Electrical Engineering I

Electrotechnology I

SECTION 2
D.C. CIRCUITS
AND NETWORK ANALYSIS
(A) Series Circuits
 BASIC COMPONENTS
OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
 SERIES CIRCUIT
• Two elements are in series if:
– They have only one terminal in common;
– The common point between the two elements
is not connected to another current-carrying
element
• R1 and R2 are
connected in
series

• R1 and R2 are not

connected in
series as R3 is
also connected to
the common point
 SERIES CIRCUIT
• The current through series elements is the
same.
• The total resistance of a series circuit is
the sum of the resistances in the circuit
when “looking” into the circuit.

R T  R1  R 2  R 3  ...  RN
E
From this IS 
RT
R1 is in series with R2
 SERIES CIRCUIT
• Both of these are
series circuits
 SERIES CIRCUIT

• Voltage across each resistor is

determined by the current flow.
• Power dissipated by each resistor is then
determined by the voltage across and
the current flow through each resistor
V1  IR1 , V2  IR 2 , V3  IR 3 ,...., VN  IRN
2
2 V1
From this P1  V1I1  I1 R1 
R1
 SERIES CIRCUIT

• EXAMPLE
– Determine:
• Total resistance
• Source current
• Voltages across
each resistor
• Power
dissipated in
each resistor
 SERIES CIRCUIT
• SOLUTION

R T  2  1  5  8 P2  2,5 x 5  12,5 W

20 P1  2,5 2 x 1  6,25 W
IS   2,5 A
8 12,5 2
V2  2,5 x 2  5 V P5   31,25 W
5
V1  2,5 x 1  2,5 V
V5  2,5 x 5  12,5 V
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
IN SERIES
• When
connected
in series,
consider
polarity of
individual
sources
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that
algebraic sum of potential rises and drops
around a closed loop / path is zero OR the
algebraic sum of potential rises equals the
drops around a closed loop / path

V LOOP
0

V RISES   VDROPS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• Use assumed direction of current flow to determine

potential rise or drop
• When applying KVL, a clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW) direction can be used
when following the closed loop
• If summing the voltage rises and drops in a loop
and equating them to zero:
– When following the loop direction, the polarity (+ or -)
used will be that of the terminal that you “leave” when
passing through a component.
V LOOP 0
 E  V1  V2  0
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• Use assumed direction of current flow to determine

potential rise or drop
• When applying KVL, a clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW) direction can be used
when following the closed loop
• If equating the voltage rises to the drops in a loop:
– When following the loop direction, the polarity (+ or -)
used with a voltage rise will be that of the terminal that
you “leave” when passing through a component
– When following the loop direction, the polarity (+ or -)
used with a voltage drop will be that of the terminal that
you “enter” when passing through a component
V RISES   VDROPS
 E   V1  V2
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• Can apply KVL even if no current-carrying
element included in circuit

V LOOP 0
 12V  Vx  6 V  0
Vx  6 V
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• EXAMPLE
– Determine the voltage V1

 E1  V1  V2  E 2  0
V1  E1  V2  E 2  16 V  4,2  9 V
V1  2,8 V
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• EXAMPLE
– Determine the voltage VX in each case
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• SOLUTION
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• EXAMPLE
– Determine the following
– V2
–I
– R1 and R3
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• SOLUTION
 INTERCHANGING
SERIES ELEMENTS
• Elements (voltage sources or resistors) can
be interchanged without affecting total
resistance, current or power to each element
 INTERCHANGING
SERIES ELEMENTS
 INTERCHANGING
SERIES ELEMENTS
 INTERCHANGING
SERIES ELEMENTS
• EXAMPLE:
– Determine the
current I and
the voltage
across the 7
resistor
 INTERCHANGING
SERIES ELEMENTS
• SOLUTION:
– First interchange the 4 resistor and the 12,5 V battery
– Then combine the power sources and solve
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
• Voltage across any resistive
element (RX) will be divided
in the ratio of the magnitude
of the resistances.
• The largest resistance will
have the highest voltage
difference across it.

R XE
VX 
RT
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

Voltage divides in the ratio of the resistance, not the values of the resistors
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
• Voltage across any
resistive element will
be divided in the ratio
of the magnitude of
the resistances.
• The largest
resistance will have
the highest voltage
difference across it.
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
• EXAMPLE
– Using the voltage
divider rule,
determine the
voltages across each
resistor
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
• SOLUTION

R1E 8 x 10 3 x 100
VR1    53,33 V
RT 2  5  8 x 10 3

R 2E 5 x 10 3 x 100
VR 2    33,33 V
RT 2  5  8 x 10 3

3
R 3E 2 x 10 x 100
VR 3    13,33 V
RT 2  5  8 x 10 3
 NOTATION
• Most electrical / electronic systems are
grounded / earthed for reference or safety
purposes
• Ground = zero volts
• Following examples indicates three ways
of sketching the same circuit
3 different ways of drawing the same circuit
 NOTATION
• Two ground symbols indicate same
potential at –ve terminal of battery and
one terminal of resistor R2
• Note:
– Point a is positive w.r.t. ground,
– Point b is also positive w.r.t. ground but
negative w.r.t. point a
 NOTATION
• Replace the special notation for a positive dc voltage
source with a standard symbol
 NOTATION
• Replace the special notation for a negative dc voltage
source with a standard symbol
 DOUBLE-SUBSCRIPT
NOTATION
• A voltage can be measured between two points
or from a point to ground
• When measured between two points, apply a
double-subscript notation
• First letter of the subscript indicates the point of
the higher potential – the voltage VAB indicates
that the voltage being measured between points
A and B and that point A is at the higher
potential, ie the voltage at point A w.r.t. point B
 DOUBLE-SUBSCRIPT
NOTATION
• Defining the sign for double-subscript notation
 SINGLE-SUBSCRIPT
NOTATION
• When measured from a point to ground,
the single-subscript notation is used
• The letter of the subscript indicates the
point at which the potential is being
measured – the voltage VA indicates the
voltage at point A relative to ground while
the voltage VB indicates the voltage at
point B relative to ground
SINGLE-SUBSCRIPT
NOTATION
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine Vab
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION

Vab  Va  Vb
 16 V  ( 20 V )
 4 V
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine Va
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION

Va  Vab  Vb
 5 V  4 V
 9 V
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine Vab
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION

Vab  Va  Vb
 20 V  ( 15 V )
 35 V
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine VAB, VCB
and VC for the
network
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION
– One approach is redraw
circuit as shown
– Determine total volt drop
across R1 and R2
– Apply Ohm’s law and
calculate voltages
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION

54 V
I  1,2 A
45 
VAB  IR 2  1,2 A 25    30 V
VCB  IR1  1,2 A 20    24 V
VC  E  19 V
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION
– Another approach
is to redraw the
network
– Establish the effects
of E1 and E2
– Solve the resulting
series circuit
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION

E1  E2 19 V  35 V 54 V
I    1,2 A
RT 45  45 
VAB  IR 2  1,2 A 25    30 V
VCB  IR1  1,2 A 20    24 V
VC  E  19 V
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine V1 and V2
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION
 NOTATION
• EXAMPLE
– Determine Va, Vb, Vc and Vab
 NOTATION
• SOLUTION
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
INTERNAL RESISTANCES
• Every voltage source will some internal
resistance (RINT)
• The effect of this will be to reduce the potential
across the terminals of any voltage source as
the load current (IL) increases
• This indicates that a voltage source has a no-
load voltage (VNL) and a load voltage (VL) and
the difference between these two is due the volt
drop (ILRINT) caused by the internal resistance

VL  VNL  ILRINT
 EXAMPLES OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES
 EQUIVALENT OF A
VOLTAGE SOURCE
• E represents the emf which
can be from a chemical,
solar or electromagnetic
origin
• RINT represents the internal
resistance
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
INTERNAL RESISTANCES
• The 3 diagrams indicate:
– Ideal voltage source (RINT = 0)
– Practical voltage source without any load
– Practical voltage source with a load
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
INTERNAL RESISTANCES
• Determine value of RINT by:
– First measuring the no-load voltage (VNL)
– Then connecting a known load (RL) and
measuring the load current (IL)
– Finally calculating internal resistance (RINT)

VNL
RINT   RL
IL
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
INTERNAL RESISTANCES
• EXAMPLE
– A battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal
resistance of 0,5 . Determine the load
voltage and the power lost due to internal
resistance if the load resistance is 5 .
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
INTERNAL RESISTANCES
• SOLUTION

VNL 12
IL    2,182 A
RL  RINT 5  0,5
VL  VNL  ILRINT  12  2,182 x 0,5   10,91 V
2 2
PLOST  IL RINT  2,182 x 0,5  2,38 W
 MEASURING VOLTAGE
• Meter will be connected in parallel to
component/circuit
• Resistance of meter is high (10M)
 MEASURING CURRENT
• Meter will be connected in series with
component/circuit
• Resistance of meter is low (5m)