determinations of the crack
length produced per mill revolution a r e made a t 35,
48, and 6 5 mesh. T h e grindability t e s t s at 28 mesh
a r e somewhat l e s s a c c u r a t e than t h o s e a t finer mesh
s i z e s , s i n c e the length of each p i n d i n g period nece s s a r y to obtain t h e constant circulating load of 250%
i s s h o r t , and the f i r s t few revolutions which distribute the grinding charge may a f f e c t t h e net grams of
mesh undersize produced per revolution.
T h e products of the t e s t s a t minus 1 0 0 mesh h a v e
only t h e plotted points a t 1 5 0 and 200 mesh t o deter-

mine the s l o p e Er, which i s consequently not quite

a s a c c u r a t e a s t h o s e with more plotted points. An
inspection of Col. (10) in T a b l e 111 s h o w s that the
crack length produced per mill revolution i s somewhat more erratic in the 28 mesh and 1 0 0 mesh t e s t s .
However, the a v e r a g e s in T a b l e IV show consistent
r e s u l t s a t a l l mesh s i z e s .
In T a b l e 1V Col. (6), the average values of the
80% p a s s i n g s i z e P in microns are listed. F o r the -6
mesh average mill feed P e q u a l s 6 3 8 of the opening
of a 6 mesh s i e v e , while the average value of the
product s i z e P i s 77% of the s c r e e n openings P 1 a t
2 5 0 8 circulating load.
T a b l e 111 shows that the crack length in centimeters produced per mill revolution remains substantially c o n s t a n t for each ore t e s t e d a t a l l product
s i z e s from 2 8 mesh to 100 mesh, and T a b l e 1V shows
that t h e average for a l l 15 ores remains substantially
c o n s t a n t a t a l l product s i z e s . T h i s s u s t a i n s theThird
Theory statement that a constant amount of work input produces a constant new crack length, or that the
new crack length produced i s proportional to the work
input.
WORK I N D E X V A R I A T I O N S

In the Third Theory the work index i s a practical

parameter which defines t h e work input n e c e s s a r y to

FIG. C-1

T y p e 11 s i z e distribution l i n e s and the straight

tangent l i n e s of the minus 6 m e s h feed and the
minus 28. 35. 48. and 65 mesh products of ore 11.
Numerical v a l u e s are l i s t e d in T a b l e 111.

reduce a s h o r t ton to 80% p a s s i n g 100 microns, b a s e d

upon the work input required over t h e s i z e r a n g e t e s t ed. Natural grain s i z e s , varying reduction e f f i c i e n c i e s ,
or a n y other conditions which a f f e c t t h e e a s e of reduction to 80% p a s s i n g t h e given s i z e , a f f e c t t h e work
index, which is much more variable than the crack
length production.
T h e o p e r a t i n g work i n d e x i s found by i n s e r t i n g
plant d a t a in E q u a t i o n (6). T h e work i n d e x i s determined by laboratory b a l l mill grindability t e s t s from
the net grams of mesh u n d e r s i z e produced per revolution. T h e following r e v i s e d formula i s used:

wi

= 44.5 / ( P I )

0.23

0.82
x Gbv

where P1 i s t h e opening in microns of the mesh s i z e

t e s t e d , and G b p i s t h e n e t grams of mesh u n d e r s i z e
produced p e r mill revolution. T h i s equation g i v e s the
work index a t a v e r a g e grinding efficiency of wet c l o s e d
circuit ball m i l l s 8 f e e t i n s i d e diameter. T h e efficiency
varies a s t h e inside mill diameter to the exponent 0.20.
Column (3) in T a b l e 111 l i s t s the work index of
each grindability t e s t a s calculated from Equation
( C l ) . Since the 15 o r e s t e s t e d a r e l i s t e d in the order
of i n c r e a s i n g , s t a t i o n a r y , and d e c r e a s i n g work index
v a l u e s , any c o n s i s t e n t trend in t h e o t h e r v a l u e s l i s t e d
should show some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e work index. O n e
observed trend i s t h e d e c r e a s e in the t re pared -6
mesh feed s l o p e Er and crack length Cr a s the t e s t
numbers i n c r e a s e .
Following t h e n e t grarns per revolution a t equilibrium l i s t e d in Col. (4) a r e upward arrows, e q u a l s i g n s ,
and downward arrows. T h e s e i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n
which the n e t Grams/Rev. took during s u c c e s s i v e
grinding periods in approaching equilibrium. ,An upward arrow s h o w s t h a t t h e n e t G/Rev. i n c r e a s e d to
equilibrium, a n e q u a l sign s h o w s that i t remained
s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t , a n d a downward arrow s h o w s
that it d e c r e a s e d to r e a c h equilibrium. The general
trend i s to d e c r e a s e in the c o a r s e r s i z e s , p a s s through
a no-change s i z e , and i n c r e a s e in t h e finer s i z e s , although there are many exceptions. T h e 72 t e s t s showed 23 d e c r e a s i n g , 2 1 equal, a n d 28 i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e s .
At 23 mesh only one ore i n c r e a s e d to equilibrium, and
a t 100 mesh none d e c r e a s e d .
T h e g r o s s grams produced p e r revolution i s obtained by dividing Col. (4) by Col. (5)/100.
The a v e r a g e s given d o not include t h e f e e d
samples.
Col. (8) g i v e s t h e c r a c k length of e a c h sample
in cm c c , a s found from t h e T a b l e 111 charts.
Col. (9) l i s t s the v a l u e s of the parameter C r
They d e c r e a s e regularly from 6 mesh t o 100 mesh,
and form a nearly s t r a i g h t l i n e when plotted a g a i n s t
the mesh opening in microns on log-log paper. T h i s
d e c r e a s e i s a r e s u l t of t h e s l i g h t d e c r e a s e in t h e exposure ratio Er in C o l . (7). T h i s parameter can be of

g r e a t v a l u e in predicting the t a n g e n t l i n e s l o p e s of
new reduction products.
T h e c o n s t a n t c e n t i m e t e r s of crack length produced per mill revolution in Col. (10) confirms t h e
Third Theory and s h o w s no r e l a t i o n s h i p to the varying work index values.
T h e value of K l i s t e d i n Col. (11) s h o w s a nearl y c o n s t a n t relationship of t h e work index t o t h e crack
length produced a n d feed and product s i z e s .

K =

(Crp

- Crf) 6

Wi ( F e e d % On)

T h e work index i s t h u s nearly inversely proport i o n a l to the product of t h e c e n t i m e t e r s of new c r a c k s

per c c and t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e 80%p a s s i n g s i z e ,
divided by t h e p e r c e n t weight of t h e feed r e t a i n e d on
t h e mesh s i z e t e s t e d . T h e f e e d p e r c e n t on a n d the
80%p a s s i n g s i z e P r e f l e c t n a t u r a l or induced grain
s i z e s which a f f e c t t h e work index without a f f e c t i n g
the crack length produced.
T a b l e IV s h o w s t h a t t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e s of K in
Col. (11) i n c r e a s e s l i g h t l y with finer s i z e s . T h i s i s
p a r t l y compensated by t h e s l i g h t d e c r e a s e of t h e Wi
v a l u e s in Col. (3). T h e r e l a t i v e invariability of K
s h o w s that the work index v a r i a t i o n s a r e primarily
t h e r e s u l t of natural and induced grain s i z e deficienc i e s and e x c e s s e s , within the framework of t h e Third
Theory. T h e work i n d e x v a l u e s a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y
proportional over the complete s i z e range to t h e produ c t particle diameter t o any c o n s t a n t exponent, s i n c e
the exponent must vary a s t h e grain s i z e i s approached.
T h e only exception i s the reduction of a homogeneous
material, when t h e exponent i s -1/2 and the work
index remains constant.
T h e crack energy a n d s u r f a c e energy inputs calc u l a t e d from E q u a t i o n s B13, B14, B15, and B l 6 a r e
a l s o affected by grain s i z e s e g r e g a t i o n s a n d reduction efficiency variations, s i n c e t h e s e influence the
work input W and the work index Wi. T h e n e t work input to the grindability t e s t mill i s about 60 joules
p e r revolution (12).
E Q U I V A L E N T SIZE O F S C A L P E D F E E D

When a crushed or ground material h a s had part

of i t s natural f i n e s removed, or s c a l p e d out, i t s res i s t a n c e to s i z e reduction p e r ton i s i n c r e a s e d . T h i s
can be e x p r e s s e d in terms of the i n c r e a s e d 80% p a s s s i z e PC of a ton of e q u i v a l e n t material containing i t s
natural f i n e s . Where P i s t h e 80% p a s s i n g s i z e of the
s c a l p e d material, the e q u i v a l e n t PCi s the equivalent
8 0 % p a s s i n g s i z e per ton with f i n e s p r e s e n t , or the
s i z e which will h a v e t h e same crack length a s the
s c a l p e d material with the natural s l o p e Er and parameter C r
of the u n s c a l p e d material.
T h e v a l u e of PC can be found by making a Third
T h e o r y plot of the s c a l p e d material, finding t h e value of Cr from the c h a r t s prepared from T a b l e 1311, and
then u s i n g the c h a r t s t o find t h e value PCwhich will
value
h a v e the natural s l o p e Er and natural C r 16
of the u n s c a l p e d material, with t h e s a m e C r v a l u e a s

the s c a l p e d material. T h e equivalent 80% p a s s i n g

s i z e PC,or F c when t h e material i s feed, i s used in
the b a s i c Third Theory equation ( 1 ) to calculate work
input o r work index. T h e average value of Cr
in open circuit unscalped i s about 570, and the s l o p e
Er should be s e l e c t e d to conform t o t h i s value.
In c a s e s where the feed c o n s i s t s of particles
which have been s c r e e n e d and vary in s i z e between
c l o s e limits, the first s t e p i s t o find the average
micron diameter d of the s i z e d feed, o r the microns
which 50% of the s i z e d feed would p a s s . The crack
length of t h e s i z e d feed i s then found from Cr =
d 3 0 , 0 0 0 / d . T h e equivalent feed s i z e F C i s found
from F c = ( 5 7 0 / ~ r ) ' f, o r u s e in Equation (1).

The s m a l l amount of material ordinarily present

which i s finer than the grind limit when P > 7 0
probably c o n s i s t s principally of (1) tiny particles
which acted a s cement between the grains released
by grinding, and ( 2 ) corners and edge fragments broken from the mosaic blocks during grinding.
APPENDIX D

- CIRCULATING LOADS

E F F E C T O F C I R C U L A T I N G LOADS

Grinding t e s t s a t 6 5 mesh were made on ore No.

15 in T a b l e ID a t three different circulating loads in
addition to the standard a t 250970. T h e r e s u l t s are
listed in T a b l e D-I.
A fair indication of the increased efficiency of
grinding with increasing circulating loads i s given
by the work index drop in Col. ( 3 ) . However, there
i s n o increase in the efficiency of new crack length
production, a s shown in Col. (10). T h i s a g r e e s with
the Third Theory. An increased circulating load inc r e a s e s t h e efficiency of grinding t o p a s s a certain
s i z e , but it does not increase the production of new
crack length or new surface area, except insofar a s
it may ameliorate ball coating or other deleterious
conditions.

CORRECTION FOR VERY FINE PRODUCT

When the 80%p a s s i n g s i z e P i s l e s s than 7 0

microns the work index Wi, a s determined from t e s t s
above that s i z e , i s multiplied by a factor f to account
for the increased work done i n producing sub-grindlimit particles. The factor f i s found from t h e following empirical equation:

TARLE D-I
-

TYpe
-

40 Circ.
Load

No.

Wi

Net

Feed

G/Rev.

% On

(15)

(Feed)

11-L
11-L

150
250
390
815

11-L
11-L

13.5
13.2
12.2
12.0

82.2
82.2
82.2
82.2

- -

---

Cm

Er
-

1.83
2.02
2.33
2.39

2270
159
173
182
183

,248
,227
.192
.189
.162

Gr
-

Cr
-

11.1
31.8
28.6
27.9
26.1

"'7 KG

529
401
376
376
3 53

17.2
16.1
17.7
16.3

K
23.5
21.2
22.5
20.5