PROJECT BIOIMPEDANCE

BY
CHETNA RALHAN
DTU/2K12/ECE/056
2nd YEAR ECE BATCH-C3
GROUP

INTRODUCTION
In biomedical engineering, bioimpedance is the response of a living organism to an
externally applied electric current. It is a measure of the opposition to the flow of
that electric current through the tissues, the opposite of electrical conductivity. The
measurement of the bioimpedance (or bioelectrical impedance) of the humans and
animals has proved useful as a non-invasive method for measuring such things as
blood flow and body composition like TBW and fat content(known as bioelectrical
impedance analysis or simply BIA).Can precisely define changes in body
composition during weight loss.
Bioimpedance is about the electrical properties of your body (or other
biomaterials), e.g. to what extent you are a good conductor. Bioimpedance is a
measure of how well the body impedes electric current flow. Fat has high
resistivity, blood lower resistivity. It is popular owing to its ease of use, portability
of the equipment and its relatively low cost compared to some of the other methods
of body composition analysis.

BIOIMPEDANCE APPLICATIONS :
Skin water content
Impedance imaging (tomography)
Body composition ( nutrition)
Impedance Cardiography (ICG)
Cardiac Output monitoring
Ablation monitoring
Blood volume
Meat quality assessment
Single cell motion microscope

 Single cell counting and characterization

Fingerprint sensors

MEASUREMENT OF BIOIMPEDANCE
Impedance is measured by applying a small electric current e.g. via 2 electrodes
and picking up the resulting small voltage with another pair of electrodes: The
lower the voltage the lower the tissue impedance for a given current.

Figure shows electrodes around a cylinder, for instance skin surface band
electrodes around an arm or a leg. The impedance Z is given by:
Z=L/A
where is the resistivity of the tissue, L is the distance between the pick-up
electrodes, and A is the cross-sectional area . The equation is only correct if the
tissue is homogeneous and the current is applied by band electrodes far away from
the pick-up electrodes.
The resistance (R) of the body is a consequence of its length (L) and crosssectional area (A), and how easily current can pass through the bodys tissue which
is a function of the volume of water present in the cylinder (body).
We treat the body as one large cylinder; the conductive length of this cylinder is the
length of the body from one electrode to the next.

Fat has very, very little water, while lean tissue has approximately 73% water. It is
the lean tissue (actually the water content of lean tissue) in the body that allows the
current to pass and that is what we measure with BIA.
Tissue consists of cells and membranes, and membranes are thin but have a high
resistivity and do electrically behave as small capacitors.

By using High measuring frequencies the current passes right through these
capacitors, and the response is dependent on tissue and liquids both inside
and outside the cells.
At Low frequencies, however, the response is dependent only on liquids
outside the cells.

The resistance and the capacitance of tissue are the two basic properties in
bioimpedance.
Resistance has the same eect on a.c. current as d.c. current.
Direct current cannot pass through a capacitor. A.c. can pass because of the rapidly
reversing ux of charge.

Methods Of Bioimpedance Analysis :

Single frequency BIA : Involves using a single frequency at 50kHz which
predominately measures the water outside of the cell (extracellular) and about 25%
of the water inside the cells (intracellular).
Multi-frequency BIA : Similar to SF-BIA, but multiple frequencies are used and
measured. Some researchers report that MF-BIA is better at predicting extracellular
fluid while SF-BIA was better at predicting total body water.
Bioelectrical spectroscopy : It uses mathematical modeling and mixture equations
to generate relationships between R and body fluid compartments. The published
equations seem accurate and reliable in healthy individuals but are wildly disparate
in various disease states.
Segmental-BIA : Done by adding two additional electrodes on the wrist and ankle
of the opposite side (four electrodes total) or placing the two electrodes in various
places to measure just the leg or arm or torso. There are several problems
associated with this approach.
We are trying to approximate a cylinder with the body, which is not a perfect
cylinder. So there are practical problems associated with this.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 1: As the cross section of a cylinder increases, the resistance
decreases. As a result, the arm and leg contribute a great deal more to resistance
than the torso. In fact, the arms and legs contribute from 90% of the resistance
while the torso is only 10%, yet the torso represents as much as 50% of the whole
body mass.
PROBLEM 2: The torso represents 50% of body weight but only 3-10% of the
bodys impedance. This means that impedance is more closely related to changes
of the muscle mass of the limbs; changes in the muscle mass of the torso is not
adequately represented; even large changes in the fluid volume in the abdominal
cavity have only minor influence on the measured impedance.

PROBLEM 3: The equations use the height of the individual instead of the entire
length between the ankle and wrist. A person with different ratio of arm/leg to torso
relative to the average person used to derive the equation will have a different
result.
PROBLEM 4: Use assume a constant hydration of FFM at 73%. Anything that
changes that hydration will change the measured resistance. Such factors as
dehydration, exercise and diuretics will effect the results.

EQUATIONS FOR BIOIMPEDANCE ANALYSIS

Several equations can be used to predict fat-free mass. The following equations
have a low standard error for predicting fat-free body mass and is appropriate for
the general population.

Females:
Fat-Free Mass (kg) = 0.475 [(ht2 (cm2) / R (ohms)] +
wt (kg) + 5.49

0.295

Males:
Fat-Free Mass (kg) = 0.485 [(ht2 (cm2) / R (ohms)] + 0.338
wt (kg) + 3.52
Note that the equation estimates fat-free mass which can be used to estimate
percent fat.

MAXIMIZING ACCURACY
To maximize accuracy of readings, certain parameters must be maintained :
Food consumption of food and beverage can decrease impedance by 4-15
ohms over a 2-4 hour period representing an error < 3%.
Exercise will decrease R by ~3% and Xc by ~8% immediately after and
returns to normal in 1 hour.

 Lying down for 60 minutes has resulted in a 3% increase in R. This can

result in errors of predicting TBW of 1-1.5 liters due to gravity pulling the
water down.
NO interference with pacemakers or defibrillators.
No alcohol intake for 12 hours prior to the study.
The electrode sites may need to be cleaned with alcohol, particularly if the
skin is dry or covered with lotion.
Height and weight should be accurately measured and recorded.
No interference with pacemakers or defibrillators.

No alcohol intake for 12 hours prior to the study.

Attach the electrodes and patient cables as shown in the illustration.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL AND DIGITAL-TOANALOG CONVERTERS

INTRODUCTION
Signals in the real world are typically analog or continuously varying signals. It
represents an exact value.
Eg: Temperature,pressure,light and sound intensity,speed,etc.
In order to use the power of digital electronics, one must convert from
analog to digital form on the experimental measurement end by using
analog-to-digital converter(ADC) and convert from digital to analog form on
the control or output end of a laboratory system by using digital-to-analog
converter(DAC).
The physical variables are first converted into electrical signals using
transducers and these electrical analog signals are converted into digital
signal using analog-to-digital converter(ADCs) .
These digital signals are processed by digital computer and the output of
digital computer is converted into analog signals using digital-to-analog
converters(DACs).

DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

It is a device that converts a value represented in digital code (usually
binary) into an analog signal (current, voltage, or electric charge) which is
proportional to the digital value .

Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of
8-bit
8-bit D/A
D/A converter
converter

DAC SPECIFICATIONS
1. Resolution (Step Size)
2. Accuracy

3. Settling Time
4. Offset Voltage
5. Monotonicity
1. RESOLUTION
Defined as the smallest change that can occur in the analog output when
digital input changes
Resolution can be expressed in two cases, either the voltage or Ampere and
also percentages.
Resolution is usually referred to the step size since it was a total change
in Vout when the digital input changes from one step to the next step.

Resolution

= Step Size = Input bit for LSB

Number of Step = 2n 1

Where;
n = Number of input bits

Resolution Percentages (%)

% Resolusi

x 100%
Number Of Step
=

x 100%

2n - 1

2. ACCURACY
Manufacturer of digital to analog converter has a several ways
to define accuracy.Two of them are often referred to Linearity Error
and Full-scale error
Full Scale Error
The maximum deviation from the ideal DAC output value.
Linearity Error
The maximum deviation of the step size from ideal step size.
3. SETTLING TIME
The speed of digital to analog converter is usually referred to the settling
time, which is the time required by a digital to analog converter output for
change from zero to full-scale during binary input change from all zero
to all one.
Actually, this settling time measured at the time of digital to
analog converter output was completed in the range of 1/2 step size fullscale.
Usually the settling time for current digital to analog converter is shorter
than the settling time voltage digital to analog converter.
Examples : If the digital to analog converter has 10mV resolution. The
settling time is measured at fixed output time at 5mV full-scale range.
4. OFFSET VOLTAGE

Digital to analog converter ideal output is 0V when

the binary input is all '0 '. In practical there is usually a
small voltage value at this time called offset voltage. Most of DAC has
external offset adjustment that will adjust to 0V as required.
5. MONOTONICITY
Digital to Analog Converter is monotonic if the output either increases or
same if binary input increases from one values to other values.
Monotonic is important in closed-loop system to avoid oscillation. Example:
V

ou

ut

Bi ut b
B t
c
a and b is Monotonic but c is not
in
n
Monotonic

B
i
n

TYPES OF DAC
1. R-2R LADDER TYPE DAC :
It is the most popular DAC. It uses a ladder network containing series-parallel
combination of two resistors R and 2R .
The circuit is different from the DAC circuit weighted-resistor type DAC
because it only uses two resistor values, R and 2R.
Disadvantage of weighted resistor type DAC is we can see on
the circuit was too much of the resistor to be provided. For example, if 12bit DAC with resistor value MSB (most significant bit) is 1K then LSB

resistor will exceed 2M. By fabrication technology circuit, it is difficult to

produce a large resistance range values with small values of current and can
set the exact ratio in the range of temperatures.

This is why R/2R DAC circuits are frequently used to obtain high accuracy
and precision.

Advantages
Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
Does not require high precision resistors
Disadvantage
Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC
2.WEIGHTED-RESISTOR TYPE DAC :

 The Op-amp is used to produce a weighted sum of the digital inputs ,where
the weights are proportional to the weights of the bit position inputs.
Operational amplifier is used to produce a weighted sum of digital inputs.
Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit from the most significant
to the least significant.
Op-amp connected as inverting amplifier .
n-1
2R
Rf
4R
2V
VR
+
I-refn321R

out

V
V1 V2 V3

L n -1n
2 R
R 2R 4R

Vout IRf Rf

Advantages
Simple Construction/Analysis

 Fast Conversion
Disadvantages
Requires large range of resistors with necessary high precision for low
resistors
Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit resolution.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

Produces the digital output that is proportional to the value of input analog
signal.
When analog signal is processed by a dgital system, an ADC is used to
convert the analog value to digital form suitable for processing by digital
system.
The basic principle of operation is to use the comparator principle to
determine whether or not to turn on a particular bit of the binary number
output.

TYPES OF A/D CONVERTER

1.Counter Type
2. Tracking Type
3. Flash Type
4. Dual slope Type
5. SUCCESSIVE-APPROXIMATION TYPE

1. COUNTER TYPE ADC

 Simplest type of A/D converter.

Also known as digital ramp ADC as waveform at o/p of DAC is step-bystep ramp(staircase).
Analog signal applied to non-inverting terminal of Op-amp comparator and
the output of the DAC is applied to the other terminal of the comparator.
Control logic initializes the system, sets counter to 0 and turns on clock
sending regular pulses to the counter.
As the counter counts, its output to the D A C generates a staircase ramp to
the comparator.

DISADVANTAGE
Conversion time depends on magnitude of analog input
Larger the input , more will be the no. of clock pulses that must pass to reach
the proper count, hence larger will be the conversion time
For each count counter has to start from reset only

 Considered quite slow in comparison with other types.

2. TRACKING TYPE ADC

Instead of a regular "up" counter driving the DAC, this circuit uses an
up/down counter.
The counter is continuously clocked, and the up/down control line is driven
by the output of the comparator. So, when the analog input signal exceeds
the DAC output, the counter goes into the "count up" mode.
When the DAC output exceeds the analog input, the counter switches into
the "count down" mode.
Either way, the DAC output always counts in the proper direction
to track the input signal.

Advantage
Faster than the counter-type ADC as counter is not reset after each
sample
Disadvantage

 If analog input remains constant, the counter keeps on changing from

up-down-to-up continuously and therefore the output of ADC keeps
on oscillating about the constant analog input.

3. FLASH TYPE ADC

Fastest type of ADC

Also called the parallel A/D converter

It is formed of a series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal
to a unique reference voltage
The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder circuit,
which then produces a binary output
If very high speed conversions are needed, e.g. video conversions, the most
commonly used converter is a Flash Converter.

 Advantage
Most efficient in terms of speed, very fast
Simplest in terms of operational theory
Disadvantage
Expensive
Most component-intensive for any given number of output bits.
Three-bit flash ADC requires seven comparators. A four-bit version
would require 15 comparators. With each additional output bit, the
number of required comparators doubles.

4. DUAL SLOPE TYPE ADC

The sampled signal charges a capacitor for a fixed amount of time
By integrating over time, noise integrates out of the conversion
Then the ADC discharges the capacitor at a fixed rate with the counter
counts the ADCs output bits. A longer discharge time results in a higher
count
Advantage
Input signal is averaged
Greater noise immunity than other ADC types
High accuracy
Disadvantage
Slow
High precision external components required to achieve accuracy

5. SUCCESSIVE-APPROXIMATION TYPE
A/D CONVERTER
A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to
the circuit

 Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register

counts by trying all values of bits starting with the MSB
and finishing at the LSB.
The register monitors the comparators output to see if the
binary count is greater or less than the analog signal input
and adjusts the bits accordingly

ADVANTAGE
Capable of high speed and reliable
Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types
Good tradeoff between speed and cost

 Capable of outputting the binary number in serial (one bit

at a time) format.
DISADVANTAGE
Higher resolution successive approximation ADCs will be
slower
Speed limited to ~5Msps

ADC TYPES COMPARISON

Type

Speed
(relative)

Cost
(relative)

Dual Slope

Slow

Med

Flash

Very Fast

High

Successive
-Approx

Medium
Fast

Low

Counter

Slow

Low