Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a collection of specialized body tissues and organs that produce, store,
and secrete chemical substances that transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to
another. These chemical substance called hormones are secreted to the blood where it is
transported to the rest of the body and absorbed by target tissues. These three, chemical signals,
receptors and glands comprises the endocrine system.
I.

Functions:
1. Regulation of bodys activities (reproduction, growth and development, body to
achieve homeostasis (state of equilibrium).
2. The endocrine system regulates the growth of tissues, as well as its rate of
metabolism. Metabolism is the way by which chemical reactions by which the cells of
an organism transform energy, maintain their identity, and reproduce.
3. The endocrine system influences the maturation of tissues, which causes the
development of adult features and behavior.
4. Blood components control
a. Water balance through maintaining a balanced solute concentration.
b. Ion regulation for it regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in the blood.
c. Blood glucose control is also performed by the system as well as other
nutrients in the blood.
5. The system controls as well the development and functions of the reproductive
system, as well as uterine contractions during the delivery of newborns and milk
release from lactating females.
6. The endocrine system helps regulate as well the heart rate and blood pressure.
7. The endocrine system plays a crucial role as well in helps control the production and
functions of immune cells.

II.

Three Key Areas

A. Chemical signals
Hormones chemical signals secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids and
regulate metabolic activity of other cells. From its etymology itself to arouse, it brings
about changes in other cells by increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal or usual
metabolic process. Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
a. changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state
b. synthesis of proteins or enzymes
c. activation or inactivation of enzymes
d. stimulation of mitosis

Hormones of the endocrine system reaches nearly every living cell, have specific
targets ,whcich means that each kind acts only on certain cell and are called target cells
and its control tend to be slower than that of the nervous system. Hormones can either be:
a. Proteins/non-steroid
Proteins, peptides, and amino acid derivatives, hormones in this
category are lipid insoluble thus, bind to membrane bound receptors on the
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cells surface, and their binding either opens or closes cell membrane
ion channels or activates enzymes within the cell
b. Lipids/steroids
Steroid hormones, all of which are derived from cholesterol, are lipid
soluble and can enter the cells called intercellular chemical signals. (better
illustration for both kinds in the next part).

B. Receptors
1. Membrane Bound Receptors extend through the cell membrane, with their receptor
sites on the outer surface of the cell membrane. When chemical signals bind to these
receptors, the part of the receptor that is inside the cell produces a response. There are three
major mechanisms by which they do this:

a. Receptors that directly alter membrane permeability. In this case, once

chemical signals bind to the receptor sites, ion channels open or close.
That change in membrane permeability alters the movements of ions
across the cell membrane, which is responsible for the response.

b. Receptors and G proteins. This time, when chemical signals bind o the
receptor, the result is the activation of the complex of G protein, which
has alpha (), beta() and gamma() as subunits bound together.
Guanosine Diphosphate (GDP) is bound to the alpha() subunit. Once
this happens, the alpha subunit separates from the beta and gamma,
and from GDP, Guanosine Triphospate is now bounded to it, and this
GTP can either open or close membrane channels, activate enzymes
that produce intracellular chemical signals or affect gene expression.

c. Receptors that directly alter the activity of enzymes. This happens in

here ways: From the heading itself, inactive enzymes are directly
affected and become active once these messages bind.

Enzy
me

Moreover, when these chemical messages bind, they

activate the enzyme guanylate cyclase which converts GTP to
cyclic GMP (cGMP) plus two inorganic phosphate groups (PP i).
this activated enzyme then alters other intracellular enzymes to
produce a response. Lastly, once these messages bind, they may
turn inactive or unphospholyrated sites to phosphorylated ones
which produce a response inside the cell.

2. Intracellular Receptors are where small and lipid soluble messages bind to, once
they enter the cells, they may be enzymes or even the DNA, which is the ultimate
goal. Anyhow, once the chemical messages enter, they make their way to the
nucleus to bind to a specific receptor protein in there. It then binds to specific
areas on the DNA activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA).
The mRNA then is transmitted to the cytoplasm for the production of new
proteins.

Comparing the two processes, those chemical messages that bin to

membrane bound receptors produce rapid responses. This is because a few
intercellular chemical signal molecules can bind to their receptors and each
activated receptor can produce many intracellular messages. These in turn, rapidly
activate many enzymes inside the cell. What happens is called a cascade effect.
On the other hand, it takes several hours for the new synthesis of mRNA and
proteins to finish.
3. Hormone Secretion Regulation
In maintaining homeostasis inside the body, it is important that
hormones and blood levels of compounds are just around the perfect
amount, and the endocrine system does this through the negative feedback
mechanism. In here, controlled variables (blood sugar, calcium etc.) and
changes in its normal values are corrected by glands by secreting more or
less of that hormone. Such negative feedback loop is a stable, selfadjusting mechanism for maintaining homeostasis of the controlled
variable.
Another way is through hormone secretion itself. This way,
specific hormones are released to trigger the secretion of another (eg.
pituitary to ovary/testes). Lastly, some hormone secretion is controlled by
the nervous system (eg. epinephrine released from adrenal medulla which
is triggered by the nervous system stimulation.
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III.

Endocrine Glands and their Hormones

Pancreas

Pancreas is a mixed glandular organ that is located close to the stomach in the abdominal
cavity. As a mixed gland, the pancreas has exocrine function which act as part of the digestive
system that produces digestive enzymes, and the endocrine function which produces and secretes
hormones. Additionally, the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells are called
pancreatic islets, formerly called islets of Langerhans. The islets are a compact collection of
endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords and are crisscrossed by a dense network of
capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells in direct contact

with vessels, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, by
either cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition.
Glucagon and insulin are the two important hormones produced by the Alpha and Beta
cells, respectively in the pancreatic islets. The glucagon increases the breakdown of glycogen (a
molecule that functions as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells)
and release of glucose into the cardiovascular system which in effect, raises blood sugar. On the
other hand, the insulin increases uptake and use of glucose and amino acids which in effect,
lowers blood sugar.
Because of these two hormones, the body maintains normal range of values of blood
sugar levels. A decline in the blood glucose level below its normal range causes the nervous
system to malfunction because glucose is the nervous systems main source of energy.
Furthermore, if blood glucose levels are too high, the kidneys produce large volumes of urine
containing substantial amounts of glucose. Dehydration can result because of the rapid loss of
water in the body.
Adrenal Gland

Adrenal glands, which are also called suprarenal glands, are small, triangular glands
located on top of both kidneys. An adrenal gland is made of two parts: the outer region is called
the adrenal cortex and the inner region is called the adrenal medulla.
Both parts of the adrenal glands: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla perform very
separate functions.
The adrenal cortex, the outer portion of the adrenal gland, secretes hormones that have an
effect on the body's metabolism, on chemicals in the blood, and on certain body characteristics.
The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids and other hormones directly into the bloodstream.
The hormones produced by the adrenal cortex include:
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) targets the kidneys primarily and the
intestine and sweat glands to a lesser degree. It increases the rate of sodium
transport into the body; increases the rate of potassium excretion and secondarily
favor water retention.
Glucocoricoids (cortisol) targets most tissues. It increases the fat and
protein breakdown, the glucose synthesis from amino acids, blood nutrient levels,
inhibits inflammation and immune response.

 Adrenal androgens also target most tissues. It is insignificant in male. But

in females, it increases their sexual drive, pubic hair and axillary hair growth.
The adrenal medulla, the inner part of the adrenal gland helps a person in coping with
physical and emotional stress. The adrenal medulla secretes the following hormones:
epinephrine (also called adrenaline) - this hormone increases the heart rate
and force of heart contractions, facilitates blood flow to the muscles and brain,
causes relaxation of smooth muscles, helps with conversion of glycogen to
glucose in the liver, and other activities.
norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) - this hormone has little effect
on smooth muscle, metabolic processes, and cardiac output, increasing blood
pressure.
The adrenal glands work interactively with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the
following process: the hypothalamus produces corticotropin-releasing hormones, which
stimulate the pituitary gland and the pituitary gland, in turn, produces corticotropin hormones,
which stimulate the adrenal glands to produce corticosteroid hormones.
Thymus Gland

Thymus gland is located between the lungs, behind the breastbone and near the heart.
Sometimes it is considered part of the lymphatic system.
The thymus gland produces thymosin and thymopoietin which targets the lymphocytes
which are white blood cells that travel the body through the bloodstream. It helps lymphocytes
mature, especially in children. The main function of the thymus gland is in the processing and
maturation of special lymphocytes called T-cells.
The thymus gland is most active during early life, playing a critical role in the development
of a child's immune system before birth and for a time thereafter. Usually by the age of two, the
thymus gland has reached its maximum size (weighing about 30 to 40 grams or 1.06 to 1.41
ounces) with the immune system becoming fully functional. Because of this, vaccinations before
the age of two are not really necessary since these young immune systems are not mature enough
to handle the strength of a vaccine.

If the thymus gland is removed in infancy, the immune system will never fully develop.
There is a great degree of infection risk in patients who have no thymus gland, or
whose thymus never developed properly. The majority of lymphocyte production happens early
in life, so the thymus gland deteriorates with age. In youth, the thymus will reach the size of an
apple, but it is reduced to the size of a small marble in the elderly. By the time a person reaches
senior citizen status, it is likely their thymus is barely discernible from surrounding fatty tissues.
After puberty, the gland begins to shrink and is replaced by connective tissue and fat.
Parathyroid Gland

The parathyroid glands are tiny masses of glandular tissue most often found on the
position on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland which produces parathyroid hormone
(PTH). The parathyroid hormone targets the tissues of the bone of kidney wherein it increases
the rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts (a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by
removing its mineralized matrix and breaking up the organic bone) and PTH also increases
vitamin D synthesis that is essential for maintenance of normal blood calcium levels

. When blood calcium levels drop below a certain point, the calcium-sensing receptors in
the parathyroid gland are activated to release hormone into the blood. Parathyroid also controls
how much calcium is in the bones, and therefore, how strong and dense the bones are. However,
the thyroid gland regulates the bodys metabolism and has no effect on calcium levels while
parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels and have no effect on metabolism. When the calcium
in our blood goes too low, the parathyroid glands make more PTH. Increased PTH causes the
body to put more calcium into the blood. Increased PTH causes the bones to release their
calcium into the blood.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has a very powerful influence on the cells of the bones which
causes them to release their calcium into the bloodstream. When bones are exposed to high levels
of parathyroid hormone for several years they become brittle and much more prone to
fractures. If blood calcium levels fall too law, neurons become extremely irritable and overactive.
Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small cone shaped gland found on the roof of the third ventricle, near
the center of the brain.
It is known to produce a derivative of the serotonin hormone, melatonin. Levels of
melatonin fluctuate during the course of a day. This hormone plays a role in the bodys circadian
rhythm. This rhythm regulates the physiological functions that occur in the body within a 24hour period, such as sleep-wake cycles, fluctuations in body temperature, heart rate, and blood
pressure.
According to studies, melatonin is believed to be a sleep trigger, making it crucial for the
human bodys internal clock for the day and night cycle. Also, it coordinates the hormones of
fertility and inhibits the reproductive system, so that sexual maturation is prevented from
occurring before adulthood.
Thyroid gland

An endocrine gland found in the neck area, near the parathyroid, that controls metabolism
and helps regulate the calcium balance of the body.
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The two main hormones it produces are: Thyroxine and Calcitonin. Thyroxine is used in
keeping the metabolism going, turning food into energy, also it influences physical development.
Calcitonin on the on the hand promotes bone growth, stimulating the uptake of calcium
absorption by the bones also inhibiting the activity of bone resorption. Another notable hormone
is triiodothyronine.
Without the Thyroid, during childhood years, growth and development would be
impossible. Bones would not absorb calcium and the food eaten would not be converted into
energy used to promote physical development.
Pituitary Gland

A small endocrine gland located below the hypothalamus about the size of a grape. It is
considered to be the master gland, secreting eight different hormones and regulates majority of
the other endocrine glands. It consists of two lobes, a posterior lobe and an anterior lobe. It is
also known as hypophysis.
Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary is responsible for releasing the growth hormone, thus most cells are
target cells. It also secretes the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) which increases the thyroid
hormone secretion. Moreover, it also secretes the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) which
increases cortisol increasing skin pigmentation. Melanin also increases through its secretion of
the Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone. The Luteinizing Hormone (LH) promotes ovulation and
progesterone production in the ovary, and sperm support and testosterone production in males.
Lastly, Prolactin is a hormone which stimulates milk production and prolong progesterone
secretion following ovulation and during pregnancy in women.
Posterior Pituitary
The Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) is secreted to increase water absorption in the kidney so
less water is excreted through urine. Oxytocin increases uterine contractions and milk let down
from mammary glands.
The pituitary gland is considered the master gland. Any disorder would cause problems in the
production of sex cells and would trigger a chain reaction leading to a dysfunctional thyroid
gland, adrenal gland and organ failure.
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Ovaries

The ovaries are paired, almond-sized organs located in the abdomen or pelvic cavity.
Aside from producing female sex cells (ova, or eggs), it also produce two groups of steroid
hormones, estrogens and progesterone.
During puberty, the anterior pituitary starts to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones stimulate the ovaries to begin secreting
estrogen and progesterone. This results in the rhythmic ovarian cycles in which ova develop and
blood levels of ovarian hormones rise and fall.
Estrogen, produced by the Graafian follicle of the ovaries, initiates the development of
female secondary sex characteristics primarily growth and maturation of the reproductive organs
and the appearance of hair in the pubic and axillary regions and also so such as breast
development, widening pelvis, and distribution of body fat. In addition, the estrogens work with
progesterone to prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg. This results in cyclic changes in the
uterine lining, which is called the menstrual cycle. Estrogens also help maintain pregnancy and
prepare the breasts to produce milk (lactation). However, the placenta and not the ovaries is the
source of the estrogens at this time.
Progesterone quiets the muscles of the uterus during pregnancy so that an implanted
embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation. It is produced by another
glandular structure of the ovaries, the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces both estrogen
and progesterone but progesterone, is secreted in larger amounts. Release of LH, FSH, estrogen,
and progesterone continues throughout a womans productive years.
Testes

The testes, located in the scrotum, produce androgens, the male sex hormones. The
primary androgen produced by males is testosterone. During puberty the anterior pituitary gland
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begins to release luteinizing hormone (LH), which stimulates the testes to resume testosterone
production. Testosterone causes development of the adult male sex characteristics. It promotes
the growth and maturation of the reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for

reproduction. It also causes the males secondary sex characteristics (growth of facial hair,
development of heavy bones and muscles, and deepening of the voice) to appear and stimulates
the male sex drive. LH, FSH, and testoseterone continue to maintain the male reproductive
system after puberty.
OVARIES AND TESTES:
The adrenal glands in both sexes produce a small amount of a testosterone-like androgen
called dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). DHEA has no demonstrable effect in males because
they have an abundance of the more powerful testosterone. In females, DHEA form the adrenal
glands is responsible for many of the same actions as testosterone in males, including
enhancement of the female puberta growth, the development of axillary (armpit) and pubic hair,
and development and maintenance of the female sex drive.
Intestine
Cells in the lining of the stomach and small intestine secrete hormones that stimulate the
production of digestive juices from the stomach, pancreas, and liver. These hormones aid the
process of digestion by causing secretion or digestive juices when food is present in the digestive
system but not at other times. Hormones secreted from the small intestine also help regulate the
rate at which food passes from the stomach into the small intestine, so that food enters the small
intestine at an optimal rate.
Placenta
A temporary organ formed during pregnancy, produces hormones generally thought of as
ovarian hormones (estrogen and progesterone). Placenta is a remarkable organ formed
temporarily in the uterus of pregnant women. In addition to its roles as the respiratory, excretory,
and nutrition-delivery systems for the fetus, it also produces hormones that help to maintain the
pregnancy and pave the way for delivery of the baby.
During very early pregnancy, a hormone called human chronic gonadotropin (hCG) is
produced by the developing imbryo and then by the fetal part of the placenta. Similar to LH
(luteinizing hormone), hCG stimulates the corpus luteum of the ovary to continue producing
estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in menses. In the
third month, the placenta assumes the job of producing estrogen and progesterone, and the
ovaries become inactive for the rest of the pregnancy. The high estrogen and progesterone blood
levels maintain the lining of the uterus (thus, the pregnancy) and prepare the breasts for
producing milk. Human placental lactogen (hPL) works cooperatively with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing the breasts for lactation, and relaxing another placental hormone
causes them to relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage. The heart and the
kidneys all have functions unrelated to the endocrine system. Nevertheless, all of these organs
secrete at least one hormone.
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Kidneys

Erythropoietin and renin are secreted by the kidneys. Erythropoietin stimulates the
production of red blood cells in bone marrow. Renin ultimately stimulates aldosterone secretion
and constricts blood vessels.
Heart
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is a peptide (nonsteroid) hormone secreted by the atria
f the heart that helps regulate blood pressure. When blood pressure rises, ANH increases the rate
at which sodium and water are excreted in urine. This decreases blood volume and lowers blood
pressure.
Common diseases of the Endocrine System
Because our Endocrine system is one of two primary systems for controlling bodily functions,
the other being the Nervous system, any disruption or Homeostatic Imbalance to it can have
dramatic and widespread effects on the body. (Note: many disorders of this system are often
chronic conditions of too much (Hypersecretion) or too little (Hyposecretion) Hormone, or
tumors (benign or malignant) of the endocrine glands; some of them are inherited condition.)
Here are some of its common disorders.
Hypersecretion of the Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) the ADH is a hormone secreted in the
Posterior Pituitary gland that targets the kidney in reducing the amount of water thats lost in
urine. This condition is called syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH). People
who have SIADH retain too much water to be in a state of water balance. This could result in
Hyponatremia, an electrolyte disorder, or fluid overload, a condition wherein there is too much
fluid in the blood. Some symptoms may include headaches, nausea, and vomiting. Underlying
disorders ranging from HIV infection, meningitis and brain injuries to pneumonia or chronic
lung conditions can cause SIADH; some drugs that can increase ADH production can also cause
the condition.
Treatments for this condition may include:
a) Treating the underlying causes when possible (i.e. treatment of the meningitis, pneumonia
etc.)
b) Long term fluid restriction to lower or correct the water imbalance and to increase serum
sodium* (because of hyponatremia wherein sodium concentration in the blood serum is lower
than normal.)
c) Drugs such as Demeclocycline, Conivaptan, Tolvaptan etc. that are prescribed by physicians.
Diabetes Insipidus this disorder is the opposite of the SIADH because instead of retaining too
much water, the condition is characterized by the inability to save water properly which is caused
by either the lack of ADH or by lack of the receptors for ADH in kidney cells. The symptoms
may include excessive thirst, excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, with the
lessening of fluid intake having no effect on the latter; signs of dehydration may also appear in
some people since the body cannot conserve much of the water that it takes in. Some cases of
Diabetes insipidus can be caused by head trauma or brain surgery that disrupts the normal
production of ADH. People with this condition must to drink large amount of water in order to
keep up with the amount of water lost by their kidneys.
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Pituitary Dwarfism or Growth Hormone Deficiency (GDH) this condition is caused by

Hyposecretion of the growth hormone during childhood. The Growth Hormone (GH), from the

Anterior Pituitary gland, is importantly involved in the growth and development process of
children therefore abnormalities of growth hormone secretion are most damaging when they
happen before puberty. It is characterized by having poor growth and/or shortness, and having
cherubic facial feature or that which resembles a kewpie doll. In order to correct this disorder,
it should be diagnosed early and treated with growth hormone throughout childhood; otherwise,
if the patient reaches adulthood, even administering the growth hormone cannot overcome the
disorder. This is because during puberty, the sex steroid hormones causes the cartilaginous
growth plates at the ends of long bones to be replaced by bone so after that, bones do not grow in
length again.
Gigantism this disorder is caused by hypersecretion or overproduction of the growth hormone
during childhood and adolescence. Excess GH secretion can come from hormone-secreting
tumors on the pituitary gland. Exaggerated bone growth occurs when excess GH is present
before bones complete their growth in length, this results in the person being abnormally tall.
There is no known cure for gigantism and many of those identified with it have suffered multiple
health problems regarding their circulatory and skeletal system.
Acromegaly this disorder is similar to gigantism except it does not make the individuals
whole body grow abnormally taller, rather it only makes some parts of the body grow to
abnormal proportions. This is because if the excess hormone is secreted after growth in bone
length is complete, the bone growth continues in diameter, but not in length (the reason why this
disorder is only common in adults or those reaching adulthood); as a result, the bones and
muscles of the face, hands, and feet (the bones that arent affected by sex steroids) become
abnormally large, changing patients facial features but not their height. The excessive
production of GH in adults usually comes from tumors of the pituitary or hypothalamus.
Nowadays however, this disorder is no longer common since the GH-secreting tumors are now
usually being diagnosed and treated early enough that the condition never develops.
Diabetes mellitus commonly known as Diabetes, this condition is a disorder of blood sugar
regulation involving insulin (a hormone thats produced in the pancreas, it is important in
regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body, and causes cells in the liver, muscle,
and fat tissues to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle.).
There are two types of diabetes:
a) Type 1 diabetes this is caused by a failure to produce enough insulin, because of this, the
patient only depends on daily doses of insulin for survival, which is why it is also called insulindependent diabetes. It normally develops during childhood or adolescence, but adults can
develop it as well. Generally it has an autoimmune (failure of an organism to recognize a
constituent as part of itself, therefore causes immune responses against its own cells and tissues)
cause: the persons immune system destroys the beta cells (cells that make and release insulin) of
the pancreas.
b) Type 2 diabetes also referred to as non-insulin-dependent diabetes, unlike Type 1, insulin
levels may be low, normal or quite high, however, it is characterized by insulin resistance
which means cells fail to respond adequately to insulin even though it is present.
Both types of Diabetes mellitus can damage the blood vessels and nerves if not managed
correctly. Chronic untreated diabetes is a leading cause of blindness, kidney failure, heart disease
and stroke. People who are overweight and sedentary (no or irregular physical activity) are more
prone to develop this disease, specifically Type 2 diabetes.
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The symptoms of having Diabetes are: polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst)
and polyphagia (increased hunger), which may develop rapidly (weeks or months) in Type 1
while in Type 2 they usually develop much slower and may be subtle or absent. In addition, Type

2 diabetics may experience having frequent infections, blurred vision, cuts that heal very slow,
and tingling in the feet or hands. To manage their condition, Type 1 diabetics need daily
injections of insulin to stay alive, while Type 2 diabetics have numerous options depending on
their condition. Some may take insulin, but others manage with drugs that stimulate insulin
production. Others can be managed without drugs through lifestyle changes like maintaining a
healthy weight, eating nutritious food, and regular, if not daily exercising.
Goiter this disorder is of the Thyroid gland wherein the lack of iodine, (which is required to
produce active Thyroid hormones) which results in an absent or abnormally low level of
thyroxine, makes the hypothalamus and pituitary to secrete large unchecked quantities of
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and Thyroid-secreting hormone (TSH). And in doing so,
the high TSH levels stimulate the thyroid gland to grow to enormous size in an effort to get the
thyroid to make more hormone, which it cannot do because it lacks iodine. As a result, the
thyroid gland is abnormally enlarged and causes a swelling of the neck or larynx (voice-box)
which we call a Goiter.

Note: the TRH is a hormone that stimulates the release of TSH by the anterior pituitary. TSH on
the other hand is a hormone which is also secreted in the anterior pituitary gland but regulates the
endocrine function of the Thyroid gland. Thyroxene is the hormone secreted by the thyroid
gland.

Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid gland this refers to the hyposecretion of thyroid

hormones. In children, not enough thyroxene production can slow body growth, alter brain
development, and delay the start of puberty. If not treated, the hypothyroidism can lead to
cretinism, a condition of mental retardation wherein the child is left with short stature with an
abnormally formed skeletal structure. In adults, thyroxene deficiency can lead to myxedema, a
condition characterized by swelling under the skin, lethargy (Fatigue), weight gain, low BMR
(Basal-metabolic rate refers to the amount of energy expended while at rest), and low body
temperature. This condition however, can be treated by means of thyroxine pills which can
increase thyroxene production.
Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid gland this refers to the hypersecretion of the thyroid
hormones. Too much thyroxine increases BMR and causes hyperactivity, nervousness, agitation,
and weight loss. Graves disease, an autoimmune disorder wherein the persons own aintbodies
stimulate the thyroid to produce too much thyroxine, is the most common form of
hyperthyroidism. Graves disease is often associated by protruding eyes, a condition called
exopthalmia, caused by fluid accumulation behind the eyes.
Addisons disease: Too little cortisol and aldosterone this condition is caused by the failure
of the adrenal cortex to secrete sufficient cortisol (a steroid hormone used in increasing blood
sugar) and aldosterone (a hormone that increases blood volume, therefore, increasing blood
pressure). The disease tends to develop slowly with chronic symptoms of fatigue, weakness,
abdominal pain, weight loss, and characteristic bronzed skin color. It can be successfully
treated by replacing the missing hormones.
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Cushings syndrome: Too much cortisol too much cortisol may result in excessive
production of glucose from glycogen and protein, and retention of too much salt and water. Some

of the extra glucose is converted body fat, but only in certain areas of the body like the face,
abdomen, and the back of the neck.

Some symptoms include muscle weakness and fatigue, edema (swelling due to too much fluid),
and high blood pressure. It can be caused by tumors of the adrenal gland or Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary gland that increases production
and release of corticosteroids and cortisol from the adrenal cortex)-secreting cells of the pituitary.
It can also be due to excessive use of cortisol or cortisol-like drugs (cortisone, prednisone,
dexamethasone, and others) to control chronic inflammatory conditions such as allergies and
arthritis. Most Cushing's syndrome cases are caused by steroid medications, consequently, most
patients are effectively treated by carefully tapering off (and eventually stopping) the medication
that causes the symptoms.

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