DRB & Ar 331

4.
Flexural Members -- Elastic

4.1. Reading Assignment:
Section 3.3 of Text.
4.2. Unreinforced Concrete Beam:
1. Assumptions:
a
Strains vary linearly with distance from N.A.
Stress--strain relationship linear
c. Concrete is capable of some tension.
compression
stresses
0.5f c
fr
(strains)
tension
2. Plain concrete beam. - before cracking

r ( c )
hc
E c r( c ) = f r c
hc
hc
Cc
2c
3
2 (h c)
3
Tc
h--c
E c r = f r
stresses
strains
c
Cc = 1 fr
cb
2 h c
64
T c = 1 f r(h c)b
2
Equilibrium Cc = Tc
c
1f
cb = 1 f r(h c)b
2
2 r h c
simplify
c 2 = (h c) 2
c = (h c)
c = h
2
Therefore, moment when cracking is about to occur:

M cr = (Moment Arm) Force
M cr = 2 hT c = 2 hC c = 1 f rh 2b
3
3
6
3. Plain concrete beam -- After cracking

let cracking extend distance into beam.
r
E c r = f r
Cc
h
2
N.A.
2 (h )
3
h
2
Tc
r
E c r = f r
stresses
strains
h
C c = T c = 1 fr
b
2
2
M = 2 (h )C c = 1 f rb(h ) 2
6
3
When = 0, we get the same result as the one without cracking.
65
forces
4.3. Reinforced Concrete Beam - Uncracked

1. Assumptions:
a. Strains vary linearly with distance from N.A.
b. Linear stress--strain relationship;
c. Strain compatibility between steel and concrete = s = c
2. Reinforced concrete beam. Before cracking
1 = r(
c )
h c
f1
Cc
h d
d--c
h--c
s=
c
r = 1 (h
c )
strains
d c c
Ts
Tc
c
f r = f 1 (h
c )
stresses
forces
Equilibrium:
Summation of forces in tension must be equal to the summation of forces in compression.
Express all forces in terms of a single stress f1:
C c = 1 f 1cb
2
h c
Tc = 1 f1
(h c)b = 1 f 1 bc (h c) 2
c
2
2
66
The tension force in steel, Ts, can be determined as (compensate for area of concrete taken by
steel):
T s = f s As f c A s
T s = f s As
(d c)
Ec A s
c
= Es s As
(d c)
Ec As
c
(d c)
c
= E s 1 (d
Ec As
c
c ) As 1
substitute for 1 and simplify
Ts = Es
f1 d c
f (d c)
( c ) As 1
Ec As
c
Ec
Ec
Ts =
Ec As
c Es As
f 1 (d
c ) Ec Ec
factor out
Ts =
c[
]
f 1 (d
c ) (n 1)A s
substitute for n =
Es
Ec
Equilibrium:
or
Cc = T s + T c
1 f cb = f (d c)A (n 1) + 1 f (h c) 2 b
s
1
c
c
2 1
2 1
Multiply both sides by 2c/f1:
c 2b = 2 (d c)A s(n 1) + (h c) 2b
We would like to obtain the ratio c/d in terms of known section properties. Expand the previous
equation:
c 2b = 2 dA s(n 1) 2c(n 1)A s + h 2b 2hcb + c 2b
Simplify and divide by bd2 we get
67
2
A
A
0 = 2 d s (n 1) 2 c (n 1) s + h 2b 2h c b
d bd
d
bd
d db
d b
(4.1)
define as the reinforcement ratio:

As
bd
then Eq. (4.1) given above can be written as:
=
0 = 2 s(n 1) 2 c (n 1) + (h) 2 2 h c
d
d
dd
simplify and solve for c/d:
Uncracked
c = 2(n 1) + (hd) 2
d
2(n 1) + 2(hd)
(4.2)
Note:
Knowing Eq. (4.2), we can solve for c; solve for f1 = fr c / (h--c)
Knowing c, we can solve for Cc, Ts, and Tc;
Knowing forces, Cc, Ts, and Tc; we can find moment capacity of the section.
M capacity = C c(2 c) + T s(d c) + T c(h c) 2
3
3
For any concrete tension < fr
If Mapplied > Mat Fr Tension stress in concrete will be greater than fr and section will become
cracked Section.
68
4.4. Example 1. Calculate Cracking Moment (Mcr)

Calculate the moment of the section shown below when maximum tensile stress in concrete
is equal to fr (Cracking Moment)
As =0.22 in2
1 = r(
c )
h c
f1 = fr
c
hc
Cc
6 5
5--c
b=4
Ts
c
r = 1 (h
c )
strains
Tc
c
f r = f 1 (h
c )
stresses
forces
Given Material Properties

fc = 3200 psi
fr = 500 psi = 0.5 ksi
E c = 57, 000 3200 = 3, 220, 000 psi = 3, 220 ksi
Solution
0.22(in 2)
As
=
= 0.011
4(in) 5(in)
bd
29, 000 (ksi)

Es
= n =
= 9.01 9
Ec
3, 220 (ksi)
h = 6 = 1.2
d
5
2(n 1) + (h) 2
2 0.011 8 + (1.2) 2
c =
d
=
= 0.627
d
2 0.011 8 + 2 (1.2)
2(n 1) + 2(h)
d
c = 0.627d = 0.627 5(in) = 3.14 inches
69
f1 = fr
c
c
= 0.5
3.14
= 0.549 ksi
6 3.14
Having f1, we can easily calculate all forces:

C c = 1 f 1cb = 1 0.549(ksi) 3.14(in) 4(in) = 3.45 kip
2
2
Ts = f1
c
(n 1)A s
c
= 0.549(ksi)
5(in) 3.14(in)
(9 1) 0.22(in 2) = 0.57 kips
3.14(in)
h c
Tc = 1 f1
(h c)b
c
2
2
[6(in) 3.14(in)]
4(in) = 2.86
= 1 0.549(ksi)
3.14(in)
2
kips
Check equilibrium, does it satisfy Cc = Ts + Tc ?

Cc = 0.57 + 2.86 = 3.43 kips = Cc kips ; the difference is due to rounding
error associated with calculating c
Calculate moment about N.A. ( or any point on the cross section)

Force
Kips
C c = 3.45 kips
Moment Arm
inches
2 c = 2 3.14 = 2.09
3
3
Moment
in--kips
T s = 0.57
d c = 5 3.14 = 1.86
= 1.06
T c = 2.86
2 (h c) = 2 (6 3.14) = 1.91
3
3
= 5.46
= 7.21
Total M = 13.73 in--kips
70
4.5. Example 2. Calculate Moment Capacity of a Cracked Beam

Consider the section from the previous example after cracking has progressed 3 inches into beam.
r(
As =0.22 in2
c )
3 c
fr
c
3c
3--c c
6
Cc
Tc
fr
d--c
3
Ts
4
r ( 5 c )
3 c
strains
stresses
forces
Given:
From previous example problem we have:
fc = 3200 psi
fr = 500 psi = 0.5 ksi
E c = 57, 000 3200 = 3, 220, 000 psi = 3, 220 ksi
Solution
r =
500 (psi)
= 0.000155
3, 220, 000 (psi)
s = r
5 c
5 c
= 0.000155
3 c
3 c
Calculate forces (kips)

2
c
c2
Cc = 1 fr
c 4(in) = 1 0.5(ksi) c
4 =
2 3 c
2
3 c
3 c
T c = 1 f r(3 c) 4(in) = 3 c
2
T s = 0.000155
53
c
5 c
29, 000(ksi) 0.22(in 2) = 0.99
c
3 c
71
Let
5 c
c2
= 3 c + 0.99
3 c
3 c
Solve for c we get:
c = 2.0 inches
Calculate forces;
Cc =
c2
22
=
= 4 kips
32
3 c
T c = 3 c = 3 2 = 1 kips
53
T s = 0.99
c
c
= 2.97 kips
Check equilibrium, does it satisfy Cs = Ts + Tc ?

Cs = 2.97 + 1 = 3.97 kips = Cc = 4.0 kips ; the difference is due to
rounding error associated with calculating c

Force
Kips
C c = 4 kips
Moment Arm
inches
2 c = 2 2 = 1.33
3
3
Moment
in--kips
T s = 2.97
d c=52=3
= 8.91
Tc = 1
2 (3 c) = 2 (3 2) = 0.67
3
3
= 0.67
= 5.32
72
4.6. Example 3. Calculate Moment Capacity of a Beam when Tension Steel Yields (My)
Calculate yield moment (when tension steel is yielding). Assume linear stress-strain relationship for
concrete.
y (
As =0.22 in2
c )
5 c
Ec y
c
5c
c
6
Cc
5
5--c
r = 0.000155
Ts
y = 0.00103
4
strains
stresses
Given:
From previous example problem we have:
fc = 3200 psi
fy = 30,000 psi
fr = 500 psi
E c = 57, 000 3200 = 3, 220, 000 psi = 3, 220 ksi
Solution
Calculate important parameters
500(psi)
r =
= 0.000155
3, 220, 000(psi)
y =
fy
30 ksi
=
= 0.00103
Es
29, 000 ksi
a = 0.000155 (5 c) = 0.151(5 c)
0.00103
Calculate forces (kips)
C c = 0.00103(
c )(3220 ksi) 1 4(c) = 6.66 c 2

5 c
2
5 c
T c = 1 (0.5 ksi)[0.151(5 c)(4 in)] = 0.151(5 c)

2
T s = A s fy = (0.22 in 2) (30 ksi) = 6.6 kips
73
Tc
fr
forces
Let
T
6.66
c2
= 0.151(5 c) + 6.6
5 c
c 2 + 1.246c 5.651 = 0
Solve for c
c =
1.246 1.246 2 + 5.651 4

2
c = 1.83 in
Calculate forces;
C c = 6.66
1.83 2
=
5 1.83
7.08
kips
T c = 0.151(5 1.83) = 0.48
kips
T s = 6.6 kips
Check equilibrium, does it satisfy Cs = Ts + Tc ?
Ts + Tc = 6.6 + 0.48 = 7.08 kips = Cc = 7.08 kips
o.k.

Force
Kips
C c = 7.08 kips
Moment Arm
inches
2 c = 2 1.83 = 1.22
3
3
Moment
in--kips
T s = 6.6
d c = 5 1.83 = 3.17
T c = 0.48
2 a = 2 0.151(5--1.83) = 0.32
3
3
= 8.64
= 20.92
= 0.15
74
4.7. Linear Stress--Strain Relationship for Concrete in Compression

When the tension stress exceeds the modulus of rupture, cracks form. If the concrete compression stresses less than approximately 0.5fc and the steel stress has not reached the yield point,
both steel and concrete behave elastically. This situation generally happens under service loads.
Since the contribution of tension in concrete is negligible in most case, it is assumed that tension
cracks have progressed all the way to the neutral axis and that sections plane before bending are plane
in the bent member. Therefore, we will assume that concrete tension capacity is zero.
c = s(
kd )
d kd
fc
Cc
2 kd
3
kd
h
1 kd
3
d 1 kd
3
d--kd
Ts
s = y
b
Equilibrium:
strains
stresses
C=T
1 f (kd)b = A f
s s
2 c
From geometry we have:
c = s
kd
k
= s
d kd
1 k
for linear stress--strain relationship we have

f c = c Ec
therefore we have
C = T
k ) E kdb = A f
1 f (kd)b = 1 E (kd)b = 1 (
c
c c
s
s s
2
2
2 1 k c
75
forces
divide both sides by bd and note =
As
bd
k
1
E k = fs
2 s1 k c
divide both sides by s E c and note
fs
E
= s = n
s Ec
Ec
then we will have:

1k k
= n
2
1 k
simplify
k 2 = 2(1 k)n
k 2 + 2nk 2n = 0
solve for k
k =
2n 4(n) 2 + 4(2n)
2
simplify
k =
(n)2
+ 2n n
(4.3)
Remember this equation is good only when concrete behaves linearly.

The yield moment capacity of the section can be determined by taking moment about steel
location:
M y = A s fs (d kd)
3
M y = A s fs d(1 k )
3
76
4.8. Method of transformed Sections

a.
Limited to consideration of sections in which concrete stress-- strain is linear.
b.
Applicable to either sections in bending or axial compression.
c.
Knowledge or assumption about the depth of cracking of the section is required.
d.
General examination of the method
(a)
(b)
(c)
n As
Transformed Section
At = Ac + nAs
Transformed section in Beams
Actual Size
(n-- 1)As
Transformed Section
At = Ag + (n-- 1)As
4.9. Method of Transformed Section for Beams:

4.9.1. Uncracked Sections (Cracked Moment, Mcr)
Applicable to beams uncracked section when 0 < M < Mcr (where Mcr is the crack moment)
N.A
(n-- 1) As
As
Transformed Section
At = Ag + (n-- 1)As
Actual Size
4.9.2. Cracked Sections

Applicable to beams cracked section when Mcr < M < My (where My is the yield moment)
N.A
As
n As
Transformed Section
At = Ag + nAs
Actual Size
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78
Transformed Section
4.10. Example of Transformed Section Applied to Beam

1.
Consider the section shown below. Calculate the stress caused by a bending moment of 13.83
ft--kips.
fc = 5 ksi
fy = 60 ksi
fr = 500 psi
12
Section Properties:
As = 3--#6 bars
A s = 3 0.44 (in 2) = 1.32 in 2
E c = 57, 000 5, 000 = 4.03 10 6 psi
n=
15
3--#6
29, 000, 000 psi

= 7.2 use n = 7
4.03 10 6 psi
A
1.32 in 2
= s =
= 0.014
bd
8 (in) 12 (in)
For Uncracked Section (Assume)
Find the location of neutral axis (First Moment of Area = 0).
(8y)
2y = 8(15 y) 15 2 y + (12 y)(7.92)
y = 7.78 in
or find the centroidof the cross section by
using the top edge as the reference point.
8 15 15 + 7.92 12
2
y =
8 15 + 7.92
y
15
12
y = 7.78 in
Area of
2
overhangs; (n 1)A s = 6 1.32 = 7.92 in
This value (7.78 in) should be the same as the one we get using Eq. (4.2) found earlier. (see next page
for proof).
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79
Transformed Section
2
c = 2(n 1) + (hd)
d
2(n 1) + 2(hd)
(4.2)
Substitute
2
c = 2(0.014)(7 1) + (1512) = 0.65
d
2(0.014)(7 1) + 2(1512)
Solve for c
c = 0.65 therefore c = 0.65d = 7.78 in

d
Note:
For a homogenous section, we can relate bending moment to stresses at distance y from the neutral
axis as the following
f = MY
I
where
f
stress
bending moment
distance from neutral axis to the point where stresses are to be calculated
moment of inertia of the cross section
Calculate In.a.
I N.A. = 1 8 7.78 3 + 1 8 (15 7.78) 3 + 7.92 (12 7.78) 2
3
3
I N.A. = 2, 400 in 4
Calculate stresses
Now, find the stress in top fiber (compression stress at top fiber):
f top =
(13.83 ft kips) (12 inft) (7.78 in)

My
=
= 0.54 kin 2
I N.A.
2, 400 in 4
f bot =
(13.83 ft kips) (12 inft) (15 7.78 in)

M(15 y )
=
= 0.50 kin 2
I N.A.
2, 400 in 4
f bot = 0.50 kin 2 f r = 0.5 ksi
Therefore, the assumption of uncracked section was correct, since tension stresses are smaller than
fr given in the problem.
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80
Transformed Section
4.11. Example 2. Calculate Yield Moment for the Beam

Assume concrete accepts no tension. (yield moment is when steel is starting to yield).
Locate N.A.
8
y
(8y)( ) = (12 y)(9.24 in2)
2
y = 4.24 in
15
12
nA s = 7 (1.32) = 9.24 in 2
Calculate In.a.
I N.A. = 1 8 4.24 3 + 9.24 7.76 2
3
I N.A. = 760 in 4
At level of steel, if fy = 60,000 psi, then the stress in the transformed section will be
fy
60, 000
= 8, 570 psi
n =
7
and
fI
(8, 570 psi)(760 in 4)
M = y =
= 839, 000 in lb = 839 in kips
7.76 in
See next page for check with previous methods that we have learned.
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81
Transformed Section
Check
Check the moment found in the previous page with Eq. :
k =
k =
(n)2
+ 2n n
(4.3)
(0.014 7) 2 + 2(0.014)(7) (0.014)(7)
k = 0.355
therefore
kd = 0.355(12) = 4.22 in
this is very close to what we calculated for y = 4.24 in the last page. The slight difference is due to
significant digit calculations.
Therefore
M y = A sf yd(1 k ) = (1.32 in 2)(60 ksi)(12 in)(1 0.355)

3
3
M y = 838 in-kips
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82
Transformed Section
5. Flexural Analysis and Design of Beams
5.1. Reading Assignment

Chapter 3 of text
5.2. Introduction
It is of interest in structural practice to calculate those stresses and deformations which occur
in a structure in service under design load. For reinforced concrete beams this can be done by the
methods just presented, which assume elastic behavior of both materials. It is equally, if not more,
important that the structural engineer be able to predict with satisfactory accuracy the ultimate
strength of a structural member. By making this strength larger by an appropriate amount than the
largest loads which can be expected during the lifetime of the structure, an adequate margin of safety
is assured. Until recent times, methods based on elastic analysis like those just presented have been
used for this purpose. It is clear, however, that at or near the ultimate load, stresses are no longer
proportional to strains.
At high loads, close to ultimate, the distribution of stresses and strains is that of figure 2 rather
that the elastic distribution of stresses and strains given in figure 1 below. More realistic methods of
analysis, based on actual inelastic rather than an assumed elastic behavior of the materials and results
many experimental research, have been developed to predict the ultimate strength.
fc
fs
fs
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fc
84
Flexure
As progressively increasing bending moments are applied to the beam, the strains will increase as
exemplified by 1, 2, and 3 as shown below. Corresponding to these strains and their linear variation from the neutral axis, the stress distribution will look as shown.
Stress
f3
f2
f1
f3
3
2
f2
f1
Strain
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Stress
85
Flexure
Stress
f3
f2
f1
f3
3
2
f3
f2
f1
Strain
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Stress
86
Flexure
5.1
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87
Flexure
Figure 5.1. Cracks, Strains, and Stresses in test beam (From Nawys Book).
5.3. Flexure Strength

As it was mentioned earlier it is important that the structural engineer be able to predict with
satisfactory accuracy the ultimate strength of a structural member. It is important to know that at or
near the ultimate load, stresses are no longer proportional to strains.
Actual inspection of many concrete stress-strain curves which have been published, show
that the geometrical shape of the stress distribution is quite varied and depends on a number of factors
such as cylinder strength, the rate, and duration of loading.
Below is a typical stress distribution at the ultimate load.
fc
c
c
C c = f cbc
s
fs
Strains
Stresses
Forces
Figure 5.2. Strain, Stress, and Force Diagrams
5.4. Two Different Types of Failure

There are two possible ways that a reinforced beam can fail:
Beam will fail by tension of steel

Moderate amount of reinforcement is used. Steel yields suddenly and stretches a large
amount, tension cracks become visible and widen and propagate upward (Ductile Failure)
Compression failure of concrete

Large amount of reinforcement is used. Concrete fails by crushing when strains become
so large (0.003 to 0.004). Failure is sudden, an almost explosive nature and occur with
no warning ( Brittle Failure).
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88
Flexure
In a rectangular beam the area that is in compression is bc, and the total compression force on this
area can be expressed as C = favbc, where fav is the average compression stress on the area bc. Evidently, the average compression stress that can be developed before failure occurs becomes larger
the higher the cylinder strength fc of the particular concrete. Let
=
then
f av
f c
(5.7)
(5.8)
C c = f avbc = f cbc
compression force is applied at c distance from top fiber, and c is the distance of the N.A.
from top fiber.
Based on research we have:
= 0.72
= 0.425
f c 4, 000
0.04
1000
and
f c 4, 000
0.025
1000
and
0.56 < < 0.72

0.324 < < 0.425
FORCES
From equilibrium we have Cc = T or
(5.9)
f cbc = A sf s
M = TZ = A s f s (d c)
(5.10)
M = C cZ = f cbc (d c)
(5.11)
or
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89
Flexure
5.5. Tension Failure

fs = fy
(5.12)
steel yielding
From Eq. (5.9) we have

c =
As fy
fy d
A f yd
d = s
=
bd f c
bf c d
f c
(5.13)
Substitute c from Eq. (5.13) in Eq. (5.10)
fy
Mn = As fy d d
f c
(5.14)
with the specific, experimentally obtained values for and we always have
= 0.59 for
f c = 4, 000 psi or any other strength
(5.15)
Therefore, Eq. (5.14) simplifies as
M n = A s f y d 0.59
fy
d
f c
(5.16)
or
M n = bd 2 f y 1 0.59
fy
f c
(5.17)
where Mn = nominal moment capacity.
5.6. Compression Failure

In this case, the criterion is that the compression strain in the concrete becomes u = 0.003, as
previously discussed. The steel stress fs , not having reached the yield point, is proportional to the
steel strain, s; i.e. according to Hookes law:
u = 0.003
fs = Es s
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(ACI 10.2.3),
and
fs < fy
Hooks law, since fs < fy
90
(5.18)
(5.19)
Flexure
from similar triangles we have

s
u
c = d c
c
s = u d
c
(5.20)
substitute Eq. (5.20) in Eq. (5.19)

c < f
fs = Es s = Es u d
y
c
(5.21)
From Eq. (5.9) we have

c
f cbc = A sf s = A s E s u d
c
(5.22)
Using Eq. (5.22) solve for c, and then find Mn, the nominal moment capacity.
5.7. Balance Steel Ratio

We like to have tension failure, because it gives us warning, versus compression failure
which is sudden. Therefore, we want to keep the amount of steel reinforcement in such manner that
the failure will be of tension type.
Balanced steel ratio, b represents the amount of reinforcement necessary to make a beam
fail by crushing of concrete at the same load that causes the steel to yield. This means that neutral axis
must be located at the load which the steel starts yielding and concrete starts reaching its compressive
strain of u = 0.003. (ACI 10.2.3)
cb =
u
d
y + u
T = C
(5.23)
A bs f y = f c bc b
A bs f y = b bd f y = f c b
u
d
u + y
b =
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f c
u
fy u + y
91
(5.24)
(5.25)
(5.26)
Flexure
5.8. Strain Limits Method for Analysis and Design (ACI 318).
In Strain Limits Method, sometime referred to as the Unified Method, the nominal flexural strength of a concrete member is reached when the net compressive strain in the extreme compression fiber reaches the ACI code-assumed limit of 0.003 in/in (ACI 10.2.3). It also hypothesized
that when the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel, t = 0.005 in/in, the behavior is fully ductile. The concrete beam sections characterized as Tension-Controlled, with ample warning of failure as denoted by excessive deflection and cracking.
If the net tensile strain in the extreme tension fibers, t , is small, such as in compression members, being equal or less than a Compression-Controlled strain limit, a brittle mode of failure is
expected with a sudden and explosive type of failure. Flexural members are usually tension-controlled. However, some sections such as those subjected to small axial loads, but large bending moments, the net tensile strain, t , in the extreme tensile fibers, will have an intermediate or transitional
value between the two strain limit states, namely, between the compression-controlled strain limit of
t =
fy
= 60 ksi = 0.002
Es
29, 000 ksi
(5.27)
and the tension-controlled strain limit t = 0.005 in/in. Figure 5.3 (ACI Figure R9.3.2 page 118)
shows these three zones as well as the variation in the strength reduction factors applicable to the
total range of behavior.
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92
Flexure
5.8.1. Variation of as a Function of Strain

Variation of the value for the range of strain between t = 0.002 in/in and t = 0.005 in/in can
be linearly interpolated:
0.65 = 0.65 + ( t 0.002)(2503)) 0.90
Tied Column
0.75 ( = 0.75 + ( t 0.002)(50)) 0.90
(5.28)
Spiral Columnm
5.8.2. Variation of as a Function of Neutral Axis Depth Ratio c/d

0.65
0.75
0.90
0.75
0.65
= 0.65 + 0.25
= 0.75 + 0.15
cd1 53 0.9
t
cd1 53 0.9
t
Tied Column
(5.29)
Spiral Columnm
= 0.75 + ( t 0.002)(50)
SPIRAL
= 0.65 + ( t 0.002)(2503)
OTHER
Compression
Transition
Controlled
Tension
Controlled
t = 0.002
t = 0.005
c = 0.600
dt
c = 0.375
dt
Figure 5.3. Example. Calculate Nominal Moment Capacity of a Beam for Fy = 60 ksi
CIVL 4135
93
Flexure
5.9. Example. Calculate Nominal Moment Capacity of a Beam
Determine the nominal moment Mn at which the beam given below will fail.
Given
f c = 4, 000 psi
25
f y = 60, 000 psi
23
As=2.35 in2
10
Solution
As
2.35
=
= 0.0102
10 23
bd
fy d
c =
f c
=
c = 0.0102 60 23 = 4.89 in
4
0.72
c = 4.89 = 0.213 < c = 0.375
23
dt
d
M n = f y bd 2 1 0.59
fy
f c
Tension failure
M n = (0.0102) (60 ksi) (10 in) (23 in) 2 1 0.59 (0.0102) 60

4
= 2, 950, 000 lb in = 246 k ft
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94
Flexure
5.10. Prediction of Nominal Strength in Flexure by Equivalent Rectangular Stress

Block
Represents an extension of the empirical method.
Simpler than empirical method - No secondary calculation necessary to locate centroid

(always at stress block center).
Allows for considerations and analyses of non-rectangular sections.
Must be developed such that it gives the same answer as empirical method - requires
same total compression force and same centroid location.
Development of the method:
fs
Strains
c
compression side
Stresses
c
c
C c = f ccb
0.85f c
a/2
a = 1c
Cc
d h
d--a/2
As
Ts = As fy
tension side
Empirical Approach
Ts
Equivalent Rectangular
Block. (Whitney Block)
Figure 5.4. Equivalent Rectangular Block (From Nawys Book).

Require the forces to have the same location:
a = 1c
CIVL 4135
(ACI 10.2.7)
95
Flexure
C c = f ccb = f cab
from which = ac
=
1
1 = 2
= 0.85
and
ACI 10.2.7
ACI 10.2.7.3
1 = 0.85 0.05
C c = 0.85f cab
f c 4000
1000
and 0.65 1 0.85
ACI 10.2.7.3
remember = 0.85 and a = 1c
For balanced steel ratio we have

u
0.85f c
T = C
cb
b f y bd = 0.85 f c a bb = 0.85 f c 1 bc b
b
f
u
= 0.85 1 c
fy u + y
d-c b
Ts
y
substituting u = 0.003 and Es = 29,000 ksi

b = 0.85 1
f c
87, 000
f y 87, 000 + f y
(5.30)
ACI 10.3.5. Maximum Net Tensile Strain

For nonprestressed flexural members and prestressed members with axial load less than
0.10f cA g the net tensile strain t at nominal strength shall not be less than 0.004.
max = 0.85 1
CIVL 4135
f c
u
f y u + 0.004
96
Flexure
f y = 60ksi
u
0.85f c
Balanced Condition
cb
Tension Failure
Compression Failure
d
d-c b
Ts
Max Net Tensile Strain
y
u
0.85f c
87, 000
cb =
dt
87, 000 + f y
cb
d
f y = 60, 000
d-c b
Ts
psi
87
cb =
= 0.60
dt
87 + 60
y
u
0.85f c
c = 0.375d
cb
c > c b = 0.6d
d
Ts
t = 0.002
t = 0.005
y
u
0.85f c
cb
Max net Tensile Strain
f y = 60, 000
d-c
Ts
psi
0.003
c =
= 0.429
dt
0.003 + 0.004
t = 0.004
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97
Flexure
f y = 40ksi
u
0.85f c
cb
Balanced Condition
Tension Failure
d-c b
Ts
Compression Failure
y
u
0.85f c
87, 000
cb =
dt
87, 000 + f y
cb
d
f y = 40
d-c b
Ts
ksi
87
cb =
= 0.685
dt
87 + 40
y
u
0.85f c
c = 0.428d
cb
c > c b = 0.685d
d
Ts
t = 0.0014
t = 0.004
y
c = 0.625 0.685 = 0.428
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98
Flexure
5.10.1. Example
Consider the same example problem given in Section 5.9.
As
2.35
=
= 0.0102
10 23
bd
0.85f c ab = A s f y
a =
(2.35 in 2) (60, 000 psi)

= 4.15 in
0.85 (4, 000 psi) (10 in)
c = a 1 = 4.150.85 = 4.88
c = 4.88 = 0.212 < 0.375
23
d
Tension failure
Therefore the nominal moment capabit will be:

M n = A s f y (d a) = (2.35 in 2)) (60, 000 psi) (23 2.07) = 246, 000 lb--ft=246 kip--ft
2
= 2, 950, 000 lb in = 246 k ft

= 0.9
M u = M n = 0.9 246 = 221.4 kip ft
CIVL 4135
99
Flexure
5.10.2. Example. Calculate Nominal Moment Capacity of a Beam
Determine if the beam shown below will fail in tension or compression.

Given
f c = 4, 000 psi
21
f y = 60, 000 psi
18
As=6.00 in2
10
Solution
a =
As fy
0.85f c b
a =
6 60 ksi
= 10.59 in
0.85 4 ksi 10
c = a = 10.59 = 12.46
0.85
1
c = 12.46 = 0.69 > 0.6
18
d
Compression failure
Hence, As does not yield and the strain is smaller than 0.02 in/in. Brittle failure results.
This beam does not satisfy ACI Code requirement.
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100
Flexure
5.10.3. Example. Calculate Nominal Moment Capacity of a Beam
Determine if the beam shown below will fail in tension or compression.

Given
f c = 4, 000 psi
21
f y = 40, 000 psi
18
As=6.00 in2
10
Solution
a =
As fy
0.85f c b
a =
6 40 ksi
= 7.06 in
0.85 4 ksi 10
c = a = 7.06 = 8.31 in
0.85
1
c = 8.31 = 0.46 > 0.428 < 0.685
18
d
Transition Zone
Hence, the beam is in the transition zone, tension steel yeilds. A reduced
value of should be used.
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101
Flexure
5.11. Under-reinforced Beams (Read Sect. 3.4b of your text)

We want the reinforced concrete beams to fail in tension because is not a sudden failure.
Therefore, following Figure 5.3, you have to make sure that you stay in the tension-controlled side of
the curve. In actual practice the upper limit on c/d should be somewhat below 0.375 for the following
reasons:
1. material properties are never precisely known;
2. strain-hardening of the reinforcing steel, not accounted for in design may lead to a brittle
concrete compression failure;
3. the actual steel area provided, considering standard rebar sizes, will always be equal or
larger than required tending toward over-reinforcement.
Therefore, for all members designed according to ACI 318 Code, fs = fy at failure, and the nominal
strength is given by:
a =
As fy
0.85f c b
M n = f y b d 2 1 0.59
M n = A s f y (d a)
2
fy
f c
(5.31)
by imposing a strength reduction factor = 0.9 for bending, we get
M u = M n = A s f y d a
2
(5.32)
or
M u = M n = f y b d 2 1 0.59
fy
f c
(5.33)
Let us define the strength coefficient of resistance, R, as
R = f y 1 0.59
CIVL 4135
fy
f c
(5.34)
103
Flexure
(5.35)
M u = M n = b d 2 R
The relationship between and R for various values of fc and fy is shown in the Figure 5.1.
To use the Figure 5.3, we have to rewrite the Equation (5.31) in terms of c/d
a =
As fy
fy
As fy
A
=
d=
sd
d
bd
0.85f c b
0.85f c b
0.85f c
a = 1c =
fy
d
0.85f c
(5.36)
(5.37)
c = fy
d
f c 0.85 1
(5.38)
We can find to be
f
= 0.85 1 c c
fy
d
(5.39)
5.12. Minimum Steel Area

Another mode of failure is when there is not enough reinforcement in a beam. If flexural
strength of the cracked section is less than the moment produced cracking of the previously uncracked section, the beam will fail immediately upon formation of the first cracking. Aci code imposes a minimum tensile steel area of
ACI Eq. (10 3) gives
CIVL 4135
A min =
104
3 f c
b wd 200 b wd
fy
fy
(5.40)
Flexure
5.13. Design of Rectangular Sections in Bending with Tension Reinforcement Only (Singly
Reinforced Beams).
When we design rectangular sections in bending with tension reinforcement only, we need to
determine b, d, and As from the required value of Mn = Mu /, and the given material properties of fc
and fy. There are two approaches in determining b, d, and As . Equation (5.31) provides the condition
of equilibrium. Since there are three unknowns, but only one equation, there are several possible
solutions.
Case 1. Select the optimum steel ratio, , determine concrete dimensions.
Case 2. Select concrete dimensions, b and d, then determine the required reinforcement.
5.13.1. Case 1. Select the optimum steel ratio, , determine concrete dimensions.
1.
Set the required strength Mu , equal to the design strength Mn from equation (5.31) or (5.35)
(5.41)
M u = M n = b d 2 R
2.
Using a c/d usually 0.3, we can determine the value of R from Equation (5.34):
Find from Equation (5.39)
f
= 0.85 1 c c
fy
d
R = f y 1 0.59
3.
fy
f c
(5.43)
Knowing R we can determine the required bd 2

bd 2 =
4.
(5.42)
Mu
M
= n
R
R
(5.44)
Compute As from
(5.45)
A s = bd
5.
Select reinforcement and check strength of the section to make sure that
(5.46)
M n M u
CIVL 4135
105
Flexure
5.13.2. Case 2. Select concrete dimensions, b and d, then determine the required reinforcement.
This is similar to case 1 except steps taken will be a little different.
1.
Set the required strength Mu , equal to the design strength Mn from equation (5.31) or (5.35)
(5.47)
M u = M n = b d 2 R
2.
Knowing b and d, we can determine the strength coefficient of resistance, R

R =
3.
Mu
M
= n2
bd 2
bd
(5.48)
Knowing R we can determine the reinforcement ratio, , from Figure 5.5 or equation (5.43)
as
=
4.
1 1 2.36Rf c
1.18f yf c
(5.49)
Compute As from
(5.50)
A s = bd
5.
Select refinement and check strength of the section to make sure that
(5.51)
M n M u
CIVL 4135
106
Flexure
psi
Figure 5.5. Strength Curves for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections.
CIVL 4135
107
Flexure
5.14. Concrete Protection for Reinforcement

Section 7.7.1 of Code
5.15. Concrete Proportions
To assist the designer further in making choices for beam sizes, bar sizes, and bar placement,
the following guideline are suggested. These may be regard as role of thumb, and are not ACI Code
requirements. Undoubtedly, situations will arise in which the experienced design will, for good and
proper reasons, make a selection not conforming to the guidelines.
1.
Use whole inches for overall dimensions; except slabs may be in 1/2 in increments.
2.
Beam stem widths are most often in multiples of 2 or 3 in., such as 9, 10, 12,14, 15, 16, and
18.
3.
Minimum specified clear cover is measured from outside the stirrup or tie to the face of the
concrete. (Thus beam effective depth d has rarely, if ever, a dimension to the whole inch.)
4.
An economical rectangular beam proportion is one in which the overall depth-to-width ratio
is between about 1.5 to 2.0 unless architectural requirements or construction cost dictates
otherwise.
5.
For T-shaped beams, typically the flange thickness represents about 20% of overall depth
(we will talk about treatment of T-shaped sections in later sections).
5.16. Reinforcing Bar Selection

1.
Maintain bar symmetry about the centroidal axis which lies at right angles to the bending axis
(i.e., symmetry about the vertical axis in usual situations).
2.
Use at least two bars wherever flexural reinforcement is required. Bars #3 to #11 are more
common and larger bars of #14 and #18 are mainly used in columns.
3.
Use bars # 11 and smaller for usual sized beams.
4.
Use no more than two bar sizes and no more than two standard sizes apart for steel in one
face at a given location in the span (i.e., #7 and #9 bars may be acceptable, but #9 and #4 bars
would not).
5.
Place bars in one layer if practicable. Try to select bar size so that no less than two and no
more than five or six bars are put in one layer.
6.
Follow requirements of ACI-7.6.l and 7.6.2 for clear distance between bars and between layers, and arrangement between layers.
7.
When different sizes of bars are used in several layers at a location, place the largest bars in
the layer nearest the face of beam.
CIVL 4135
108
Flexure
5.17. Bar Spacing

ACI 7.6
Note:
Table 5 through 7, given at the beginning of your notes, gives the maximum number of bars
that can be placed in a single layer in beams. Assuming 1.5 in concrete cover and #4 stirrups.
Bars are supported from the bottom of forms, and layers of bars are separated by various
types of bar supports, known as bolsters and chairs, some of which are shown in Figure above.
Bars supports may be made o concrete, metal, or other approved materials - they are usually factorymade wire bar supports. They remain in place after the concrete is cast and must have special rust
protection on the portions nearest the face of the concrete.
CIVL 4135
109
Flexure
5.18. EXAMPLE. Concrete Dimensions and steel area to resist a given moment.
Select an economical rectangular beam size and select bars using the ACI strength method. The
beam is a simply supported span of 40 ft and it is to carry a live load of 1.4 kips/ft and a dead load of
1.4 kip/ft (including beam weight). Without actually checking deflection, use a reinforcement ratio
such that excessive deflection is unlikely. Use fc = 4000 psi, and fy = 60,000 psi.
Solution:
(a) Decide on a c/d ratio to use. To have reasonable expectation that deflection will not be excessive,
choose c/d = 0.3. Use
(b) Determine the desired R (corresponding to the desired using Equation (5.43):
f
= 0.85 1 c c = 0.85(0.85)(0.3) 4 = 0.01445
fy
d
60
R = f y 1 0.59
fy
f c
R = (0.01445)(60 ksi) 1 0.59(0.01445) 60 = 0.756

4
(c) Determine factored moments.
M u = 1.2M D + 1.6M L
M L = 1 (1.4)(40) 2 = 280
8
MD =
(1.4)(40) 2
= 280
8
ft.kips
ft.kips
M u = 1.2(280) + 1.6(280) = 784
ft.kips
required
Mn =
mu
= 784 = 871
0.90
ft.kips
(d) Determine required bd2 from desired R.

bd 2 =
Mn
= 871 12 = 13, 825 in 3
R
0.756
110
ksi
(e) Establish beam size. Select width b and determine the corresponding required value for effective
depth d. Make a table of possibilities
b
(in)
Required d
(in)
12
34.0
15
30.4
18
27.7
20
26.3
Selecting the 18-in. width will give a beam whose overall depth is between 1 1/2 and 2 times
its width (suggested guideline).
A s = bd = 0.01445 18 27.7 = 7.20
in 2
Use 12-#7 with a total As = 7.20 in2. Put them in two layers. We can compute the overall
depth of the member, h, as
h = d + 1 1 in cover + 4 diameter stirrup + bar diameter +
8
2
spacing
2
h = 27.7 + 1.5 + 48 + 0.875 + 1.0 = 31.09

2
As a guideline explained earlier, the overall depth would be in whole inches; so try h = 32 in.
Since = 0.01445 is not a rigorous requirement, the overall depth selected could be somewhat less or
somewhat more than the computed requirement in order to obtain a desired dimension. The stirrup is
reinforcement to provide shear strength for the beam and should always be allowed for at this stage
of the design.
Check whether 6-#12 will fit into an 18-in width in one layer. We determine the approximate
clear spacing between bars by subtracting from the overall width the combined values of the minimum clear cover on both sides (3.0 inches), one stirrup diameter on both sides (0.75), and 6-#7 bar
diameters (6x0.875). The result is divided by the number of spaces between bars, and this is the
approximate clearance that must exceed the diameter of the larger bar (ACI 7.6.1)
clear spacing =
182(1.5)2(48)6(0.875)
= 1.75 in > d b = 0.875 or 1 in
5
111
ok
Note that the above clearance computation is approximate because it assumes the #4 stirrup may be
bent tightly around the corner longitudinal bar. ACI-7.2.2 requires the inside diameter of bends for
stirrups to be not less than four stirrup bar diameters for #5 Stirrups and smaller; thus for #4 stirrups
the actual curve of the stirrup at the corner has a radius of 3/4 in., which is larger than the longitudinal
bar radius for #7 bars and smaller (see Table 5 thru 8 of your notes).
(g) Check strength and provide design sketch. Using computed d
d = 321.548(0.875)0.5 = 28.63
a =
in
As fy
(7.2)(60)
=
= 7.06
0.85(4)(18)
0.85f c b
c = 8.3 = 0.29
d
28.63
< 0.375
M n = f ybd 2 1 0.59
c = a = 7.06 = 8.30
0.86
1
Tension controlled
fy
f c
M n = A sf y d a
2
M n = (7.2 in 2)(60 ksi) 28.63 7.06 = 10, 841 inkips

2
M u = M n = 0.9 10, 841 = 9757 in.kips = 813 ftkips
28.6
32
12-#7
18
112
Spread sheet -- design--singly reinforced.xls in ce4135 file in PC
113
5.19. EXAMPLE. Determination of steel area

Find the steel area required for beam which has b = 10 in. and d = 17.5 in. to carry a factored load
moment of 1,600 in-kips. Material strengths are fc = 4000 psi, and fy = 60,000 psi.
Solution:
The necessary flexural resistance factor is
R =
Mu
M
= n2
2
bd
bd
R =
(1, 600in kips)(1000lbkip))

Mu
=
= 580
bd 2
(0.9)(10)(17.5) 2
1 2.36R
f
c
1.18f yf c
1
psi
2.36(0.580 ksi)
4 ksi
1.18(60)4
= 0.0107
A s = bd = 0.0107 10 17.5 = 1.87
in 2
Use 2 - #9 bars with a total As = 2.0 in2. In addition, you need to check for make sure that the minimum and the maximum allowable steel areas according to ACI code are satisfied and check the
strength of the final design. Also need to check bar spacings, etc.
114
Chapter 8.
Flexural Analysis of T-Beams
8.1. Reading Assignments
Text Chapter 3.7; ACI 318, Section 8.10.
8.2. Occurrence and Configuration of T-Beams
Common construction type.- used in conjunction with either on-way or two-way slabs.
Sections consists of the flange and web or stem; the slab forms the beam flange, while
the part of the beam projecting below the slab forms is what is called web or stem.
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
(a) one-way slab
(b) two-way slab
8.3. Concepts of the effective width, Code allowable values

In reality the maximum compression stress in T-section varies with distance from section
Web.
Real max, Longitudinal

compression sress
CIVL 4135
156
Simplified equivalent
width, stress
T--Beam
CIVL 4135
157
T--Beam
Code allows the following maximum effective widths:

8.3.1. Symmetrical Beam
ACI318, Section 8.10.2.
b
hf
1) b
span
4
2)
b bw
8h f
2
3)
b bw 1
clear distance between beams
2
2
bw
8.3.2. Flange on one side only (Spandrel Beam)
b
hf
1) b b w
span
12
2) b b w 6h f
3) b b w 1 clear distance to next web
2
bw
8.3.3. Isolated T-Beam
b
hf
1) b 4b w
2)
bw
hf
2
bw
CIVL 4135
158
T--Beam
8.4. Analysis of T-Beams - ( a > hf)

Consider the total section in two parts:
1)
Flange overhangs and corresponding steel;
2)
Stem and corresponding steel;
0.85f c
b
hf
Cc
Ts =As fy
Asf
bw
Case I
As - Asf
Case II
For equilibrium we have:

8.4.1. Case I:
(8.1)
A sf f y = 0.85f ch f (b b w)
or
A sf =
0.85f c h f (b b w)
fy
(8.2)
8.4.2. Case II:

(8.3)
(A s A sf) f y = 0.85f c b wa
Solve for a:
a =
(A s A sf) f y
0.85f c b w
(8.4)
and nominal moment capacity will be:

M n = A sf f y(d
CIVL 4135
hf
) + (A s A sf) f y (d a)
2
2
159
(8.5)
T--Beam
8.5. Balanced Condition for T-Beams

See Commentary page 48 of ACI 318-83 (old code).
hf
ab
cb
h
0.85f c
u = 0.003
Cc
d
d-c
A bs
Ts=Asbfy
bw
From geometry:
cb =
CIVL 4135
u
87, 000
d =
d
+ y
87, 000 + f y
160
(8.6)
T--Beam
8.6. Example.- Analysis of T-Beams in Bending:

40
hf =4
u = 0.003
0.85f c
Cc
c
20.5
As = 6.88 in2
d-c
Ts=Asfy
10
Find the nominal moment capacity of the beam given above:
f c = 2, 400 psi
f y = 50, 000 psi
Solution:
Check to see if a T-beam analysis is required:
Assume a < hf
a =
As fy
6.88 50
=
= 4.22 in
0.85 2.4 40
0.85f c b
Since 4.22 in > 4.00 in, a T-beam analysis is required.

First find the reinforcement area to balance flanges (Asf = ?)
A sf = 0.85
f c
(b b w)h f = 0.85 2.4 (40 10) 4 = 4.90 in 2
fy
50
A s A sf = 6.88 4.90 = 1.98 in 2

Solve for a
0.85f cb wa = (A s A sf)f y
a =
CIVL 4135
(A s A sf)f y
1.98 50
=
= 4.86 in > 4in o.k.
0.85 2.4 10
0.85f cb w
Assumption is o.k.
161
T--Beam
c = a = 4.86 = 5.72
0.85
1
c = 5.72 = .279 < 0.375
d
20.5
Tension-controlled
Find the nominal moment capacity of the beam:

hf
M n = A sf f y (d
) + f y(A s A sf) (d a )
2
2
M n = 4.9(in 2) 50(ksi) (20.5 4) + 50(ksi) 1.98(in 2) (20.5 4.86)
2
2
M n = 4530 + 1790 = 6, 320 in k
Note:
This could have been done by statics with

T s = A sf y
C c = (b b w)(h f) 0.85f c + ab w(0.85)f c
CIVL 4135
162
T--Beam
8.7. Example.- Design of T-Beams in Bending- Determination of Steel Area for a given
Moment:
A floor system consists of a 3 in. concrete slab supported by continuous T beams of 24 ft
span, 47 in. on centers. Web dimensions, as determined by negative-moment requirements at the
supports, are bw = 11 in. and d = 20 in. What tensile steel area is required at midspan to resist a moment of 6,400 in-kips if fy = 60,000 psi and fc = 3,000 psi.
b
hf
+
Asf
bw
Case I
As - Asf
Case II
Solution
First determining the effective flange width from Section (8.3.1.) or ACI 8.10.2
span 24 12
=
= 72 in
4
4
2) b 16h f + b w = (16 3) + 11 = 59 in
1) b
3) b clear spacing between beams + b w = center to center spacing between beams = 47 in

The centerline T beam spacing controls in this case, and b = 47 inches.
Assumption: Assuming that stress-block depth equals to the flange thickness of 3 inches (beam behaves like a rectangular shape).
As =
CIVL 4135
Mu
6400
=
= 6.40 in 2
f y(d a2) 0.9 60 (20 32)
163
(8.7)
T--Beam
Solve for a:
a =
A sf y
= 6.40 60 = 3.2 in > h f = 3.0 Assumption incorrect
0.85f cb 0.85 3 47
Therefore, the beam will act as a T-beam and must be designed as a T-beam. From Case I given above
and Section (8.4.1.) we have
A sf =
0.85f c h f (b b w)
0.85 (3ksi) (3in) (47 11)
=
= 4.58 in 2
60(ksi)
fy
hf
M n1 = A sff y d ) = 0.9 4.58 (60ksi) (20 32) = 4570 in--kips
2
M n2 = M u M n1 = 6400 4570 = 1830 in--kips
(8.8)
(8.9)
(8.10)
Find a value by iteration. Assume initial a = 3.5 inches

A s A sf =
M n2
1830
=
= 1.86 in 2
f y(d a2) 0.9 60 (20 3.52)
(8.11)
Find an improve a value

a =
(A s A sf) f y
= 1.86 60 = 3.97 in
0.85 3 11
0.85f c b w
(8.12)
Iterate with the new a = 3.97 in.

A s A sf =
M n2
1830
=
= 1.88 in 2
f y(d a2) 0.9 60 (20 3.972)
(8.13)
Find an improve a value

a =
(A s A sf) f y
= 1.88 60 = 4.02 in
0.85 3 11
0.85f c b w
A s A sf =
CIVL 4135
M n2
1830
=
= 1.88 in 2
f y(d a2) 0.9 60 (20 4.022)
164
(8.14)
(8.15)
T--Beam
Since there is no change between equations (8.13) and (8.15) we have arrived at the answer. Therefore,
A s = A sf + (A s A sf) = 4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in 2
(8.16)
Check with ACI requirements for maximum amount of steel (Tension-Controlled)

c = a = 4.02 = 4.73
0.85
1
(8.17)
c = 4.73 = .237 < 0.375

20
d
Tension-controlled
Therefore, the T-beam satisfies the ACI provisions for tension failure. Next steps will be to select the
reinforcement and check all the spacing requirements and detail the beam.
CIVL 4135
165
T--Beam
page 151
Chapter 7.
Flexural Analysis of Non-Rectangular Beams
7.1. Balanced Steel for Beams with Non--Rectangular Sections
In this section we establish a general procedure for the computation of the balanced steel area
Asb for a cross section of any shape that is symmetrical with respect to a vertical axis or that is constrained so that under load it deflects vertically without twisting. The resultant Cc is not located at a/2
because the stress block is not a rectangle, passes through the centroid of the stress block area Ac. The
step--by--step procedure for computing Asb is detailed below.
CIVL 4135
Flexure
page 152
7.2. Example. Analysis of Non--Rectangular Sections

Find the balanced area, Asb for the following section:
0.85f c
u = 0.003
8
33
a = 1 c
cb
Cc
30
N.A.
d--c b
As
Ts =A bs Fy
y
16
Given
f c = 5, 000 psi
f y = 60, 000 psi
Solution
Select c/d to be right at the borderline of Transition and Tension Controlled:
c = 0.375 0.375 30 = 11.25 inches
d
a = 1c = 0.80 11.28 = 9 inches

C c = 0.85f c (shahed area)
= 0.85 (5 ksi) 16 13 1 + (9 8) 16
2
Area of dashed
triangle
= 340 kips
Area of dashed
rectangle
From Equilibrium:
CIVL 4135
A bs f y = C c A sb =
340 kips
cc
=
= 5.67 in 2
fy
60 kipsin 2
Flexure
page 153
7.3. Example. Nominal Moment Capacity of Non--Rectangular Sections

Calculate nominal moment capacity of the beam given below.
a = 1c
33
Given
30
f c = 5, 000 psi
f y = 60, 000 psi
As
As = 4.0 in2
16
Tension Failure
Solution
Assume a such that a<13
A = 1 a(2)
2
From geometry : = a 8
13
A = a 2(8)
8
Uniform compression over the area: 0.85fc = 4.25 ksi

For equilibrium we have:
A sf y = C c
240 kips = a 2 4.25
Solving for a we get:

a=7.5 in < 8 in; Therefore our assumption is correct
Determine the moment capacity of the cross section:
M n = A s f y(30 2 (7.5)) = 6, 000 in kips
3
Notice that a factor of 2/3 is used to locate the neutral axis

of a triangular cross--section. (refer to your statics book
to refresh yourselves).
CIVL 4135
Flexure
CHAPTER
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
Fifth Edition
Reinforced Concrete Design
A Fundamental Approach
Fifth Edition
FLEXURE IN BEAMS
A. J. Clark School of Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
5d
SPRING 2004
By
Dr . Ibrahim. Assakkaf
ENCE 454 Design of Concrete Structures

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
CHAPTER 5d. FLEXURE IN BEAMS
Doubly Reinforced Sections
Slide No. 1
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Introduction
If a beam cross section is limited because of
architectural or other considerations, it may
happen that concrete cannot develop the
compression force required to resist the given
bending moment.
In this case, reinforcing steel bars are added
in the compression zone, resulting in a socalled doubly reinforced beam, that is one
with compression as well as tension
reinforcement (Figure 21)
Slide No. 2

d
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
As
(d d ) d
As
Figure 22. Doubly Reinforced Beam Sections
Slide No. 3
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Introduction (contd)
The use of compression reinforcement has
decreased markedly with the use of strength
design methods, which account for the full
strength potential of the concrete on the
compressive side of the neutral axis.
However, there are situations in which
compressive reinforcement is used for
reasons other than strength.
Slide No. 4
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
It has been found that the inclusion of some
compression steel has the following
advantages:
It will reduce the long-term deflections of members.
It will set a minimum limit on bending loading
It act as stirrup-support bars continuous through
out the beam span
Slide No. 5
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Another reason for placing reinforcement in
the compression zone is that when beams
span more than two supports (continuous
construction), both positive and negative
moments will exist as shown in Figure 23.
In Figure 23, positive moments exist at A and
C; therefore, the main tensile reinforcement
would be placed in the bottom of the beam.
At B, however, a negative moment exists and
the bottom of the beam is in compression.
The tensile reinforcement, therefore, must be
placed near the top of the beam.
Slide No. 6
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
w
A
Moment
Diagram
Figure 23. Continuous Beam
Slide No. 7
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Condition I: Tension and Compression

Steel Both at Yield Stress
The basic assumption for the analysis of
doubly reinforced beams are similar to
those for tensile reinforced beams.
The steel will behave elastically up to the
point where the strain exceeds the yield
strain y. As a limit f s= fy when the
compression strain s y.
If s < y, the compression steel stress will
be f s = s Es.
Slide No. 8
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Steel Both at Yield Stress (contd)
If, in a doubly reinforced beam, the tensile
steel ratio is equal to or less than b, the
strength of the beam may be approximated
within acceptable limits by disregarding the
compression bars.
The strength of such a beam will be
controlled be tensile yielding, and the lever
arm of the resisting moment will be little
affected by the presence of comp. bars.
Slide No. 9
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

If the tensile steel ratio is larger than b, a
somewhat elaborate analysis is required.
In Fig. 24a, a rectangular beam cross
section is shown with compression steel As
placed at distance d from the compression
face and with tensile steel As at the
effective depth d.
Slide No. 10

d
0.85 f
Figure 24
c = 0.003
c
C2 = As f s
As
N.A
C1 = 0.85 f cab
a
a
Z1 = d
2
As
Z2 = d d
T1 = As1 f y
s
Cross Section
(a)
Strain at Ultimate
Moment
(b)
Concrete-Steel
Couple
(c)
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
T2 = As 2 f y
Steel-Steel
Couple
(d)
Slide No. 11
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Notation for Doubly Reinforced Beam:
As = total compression steel cross-sectional area

d = effective depth of tension steel
d = depth to centroid of compressive steel from compression fiber
As1 = amount of tension steel used by the concrete-steel couple
As2 = amount of tension steel used by the steel-steel couple
As = total tension steel cross-sectional area (As = As1 + As2)
Mn1 = nominal moment strength of the concrete-steel couple
Mn2 = nominal moment strength of the steel-steel couple
Mn = nominal moment strength of the beam
s = unit strain at the centroid of the tension steel
s = unit strain at the centroid of the compressive steel
Slide No. 12
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Method of Analysis:
The total compression will now consist of two
forces:
C1, the compression resisted by the concrete
C2, the compression resisted by the steel
For analysis, the total resisting moment of the
beam will be assumed to consist of two parts or two
internal couples: The part due to the resistance of
the compressive concrete and tensile steel and the
part due to the compressive steel and additional
tensile steel.
Slide No. 13
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

The total nominal capacity may be derived
as the sum of the two internal couples,
neglecting the concrete that is displaced by
the compression steel.
The strength of the steel-steel couple is
given by (see Figure 24)
M n 2 = T2 Z 2
(36)
Slide No. 14

d
0.85 f
Figure 24
c = 0.003
c
C2 = As f s
As
N.A
C1 = 0.85 f cab
a
a
Z1 = d
2
As
Z2 = d d
T1 = As1 f y
s
Cross Section
(a)
Strain at Ultimate
Moment
(b)
Concrete-Steel
Couple
(c)
T2 = As 2 f y
Steel-Steel
Couple
(d)
Slide No. 15
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

M n 2 = As 2 f y (d d )
assuming f s = f y
C2 = T2 As f s = As 2 f y As = As 2
Therefore,
M n 2 = As f y (d d )
(37)
The strength of the concrete-steel couple is

given by
M n1 = T1Z1
(38)
Slide No. 16
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

a
assuming f s = f y
M n1 = As1 f y d
2
As = As1 + As 2 As1 = As As 2
since As 2 = As , then
As1 = As As
Therefore
a
M n1 = ( As As ) f y d
2
(39)
Slide No. 17
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Nominal Moment Capacity
From Eqs. 37 and 39, the nominal moment
capacity can be evaluated as
M n = M n1 + M n 2
a
= ( As As ) f y d + As f y (d d )
2
(40)
This equation is valid only if As yields
Slide No. 18
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Eq. 40 is valid only if As yields. Otherwise, the
beam has to be treated as a singly reinforced
beam neglecting the compression steel, or
one has to find the actual stress f s in the
compression reinforcement As and use the
actual force in the moment equilibrium
equation.
Slide No. 19
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Determination of the Location of Neutral
Axis:
c=
a
1
As
A
and = s
bd
bd
T = C1 + C2
As f y = (0.85 f c)ab + As f y
Therefore,
a=
( As As ) f y ( ) f y d
0.85 f cb
0.85 f c
As1 f y
0.85 f cb
10
Slide No. 20
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Location of Neutral Axis c
a=
c=
NOTE: if
( As As ) f y ( ) f y d
0.85 f cb
0.85 f c
a ( As As ) f y ( ) f y d
=
=
1
0.851 f cb
0.851 f c
(42)
f c 4,000 psi, then 1 = 0.85, otherwise see next slide
Slide No. 21
(41)
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

The value of 1 may determined by
0.85
1 = 1.05 5 10-5 f c
0.65
for f c 4,000 psi

for 4,000 psi < f c 8,000 psi
for f c > 8,000 psi
(43)
11
Slide No. 22
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Strain-Compatibility Check
For As to yield, the strain s in the
compression steel should be greater than or
equal to the yield strain of reinforcing steel,
which is
fy
s =
(44)
Es
The strain s can be calculated from similar

triangles. Referring to Figure 24,
d
c d
s = 0.003
= 0.0031
c
(45)
Slide No. 23
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Strain-Compatibility Check (contd)

Substituting c of Eq. 42 into Eq. 45, gives
0.851 f cd
d
s = 0.0031 = 0.0031
( )df y
(46)
For compression steel to yield, the following

condition must be satisfied:
fy
Es
or
fy
29 106
12
Slide No. 24
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

The compression steel yields if
fy
s
29 106
or
0.851 f cd
fy
0.0031
6
( - ) f y d 29 10
or
1-
fy
0.851 f cd
( - ) f y d 87,000
Slide No. 25
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

1-
fy
0.851 f cd
( - ) f y d 87,000
or
fy
0.851 f cd
1
( - ) f y d 87,000
0.851 f cd f y 87,000
( - ) f y d
87,000
or
13
Slide No. 26
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

or
0.851 f cd f y 87,000
( - ) f y d
87,000
or
f y 87,000
0.851 f cd
( - ) f y d
87,000
or
87,000
87,000 f
f yd
y
( - ) 0.851 f c d
Slide No. 27
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

If compression steel is to yield, then the
following condition must be satisfied:
87,000
87,000 f
f yd
y
( - ) 0.851 f c d
(47)
14
Slide No. 28
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

If s is less than y the stress in the
compression steel, f s , can be computed as
f s = Es s = 29 106 s
or
(48)
0.851 f cd
f s = 29 106 0.0031
( ) f y d
Slide No. 29
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Condition II: Compression Steel Below

Yield Stress
The preceding equations are valid only if
the compression steel has yielded when
the beam reaches its ultimate strength.
In many cases, however, such as for wide,
shallow beams reinforced with higherstrength steels, the yielding of compression
steel may not occur when the beam
reaches its ultimate capacity.
15
Slide No. 30
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
It is therefore necessary to to develop
more generally applicable equations to
account for the possibility that the
compression reinforcement has not yielded
when the doubly reinforced beam fails in
flexure.
The development of these equations will
be based on
s < y
(49)
Slide No. 31
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
Development of the Equations for
Condition II
Referring to Fig. 24,
T = C1 + C2
As f y = (0.85 f c)ba + f sAs
But
and
(50)
a = 1c
(51)
0.003(c d )
f s = s Es =
Es
c
(52)
16
Slide No. 32
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
d
0.85 f
Figure 24
c = 0.003
c
C2 = As f s
As
N.A
C1 = 0.85 f cab
a
a
Z1 = d
2
As
Z2 = d d
T1 = As1 f y
T2 = As 2 f y
s
Cross Section
(a)
Strain at Ultimate
Moment
(b)
Concrete-Steel
Couple
(c)
Steel-Steel
Couple
(d)
Slide No. 33
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
Substituting Eqs 51 and 52 into Eq. 50, yields
0.003(c d )
As f y = (0.85 f c)b1c +
Es As
(53)
Multiplying by c, expanding, and rearranging, yield
(0.85 f cb1 )c 2 + (0.003Es As As f y )c 0.003d Es As = 0 (54)

If Es is taken as 29 103 ksi, Eq. 54 will take the
following form:
17
Slide No. 34
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
The following quadratic equation can be
used to find c when s < y :
(0.85 f cb1 ) c 2 + (87 As As f y ) c 87d As = 0 (55)

a
Analogous to:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
x=
b b 2 4ac
2a
Note:
The basic units are kips and inches
in the equation.
Slide No. 35
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

Yield Stress
In this case when s < y , the nominal
moment capacity of Eq. 40 becomes
M n = M n1 + M n 2
a
= (As f y As f s)d + As f s(d d )

2
where
A f As f s
a= s y
and f s as given by Eq. 52
0.85 f cb
(56)
18
Slide No. 36
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
ACI Code Ductility Requirements

The ACI Code limitation on applies to
doubly reinforced beams as well as to
singly reinforced beams.
Steel ratio shall not be less than given by
min =
3 f c 200
fy
fy
(57)
Slide No. 37
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
ACI Code Ductility Requirements

In order to ensure tension-controlled
behavior, the ratio c/dt should less than
0.375, that is
c
(58)
0.375 (preferably 0.30)
dt
In this case, the strain t in the tensile
reinforcement is greater than 0.005, which
can be computed by
d
(59)
t = 0.003 1
c
19
Slide No. 38
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
ACI-318-02 Code Strain Limits
Figure 14. Strain Limit Zones and variation of Strength Reduction Factor
Slide No. 39
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Figure 25. Flow Chart

For the Analysis of
Doubly Reinforced
Rectangular Beams
20
Slide No. 40
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Trial-and-Adjustment Procedure for the

Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections
1. Midspan section. The trial-andadjustment procedure described for

singly reinforced beam can be used if the
section is rectangular.
2. Support section. The width b and the
effective depth d are already known from
part 1 together with the value of the
external negative factored moment Mn.
Slide No. 41
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

a) Find the strength Mn1 singly reinforced

section using the already established b and
d dimensions of the section at midspan and
a reinforcement area to give t > 0.005.
b) From step (a), find Mn2 = Mn Mn1 and
determine the resulting As2 = As . The total
steel area at the tension side would be
As = As1 + As
c) Alternatively, determine how many bars are

extended from the midspan to the support
21
Slide No. 42
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

to give the As to be used in calculating Mn2.

d) From step (c), find the value of Mn1 = Mn
Mn2. Calculate As1 for singly reinforced beam
as the first part of the solution. Then
determine total As = As1 + As . Verify that As1
does not give t < 0.005 if it is revised in the
solution.
e) Check for the compatibility of strain in both
alternatives to verify whether the
compression steel yielded or not and use
Slide No. 43
ENCE 454 Assakkaf

the corresponding stress in the steel for
calculating the forces and moments.
f) Check for satisfactory minimum
reinforcement requirements.
g) Select the appropriate bar sizes.
22
Slide No. 44
Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11: Compression steel yielded
Example 1
Compute the
practical moment
2#10
capacity Mn for
the beam having
#3 stirrup
a cross section
1
as shown in the 1 clear (typ)
figure. Use f c= 2 3#9
3#9
3,000 psi and fy =
60,000 psi.
11
1
2
20
Slide No. 45
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11 (contd)
Determine the values for As and As:
From Table 6,
As = area of 2 #10 = 2.54 in 2
As = area of 6 #9 = 6.0 in 2
Compute the steel ratio :
As
2.54
=
= 0.0115
bd 11(20 )
A
6
= s =
= 0.0273
bd 11(20 )
=
23
Slide No. 46
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11 (contd)
Table 6. Areas of Multiple of Reinforcing Bars (in2)

Number
of bars
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
#3
0.11
0.22
0.33
0.44
0.55
0.66
0.77
0.88
0.99
1.10
#4
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
$5
0.31
0.62
0.93
1.24
1.55
1.86
2.17
2.48
2.79
3.10
#6
0.44
0.88
1.32
1.76
2.20
2.64
3.08
3.52
3.96
4.40
Bar number
#7
#8
0.60
0.79
1.20
1.58
1.80
2.37
2.40
3.16
3.00
3.95
3.60
4.74
4.20
5.53
4.80
6.32
5.40
7.11
6.00
7.90
#9
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
#10
1.27
2.54
3.81
5.08
6.35
7.62
8.89
10.16
11.43
12.70
#11
1.56
3.12
4.68
6.24
7.80
9.36
10.92
12.48
14.04
15.60
Slide No. 47
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11 (contd)
Therefore,
As 2 = As = 2.54 in 2
As1 = As As 2 = 6.0 2.54 = 3.46 in 2
( ) = 0.0273 0.0115 = 0.0158
Check whether compression steel yielded using Eq. 47
87,000
87,000 f
f yd
y
( - ) 0.85(0.85)(3000)(2.5) 87,000 = 0.0146

60,000(20 )
87,000 60,000
( - ) 0.851 f c d
24
Slide No. 48
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11 (contd)
Therefore,
[( ) = 0.0158] > 0.0146
ductility is OK
The compression steel has yielded, and Eq. 40 for

determining Mn can be used:
( As As ) f y As1 f y
3.46(60 )
a=
=
=
= 7.40 in. (Eq. 41)
0.85 f cb
0.85 f cb 0.85(3)(11)
M n = M n1 + M n 2
a
= ( As As ) f y d + As f y (d d )
2
7.4
= 3.46(60 )20
+ 2.54(60 )(20 2.5) = 6,050.9 in - k
2
Slide No. 49
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 11 (contd)
Mn =
6,050.9
ft - kips = 504.2 ft - kips
12
The practical moment capacity is evaluated

as follows:
M u = 0.9(504.2 ) = 454 ft - kips
25
Slide No. 50
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12: Compression steel not yielded

Calculate the nominal moment strength Mn of
the doubly reinforced section shown in the
figure. Given:
f c = 5000 psi (normal - weight concrete)
f y = 60,000 psi
2.5 in.
d = 2.5 in.
d t = 21 in.
As = 4 No.10 bars
As = 2 No. 7 bars
14 in.
As : 2 #7
24 in.
18.5 in. 21 in.
As : 4 #10
Slide No. 51
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Determine the values for As and As:

From Table 6,
A
5.08
As = area of 4 #10 = 5.08 in 2 , = s =
= 0.0173
bd 14(21)
A
1.20
= 0.0041
As = area of 2 #7 = 1.20 in 2 , = s =
bd 14(21)
Therefore,
As As = As1 = 5.08 1.20 = 3.88 in 2

( ) = 0.0173 0.0041 = 0.0132
26
Slide No. 52
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Table 6. Areas of Multiple of Reinforcing Bars (in2)

Number
of bars
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
#3
0.11
0.22
0.33
0.44
0.55
0.66
0.77
0.88
0.99
1.10
#4
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
$5
0.31
0.62
0.93
1.24
1.55
1.86
2.17
2.48
2.79
3.10
#6
0.44
0.88
1.32
1.76
2.20
2.64
3.08
3.52
3.96
4.40
Bar number
#7
#8
0.60
0.79
1.20
1.58
1.80
2.37
2.40
3.16
3.00
3.95
3.60
4.74
4.20
5.53
4.80
6.32
5.40
7.11
6.00
7.90
#9
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
#10
1.27
2.54
3.81
5.08
6.35
7.62
8.89
10.16
11.43
12.70
#11
1.56
3.12
4.68
6.24
7.80
9.36
10.92
12.48
14.04
15.60
Slide No. 53
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Check whether compression steel yielded using Eq. 47
87,000
87,000 f
f yd
y
( - ) 0.85(0.80)(5000)(2.5) 87,000 = 0.0217

60,000(21)
87,000 60,000
Therefore,
[( ) = 0.0132] < 0.0217
( - ) 0.851 f c d
and the compression steel did not yield and f s is less

than fy. Therefore use Eqs 55 and 56 to find Mn.
27
Slide No. 54
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Using Eq. 55 to find c and consequently a:
(0.85 f cb1 ) c 2 + (87 As As f y ) c 87d As = 0

(0.85 f cb1 ) = 0.85 5 14 0.80 = 47.6
(87 A A f ) = 87 1.2 5.08 60 = 200.4

s
87 d As = 87 2.5 1.2 = 261

Therefore,
47.6c 2 200.4c 261 = 0
Find c from
quadratic Eq.
Slide No. 55
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
The solution to the quadratic equation is as follows:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
x=
b b 2 4ac
2a
47.6 x 2 200.4 x 261 = 0

(200.4) (200) 2 4(47.6)( 261) 200.4 299.49
=
2(47.6)
95.2
x = 1.0409, 5.251
x=
Therefore, take c = 5.25 in a = 5.25(0.80 ) = 4.2 in.
28
Slide No. 56
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Check ACI Code Requirements for minimum
steel and strain limits:
3 f c 200
= 0.0035
,
f y
fy
[Actual ( ) = 0.0132] > max
Using either Eq. 58 or 59, gives
OK
c 5.25
= 0.25 < 0.375 (preferably 0.30) OK
=
21
dt
or
d
21
0
.
003
1
0
.
003
1
= 0.009 > 0.005 OK
c
5
.
25
Slide No. 57
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Table 7. Design Constants

Recommended Design Values
f c
3 f c 200
f y
f y
3000
4000
5000
6000
0.0050
0.0050
0.0053
0.0058
3000
4000
5000
6000
0.0040
0.0040
0.0042
0.0046
3000
4000
5000
6000
0.0033
0.0033
0.0035
0.0039
3000
4000
5000
6000
0.0027
0.0027
0.0028
0.0031
b
fy = 40,000 psi
0.03712
0.04949
0.05823
0.06551
fy = 50,000 psi
0.02753
0.03671
0.04318
0.04858
fy = 60,000 psi
0.0214
0.0285
0.0335
0.0377
fy = 75,000 psi
0.0155
0.0207
0.0243
0.0274
R (ksi)
0.0135
0.0180
0.0225
0.0270
482.82
643.76
804.71
965.65
0.0108
0.0144
0.0180
0.0216
482.80
643.80
804.70
965.70
0.0090
0.0120
0.0150
0.0180
482.82
643.76
804.71
965.65
0.0072
0.0096
0.0120
0.0144
482.80
643.80
804.70
965.70
29
Slide No. 58
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
ACI-318-02 Code Strain Limits
Figure 14. Strain Limit Zones and variation of Strength Reduction Factor
Slide No. 59
ENCE 454 Assakkaf
Example 12 (contd)
Since t > 0.005, the strength reduction factor
= 0.9. Therefore, the nominal moment
strength Mn of the beam is computed using
Eqs. 52 and 56 as follows:
0.003(5.25 2.5)
0.003(c d )
f s =
Es =
29 103 = 45.57 ksi
c
5.25
M n = (As f y As f s)d + As f s(d d )

2
4.2
= (5.08 60 1.2 45.57 )21

+ 1.2 45.57(21 2.5)
2
ANS.
= 5,738.8 in - kips = 478 ft - kips
30
Chapter 6.
Compression Reinforcement - Flexural Members
If a beam cross section is limited because of architectural or other considerations, it may happen that the concrete cannot develop the compression force required to resist the give bending moment. In this case, reinforcing is added in the compression zone, resulting in a so-called doubly reinforced beam, i.e., one with compression as well as tension reinforcement. Compression reinforced
is also used to improve serviceability, improve long term deflections, and to provide support for stirrups throughout the beam.
6.1. Reading Assignment:
Text Section 5.7; ACI 318, Sections: 10.3.4, 10.3.3, and 7.11.1
6.2. Strength Calculations
0.85f c
u = 0.003
As
h
d
A bs
d-c b
cb
a b = 1c b
Cs
Cc
T bs
h-c b
s = y
strains
stresses
forces
From geometry we can find the strain in compression steel at failure as:
d
s = 0.003 c
c
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(6.1)
118
Compression Reinforcement
6.3. Nominal Resisting Moment When Compression Steel Yields

d
u = 0.003
As
h
0.85f c
0.85f c
Cs
=
d
As
d-c
Cc
+
A sf y
Ts
T s = (A s A s)f y
> y
A sf y
Cc
Case I
Case II
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam
Total resisting moment can be considered as sum of:

1. Moment from corresponding areas of tension and compression steel
2. The moment of some portion of the tension steel acting with concrete.
M n = (A s A s) f y (d
1c
) + A s f y (d d)
2
(6.2)
and from equilibrium:

(6.3)
0.85f c ab = (A s A s)f y
Solve for a:
a=
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A s A s
f
0.85f c b y
(6.4)
119
6.4. Compression Steel below Yield Stress (strain compatibility check).

Whether or not the compression steel will have yielded at failure can be determined as follows:
d
0.85f c
u = 0.003
As
s = y
Cs
Cc
As lim
d-c
Ts
y
b
From geometry:
u
c
=
s
c d
if compression steel yield
(6.5)
s = y then:
u
c
y = c d
c =
u
d
y
(6.6)
Equilibrium for case II:

A s)f y = 0.85 ( 1c) b f c
(A lim
s
(6.7)
Substitute for c from Eq. (6.6) and (6.7) and divide both sides by bd gives:
(A lim
A s)f y
s
= 0.85 1 b f c
bd
u
d
y
A lim
f
A s
s
=
+ 0.85 1 c
bd
bd
fy
u
d
y d
or
lim = s + 0.85 1
actual > lim
if
if
f c
87, 000
d
fy
87, 000 f y d
then compression steel will yield
f
As A s
87, 000
d
0.85 1 c
bd
fy
87, 000 f y d
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1
bd
120
(6.8)
(6.9)
(6.10)
this is common for shallow

beams using high strength
steel
then compression steel
will yield
6.5. Example of analysis of a reinforced concrete section having compression reinforcement.

Determine the nominal moment, Mn , and the ultimate moment capacity, Mu , of the reinforced
concrete section shown below.
2.5
As= 3.8 in2
22.2
f c = 5, 000 psi
f y = 60, 000 psi
As= 7.62 in2

12
Solution
Mn can be calculated if we assume some conditions for compression steel.

Assume that compression steel yields:
C c = 0.85f c 1 cb = 0.85 (5 ksi) (0.80) c (12) = 40.8c
C s = A sf y = 3.8 (60ksi) = 228 kips
T s = (7.62 in 2) ( 60 ksi) = 457 kips
Equilibrium:
Cs + Cc = Ts
solve for c:
c =
457 228
= 5.6 in
40.8
d
u = 0.003
0.85f c
check assumption
c
c d
c
5.6 2.5
= 0.003
= 0.0017
5.6
s = 0.003
s = 0.0017 <
d
d-c
Ts
y
fy
60
=
= 0.00207
Es
29, 000
wrong assumption
This means the compression steel does not yield. Therefore, our
initial assumption was wrong. We need to make a new assumption.
CIVL 4135
121
Assume f s < fy
C s = A sf s = A s s E s
c 2.5
c 2.5
= (3.8 in 2) (0.003
) (29, 000 ksi) = 330
c
c
Now for equilibrium:
40.8c + 330
Cs + Cc = Ts
c 2.5
= 457 kips
c
solve for c
c = 6.31 in
check assumption
f s = 0.003
6.31 2.5
29, 000 = 52.5 ksi < f y = 60 ksi
6.31
assumption o.k.
check ACI Code requirements for tension failure

c = 6.31 = 0.284 < 0.375
22.2
d
0.90
0.75
0.65
We are in the tension-controlled section and satisfy

the ACI code requirements.
= 0.75 + ( t 0.002)(50)
SPIRAL
OTHER
Compression
Transition
Controlled
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= 0.9
Tension
Controlled
t = 0.002
t = 0.005
c = 0.600
dt
c = 0.375
dt
122
Calculate forces:
C c = 40.8 (6.31 in) = 258 kips
C s = 3.8 (52.5ksi) = 200 kips
258+200=458
T s = (7.62 in 2) ( 60ksi) = 457 kips
Equilibrium
is
satisfied
Take moment about tension reinforcement to determine the nominal moment capacity of the section:
Mn = Cc d
1c
2
+ C (d d)
s
Nominal moment capacity is:

M n = (258 kips) (22.2 0.80 6.31) + 200(22.2 2.5)
2
= 5080 + 3940 = 9020 in kips
Ultimate moment capacity is:
M u = M n = 0.9 9020 = 8118 in k
CIVL 4135
123
6.6. Example of analysis of a doubly reinforced concrete beam for flexure

Determine whether the compression steel yield at failure.
2.5
2 No. 7
21
f c = 5, 000 psi
f y = 60, 000 psi
As= 1.2 in2
4 No. 10
As= 5.08 in2
14
Solution
=
As
= 5.08
= 0.0173
14 21
bd
= 0.0173 0.0041 = 0.0132
A s
1.2
=
=
= 0.0041
14 21
bd
Check whether the compression steel has yielded, use Eq. (6.10):
?
0.0132
0.85 1
f c
87, 000
d
fy
87, 000 f y d
?
87, 000
2.5
0.0132 0.85 0.80 5
60
87, 000 60000 21
?
0.0132 0.0217
Therefore, the compression steel does not yield.
CIVL 4135
124
6.7. Example: Design of a member to satisfy a nominal moment capacity.

Assume we have the same size beam as Section 6.6. example and
wish to satisfy the same nominal conditions:
2.5
f y = 60, 000 psi
Required
As = ? in 2
22.2
f c = 5, 000 psi
M n = 9020 in k
As = ? in 2
12
Solution
For singly reinforced section:
use
c = 0.375
d
f
= 0.85 1 c c
d
fy
5 ksi
= 0.0213
60 ksi
Maximum As1 for singly reinforced section then is:
= (0.85)(0.80)(0.375)
A s1 = b d = (0.0213) (12) (22.2) = 5.66 in 2

fy
M n = f y bd 2 1 0.59
f c
M n = (0.0213 in 2)(60 ksi)(12 in)(22.2 in) 2 10.59(0.0213) 60 = 6409 in.kips

5
M u2 = M n = 0.9 6409 = 5747 in.kips
Moment which must be resisted by additional compression and tension reinforcement
M u1 = M u1 M u2
M u1 = 0.9 9020 5747 = 2365 in.kips
Assuming compression steel yields we will have:
M u1 = A s f y (d d) = 0.9 A s (60) (22.2 2.5) = 1063.8 A s
2365 ink = 1063.8 A s
A s =
2365 = 2.23 in 2
1063.8
Therefore, the design steel area for tension and compression reinforcement will be:
A s = 5.66 + 2.23 = 7.89 in 2
A s = 2.23
CIVL 4135
8-#9
3-#8
in 2
125
2.5
As = ? in 2
22.2
As = ? in 2
12
Check whether the compression steel has yielded, use Eq. (6.10):
f
As A s
87, 000
d
0.85 1 c
bd
fy
87, 000 f y d
87, 000
8 2.37 0.85 0.80 5
2.5
22.2 12
22.2
60
87, 000 60000
0.0211 0.206
Therefore the compression steel yields at failure
Check to make sure that the final design will fall under tension-controlled
a=
(A s A s)f y
0.85f cb
a=
(8.002.37)60
= 6.62 in
0.85(5)(12)
c = a = 6.62 = 8.28 in
0.80
1
c = 8.28 = 0.373 < 0.375
22.2
d
Tension controlled
see the following page for the rest of the solution done in a speadsheet.
CIVL 4135
126
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128
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129
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130
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131
CIVL 4135
132
CIVL 4135
133

A doubly reinforced concrete beam section has a maximum effective depth d = 25 in and is subjected
to a total factored moment Mn = 9400 in--kips, including self weight. Design the section and select
the appropriate reinforcement at the tension and the compression faces to carry the required load.
f y = 60, 000 psi
f c = 4, 000 psi
Required
M n = 9, 400 ink
Solution
Assume that b = 14 in. = 0.55 d
See the following pages for design done in a spreadsheet.
CIVL 4135
134
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135
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136
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137
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138
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139
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140
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141
CIVL 4135
142
CIVL 4135
143

A doubly reinforced concrete beam section has a maximum effective depth d = 25 in and is subjected
to a total factored moment Mu = 9400 in--kips, including self weight. Design the section and select
the appropriate reinforcement at the tension and the compression faces to carry the required load.
f y = 60, 000 psi
f c = 4, 000 psi
Required
M n = 9, 400 ink
Solution
Assume that b = 14 in. = 0.55 d
See the following pages for design done in a spreadsheet.
CIVL 4135
144
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145
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146
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147
page 193
Chapter 10.
BOND AND ANCHORAGE
Chapter 5 of text
ACI 318 Chapter 12.
10.2. Introduction
Reinforcement for concrete to develop the strength of a section in tension depends on the
compatibility of the two materials to act together in resisting the external load. The reinforcing element, such as a reinforcing bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding
concrete in order to prevent the discontinuity or separation of the two materials under load. The modulus of elasticity, the ductility, and the yield or rupture strength of the reinforcement must also be
considerably higher than those of the concrete to raise the capacity of the reinforced concrete section
to a meaningful level. Consequently, materials such as brass, aluminum, rubber, or bamboo are not
suitable for developing the bond or adhesion necessary between the reinforcement and the concrete.
Steel and fiber glass do possess the principal factors necessary: yield strength, ductility, and bond
value.
Bond strength results from a combination of several parameters, such as the mutual adhesion
between the concrete and steel interfaces and the pressure of the hardened concrete against the steel
bar or wire due to the drying shrinkage of the concrete. Additionally, friction interlock between the
bar surface deformations or projections and the concrete caused by the micro movements of the tensioned bar results in increased resistance to slippage. The total effect of this is known as bond. In
summary, bond strength is controlled by the following major factors:
1. Adhesion between the concrete and the reinforcing elements
2. Gripping effect resulting from the drying shrinkage of the surrounding concrete and the
shear interlock between the bar deformations and the surrounding concrete
3. Frictional resistance to sliding and interlock as the reinforcing element is subjected to
tensile stress
4. Effect of concrete quality and strength in tension and compression
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 194
5. Mechanical anchorage effect of the ends of bars through development length, splicing,
hooks, and crossbars
6. Diameter, shape, and spacing of reinforcement as they affect crack development
The individual contributions of these factors are difficult to separate or quantify. Shear interlock, shrinking confining effect, and the quality of the concrete can be considered as major factors.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 195
10.3. Bond Stress Development

Bond stress is primarily the result of the shear interlock between the reinforcing element and
the enveloping concrete caused by the various factors previously enumerated. It can be described as
a local shearing stress per unit area of the bar surface. This direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length.
P
dx
C+dC
C
M
M+dM
T+dT
M + dM
T = M
;
T + dT =
Z
Z
For equilibrium of the bar section:
T + Udx = T + dT
dM = V
dx
u =
dT = dM
Z
Udx = dT
U = dT = dM 1
Z
dx
dx
T
kipsinch
T+dT
dx
U = V
Z
u = flexural bond stress; kips/in

0 = 0 Z
where 0is the perimeter or sum of perimeters of the bars at the section considered.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 196
10.4. Local Bond Effects near Cracks
Bars are greased before pouring concrete.
Main Reinforcing Bars:
Deformed Bars
(assume no bond)
-- Beam acts as a tied arch,
will not collapse
-- Tension in bars is uniform
and equal
M
T = max
Z
-- Stress in stell is maximum only

over a short section -- less
elsewhere
-- much smaller total deflection
-- Cracks are distributed, narrow
-- Linear total deformation results in large beam deflection,

large cracks
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 197
Beam segment subjected to pure bending
Bar force T,
Bond Stress u =
U = dT
dx
U
0 Z
Load bond stress effects add to the above overal effects:
u total =
0 Z
overal
CIVL 4135
dTdx
0
local
Development Length
page 198
10.5. Bond Failure

Bond failure is likely to occur near ends of beams, where high flexural bond stresses can
combine with high local bond stresses.
Bond failure may take two forms, both of which result from wedging action as the bar is
pulled relative to the concrete and often acts in concrete with shear crack and often acts in concrete
with shear crack.
Bond
splitting
vertical crack
shear crack
Horizontal crack
Tests at N.B.S. (National Bureau of Standards) and University of Texas indicate that bond failure
will occur when bond force U reaches a critical value. It is interesting to note that at failure, the force
U is independent of bar size. Consistent with concept of wedge action, when splitting force depends on driving force, not wedge width.
wedge action is when the ribs of deformed bars, bears against the concrete.
Tests have shown that for single bars causing vertical splits or for bars spaced further than 6
inches apart
U n = 35 f c
Ultimate average bond force per inch of length of
bar
vertical crack
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 199
For bars spaced less than 6 inches apart, (causing horizontal splitting)
U n = 0.80 35 f c = 28 f c
bar
Horizontal crack
In terms of stresses rather than forces

un =
Un
35 f c
11 f c
=
d b
db
10.6. Development Length

Consider a beam similar to that used to obtain the results above:
M=0
T = As fS
T =0
fs = 0
T s = A bf s = Ul
(Average bond force per inch ) * length
or
A fs
Ts
Average bond force per unit length
= b
l
l
We may also solve for l to obtain the critical development length.
U =
ld =
A bf s
Un
Un is the ultimate bond force per unit length
Two criteria control development length calculation:

CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 200
1) Bond must be counted on to develop bar yield force (fs = fy)

2) Average ultimate bond force is limited to 35sqrt(fc) or 28sqrt(fc)
for spacing of greater than 6 inches
ld =
A bf y
35 f c
0.029A bf y
f c
for spacing of less than 6 inches:

ld =
A bf y
28 f c
0.0357A bf y
f c
If these lengths are provided, bond failure will not occur, obviously, small bars have less
bond problem than large bars. Smaller bars require less development length because
A b = 1 d 2b
4
therefore, the development length, ld , is proportional to squared of bar diameter. the smaller the bar
diameter the smaller will be the required development length.
According to ACI, the development length for design is obtained by a basic development
length as given above and then it is modified by a series of modification factors.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 201
10.7. Example of Embedment Length of Deformed bars

Calculate the required embedment length of the deformed bars in the following two cases: (12 inches
of concrete below top reinforcement). Assume that #3 stirrups are used for shear and stirrup spacing
based on shear calculations is 6.0 in. throughout the beam, S=6.0 in., d=15 in., Asrequired = 1.6 in.2
A) 3#7 bars top reinforcement in single layer in a beam with No. 3 stirrups
fc = 4,000 psi (normal weight)
fyt = 60,000 psi and fy = 60,000 psi
clear spacing between bars are 2db , clear side cover is 1.5 inches on each side.
B) Same as part (A), except that the clear spacing between bars is equal to one inch. The bars
are epoxy coated.
Solution (A)
ACI Sect. 12.2.3
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.0
Uncoated reinforcement
s = 1.0
No. 7 and larger bars
= 1.0
Normal weight concrete
d b = 0.875
in
center to center spacing
= 3 0.875 = 1.31
2
2
c = spacing or cover dimension =

A tr = 0.22
in
Controls
1.5 + 0.875 + 3 = 2.31

8
2
in.2
n = 3
s = 6 in.
A 40
K tr = strn
K tr = 0.22 40 = 0.49
36
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 202
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
c + K tr
= 1.31 + 0.49 = 2.06 < 2.5 ok
db
0.875
ld =
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 0.875 = 39.3 in.

(2.06)
40 1 4, 000
l d = 50
As required
As provided
A reqd
s
ACI Section 12.2.5
A provided
s
=
=
1.6 in.2
3--#7= 1.8 in.2
l d = 39.3 1.6 = 35
1.8
12 in.
in. >
Alternative Solution I.
Can use Ktr = 0 as a design simplification even if transvers reinforcements are present
c + K tr
= 1.31 = 1.5 < 2.5 ok
db
0.875
ld =
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 0.875 = 54 in.

40 1 4, 000
1.5
l d = 54 1.6 = 48
1.8
in. >
12 in.
Alternative Solution II.

ACI 12.2.2
f y t e
ld =
d b = 60000 1.3 1.0 0.875 = 61.6 in.
20 1 4000
20 f c
l d = 61.6 1.6 = 55
1.8
CIVL 4135
in. >
12 in.
Development Length
page 203
Solution (B)
ACI Sect. 12.2.3
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.5
Epoxy coated reinforcement
s = 1.0
t e = 1.3 1.5 = 1.95 < 1.7 use 1.7
ld =
= 1.0
d b = 0.875
in.
l d = 51.4 1.6 = 45.7

1.8
CIVL 4135
3 60, 000 1.7 1 1 0.875 = 51.4 in.

(2.06)
40 1 4, 000
in. >
12 in.
Development Length
page 204
10.8. Example. Development length in tension. Figure below shows a beam--column joint in a continuous building frame. Based on frame analysis, the negative steel required at the end of the beam is
2.90 in2 and two No. 11 bars are used. providing A, = 3.12 in2. Beam dimensions are b = 10 in d = 18
in and h = 21 in. The design will include No. 3 stirrups spaced four at 3 inches followed by a constant
5 inches spacing in the region of the support. with 1.5 in. clear cover. Normal density concrete is to be
used, with fc = 4000 psi. and rebars have fy = 60,000 psi. Find the minimum distance ld at which the
negative bars can be cut off based on development of the required steel area at the face of the column.
3.43
Center to Center Spacing:
10 2(1.5) 2(3) 1.41 = 4.83 inches
8
Clear spacing:
4.83 1.41 = 3.43 inches
CIVL 4135
4.83
Development Length
page 205
ACI Sect. 12.2.3

f
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+Ktr
db
db

= 1 (4.83) = 2.41 in
2
2
Controls
1.5 + 38 + 1.412 = 2.58 in
A tr = 0.22
A 40
K tr = strn
K tr = 0.22 40 = 0.88
52
c + K tr
+ 0.88 = 2.33 < 2.5 ok
= 2.41 1.41
db
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.0
Not Epoxy coated
s = 1.0
= 1.3 1.0 = 1.3 < 1.7
ld =
= 1.0
d b = 1.41
in
2.9 = 52
l d = 56 3.12
CIVL 4135
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 1.41 = 56 in

(2.33)
40 1 4, 000
in >
12 in
Development Length
page 225
Bar Splices (ACI 12.14 -- 12.16, Chapter 10 of text)

In general reinforcing bars are stocked by suppliers in lengths of 60 ft for bars from No. 5 to No. 18,
and in 20 to 40 ft lengths for smaller bar sizes. For this reason, and because it is often more convenient to work
with shorter bar lengths, it is frequently necessary to splice bars in the field. Should try to:
Stagger splices;
Avoid splicing at points of maximum stress.
Lab Splices in Tension (ACI 12.14)

Splices for No. 11 bars and smaller are usually made simply by lapping the bars in a sufficient distance
to transfer stress by bond from one bar to the other. The lapped bars are usually placed in contact and lightly
wired so that they stay in position as the concrete is poured.
fy
fs = 0
Ab fy
Ab fy
ls
fs = 0
fy
ACI 12.14.2.1. Lap splices should not be used for bars larger than No. 11 bars.
Required lap for tension splices, may be stated in terms of development in tension ld . Find ldb
according to code, use the modification factors (reduction for excess reinforcement should not
be applied because that factor is already accounted for in the splice specification).
Two classes of lap splices are specified by the ACI Code. The minimum length ls not less than
12 inches is:
Class A:
ls = 1.0 ld
Class B:
ls = 1.3 ld
ACI Sect. (12.15)
The the work sheet provided in the next page of tension lab splices.
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 226
Tension Lap Splice Calculation Work Sheet

1. Tension Development Length (from Tension Development Calculation Work Sheet except that
step 8 should not be applied).
ld
2. Lap Splice Classes (Section 12.15.1)

Class A:
ls = 1.0 ld =
Class B:
ls = 1.3 ld =
3a. Required Lap Splices -- other than Columns (12.15.2)

Maximum percent of As spliced within
required lap length
(As provided) / (As required)*
<= 50
>50
>= 2
Class A
Class B
<2
Class B
Class B
Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement require
LAP
3a. Required Lap Splices -- Columns (12.17.2)

required lap length
Maximum stress in the bar
<= 50%
> 50%
> 0.5fy
Class A
Class B
<= 0.5fy
Class B
Class B
LAP
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 227
Compression Splices (ACI 12.16)

Reinforcing bars in compression are spliced mainly in columns, where bars are normally terminated just above each floor or every other floor. This is done partly for construction convenience,
to avoid handling and supporting very long column bars, but it is also done to permit column steel
area to be reduced in steps, as loads become lighter at higher floors.
The lap length ls should be equal to at least the development length in compression and the
modifiers. ls should also satisfy the following, but not less than 12 inches:
if fc > 3,000 psi then
f y 60, 000 psi
l s 0.0005f yd b
f y > 60, 000 psi
l s (0.0009f y 24)d b
if fc < 3,000 psi then

f y 60, 000 psi
l s 1.333 0.0005f yd b
f y > 60, 000 psi
l s 1.333 (0.0009f y 24)d b
Column Splices (ACI 12.17.2)
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
Example of Bar Cutoff

A floor system consists of single span T-beams 8 ft on centers, supported by 12 in masonry walls spaced
at 25 ft between inside faces. The general arrangement is shown in below. A 5-inch monolithic slab to
be used in heavy storage warehouse. Determine the reinforcement configuration and the cutoff points.
Check the provisions of ACI 318 for bar cutoff.

fy = 60,000 psi
8.0'
b
8.0'
26'
1.0'
8.0'
Typical
1.0'
?
5"
22" 18"
26'-0"
for definition
SeeSee
ACIACI
8.9 8.7
for definition
of span
of
span
length
length
12"
DeadDead
LoadLoad
Weight of5 slab = <tok_Tab>5 (in) x (1/12) (ft/in) x 150 (lb/ft3) x 7 (ft)
<tok_Tab><tok_Tab><tok_Tab>440
Weight of slab
= ( ft )(7 ft )(150lb / ft 3 ) = 440 lblb/ft
/ ft
12beam=<tok_Tab>
weight of
<tok_Tab>wd
= 440 + 275 = 715 lb/ft
12
22
Weight of beam
= ( ft )( =ft860
<tok_Tab>1.2wd
lb/ft
)((150
lb / ft 3 ) = 275 lb / ft
12
12
wD = 440 + 275 = 715 lb / ft

Live Load.1.2wD = 860 lb / ft
Referring to Table 1.1 in your notes, for Storage Warehouse - Heavy, wL =250 psf
Live Load
<tok_Tab>wL = 250 (lb/ft2) x (8 ft) = 2,000 lb/ft
Referring to Table
of 1.1 in your
<tok_Tab>1.6wL
= notes,
3,200 for
lb/ftStorage Warehouse Heavy, wL = 250 psf
wL = (250lb / ft 2 )(8 ft ) = 2, 000lb / ft
1.6wL = 3, 200 lb / ft
CIVL 4135
17
Bar Cutoff
Find Flange Width
26 12
= 78 inches
4
16h f + bw = 80 + 12 = 92 inches
Controls b = 48 inches
L/4 =
Centerline spacing = 8 12 = 96 inches

Determine Factored Load
wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL = 860 + 3, 200 = 4060 lb / ft = 4.06 kips/ft

Determine Factored Moment
1
M u = wu l 2
8
1
M u = (4.06)(26) 2 = 343 ft-kips
8
Design the T-beam
Use a trial and error procedure. First, assume for the first trial that the stress block depth
will be equal to the slab thickness (a = 5 inches):
As =
a=
Mu
343 12
76.2
= 4.92 in2
=
=
f y (d a / 2) 0.9 60(18 5 / 2) 18 5 / 2
As f y
'
c
0.85 f b
4.92 60
= 4.92 0.226 = 1.11 < h f = 5 inches ok.
0.85 4 78
The stress block depth is less than the slab thickness; therefore, the beam will act as a
rectangular beam and the rectangular beam equations are valid.
Adjust trial
As =
a=
Mu
76.2
=
= = 4.37 in2
f y (d a / 2) 18 1.11 / 2
As f y
0.85 f c'b
= 4.73 0.226 = 0.99
Next trial
As =
Mu
76.2
=
= = 4.35 in2
f y (d a / 2) 18 0.99 / 2
Close enough to previous iteration of 4.37 in2. Stop here.
CIVL 4135
18
Bar Cutoff
Use 6- #8 bars As = 4.71 in2
1.5"
clear
1.5"
clear
Check ACI for Maximum Steel:
78"
78"
hf=5"
0.85 f c'
Cc
Cc
d = 18"
18"
d c
max
2
AAsmax
=
?
in
= ? in2
s
d*c
Ts = As f y
s = t = 0.004
12"
Using similar triangles:
u
0.004
c
0.007
c
=
c = 7.71 inches
d c
0.004 18 c
a = 1c = 0.85 7.71 = 6.65 inches

Asmax f y = 0.85 fc' [78 5 + 12 1.56] Asmax = 23.16 in2
Since As = 4.71 in 2 23.16 in 2 , we satisfy the ACI code and we will have tension failure.
CIVL 4135
19
Bar Cutoff
1.5"
clear
d = 18 in
6- #8
As=4.71 in2
d = 18+0.5+.5
d =19 in 2- #8
As=1.57 in2
4- #8
As=3.14 in2
CASE 1
CASE 2
4 bars
As = 3.14
d = 18 in
2 bars
As = 1.57
d = 19 in
clear spacing =6.25 in
clear spacing = 6.25 in
6 bars
As = 4.71
d = 18 in
center60
to center spacing = 3.63 in
CASE 3
center to center spacing = 7.25 in
Vu (kips)
Note: Clear bar spacing is equal to:

40
20
stirrups
bars
cover
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Determine the Development Length Distance From Support (ft)
10
11
12
13
10
11
12
13
400
350
Mu (ft-kips)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
Distance From Support (ft)
CIVL 4135
20
Bar Cutoff
Note:
Note:Code allows discontinuing 2/3 of longitudinal bars for simple spans. Therefore, lets cut 4 bars.
<tok_Tab>Code allows discontinuities of 2/3 of longitudinal bars for simple spans. Therefore, let's
cut 4 bars
Capacity of section after 4 bars are discontinued:
Capacity
after 4 bars are discontinued:
As f yof section
1.57 60
a=
=
= 0.355 inches
0.85 f c'b 0.85 4 78
a
M u (2 bars) = M n = As f y (d )
2
0.355 1
M u (2 bars) = 0.9 1.57 60(19
) = 133
2
12
ft kips

a=
As f y
'
c
0.85 f b
3.14 60
= 0.71 inches
0.85 4 78
a
2
0.71 1
M u (4 bars) = 0.9 3.14 60(18
) = 250 ft kips
2
12
Find the location where the moment is equal to Mu( 2 bars)
wu wu==4.06
kip / ft
4.06 k/ft
Find the location where the moment is equal

to M u (2 bars ) :
x
1
M = 52.7 x (4.06) x 2
2
52.78 kips
52.78 kips
M = 52.7 x 2.03x 2
M u (2bars ) = 52.7 x 2.03x = 133
2
52.78 52.782 4 133 2.03

Find2.03
the location
where
the= moment
x 2 52.78
x + 133
0 x = is equal to Mu (4 bars)
= 2.8 ft
2 2.03
Find the location where the moment is equal to M u (4 bars ) :
M u (4 bars ) = 52.7 x 2.03x 2 = 250
2.03x 2 52.78x + 250 = 0 x =
CIVL 4135
52.78 52.782 4 250 2.03

= 6.3 ft
2 2.03
21
Bar Cutoff
CIVL 4135
22
Bar Cutoff
1.5"
clear
6- #8
As=4.71 in2
d = 18 in
4- #8
As=3.14 in2
CASE 1
d = 18+0.5+.5
d =19 in 2- #8
As=1.57 in2
CASE 2
4 bars
As = 3.14
d = 18 in
2 bars
As = 1.57
d = 19 in
6 bars
As = 4.71
d = 18 in
CASE 3

3
8
= 12 2 stirrups
no. of bars bars
2 (1.5 ) cover
no. of bars in one row - 1
8
8
Determine the Development Length
Determine the development length
t = 1.0
s = 1.0
e = 1.0
= 1.0
Atr = 0.22 in 2
n=3
s = 9 in
ktr =
Atr f yt
1500 sn
0.22 60,000
= 0.33
1500 9 3
1
(3.63) = 1.8 in control
c = 2
1.5 + 3/ 8 + 0.5 = 2.375 in
CIVL 4135
c + ktr 1.8 + 0.33

=
= 2.13 < 2.5 ok
db
1.00
23
Bar Cutoff
3 60,000 1111
3 f y t e s
ld =
db =
1 = 33 in
40 f ' c + k
40
2.13
4,000
tr
c

db
ld = 33 in = 2.75 ft
ld = 2.75
Asrequired
4.35
= 2.75
= 2.54
provided
As
4.71
CIVL 4135
ft
24
Bar Cutoff
Extend bars:
12db = 12 1.00 = 12 inches = 1 ft
= 18 Bars:
inches = 1.5 ft controls
d Extend
<tok_Tab>12db = 12 ( 1.0) = 12 inches = 1.0 ft

or
<tok_Tab>d = 18 / 12 = 1.5 ft
Governs
400
350
Mu (ft-kips)
300
250
200
150
100
CL
50
0
0
10
11
12
13
> ld = 2.54'
3.05'
2.8'
6.7'
3.5'
> ld = 2.54'
5'
11.7'
> ld = 2.54'
8.2'
1.3'
3"
1.5'
1.5'
2-#8 2-#8 2-#8 One Layer

12"
CIVL 4135
25
Bar Cutoff
Check Zero Moment:
Check Zero Moment:
3"
Check Zero Moment:
ld 1.3
Mn
+ la
Vu
343
= 381 ft.kips
0.9
38112
ld 1.3
+ 3.00 = 116 inches
52.78
ld = 2.54 ft = 2.54 12 = 31 inches 116 inches ok
Mn =
Mu
3"
12"
12"
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of sufficiently small diameter
sufficiently small diameter and the required
the required
anchorage
requirement
anchorage
requirement
of the ACI code
is satisfied. of the ACI code is satisfied.
and
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of sufficiently small diameter and
of the ACI code is satisfied.
Check for
shear Complication
Complications(ACI
12.10.5)
Check
shear
12.10.5)
the for
required
anchorage(ACI
requirement
Vc = 2 f c' bwd = 2 4,000 12 18 = 27.3 kips

A for
f d shear
Check
Complications
(ACI 12.10.5)
(0.22)
60 18
Vs = v y =
= 26.4 kips
s
9
Vu = (Vc + Vs ) = 0.75 ( 27.3 + 26.4 ) = 40.3 kips
4.06 k/ft
Vu(x = 1.3) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 1.3 = 47.5 kips
4.06 k/ft
Vu(x = 1.3) = 47.5 kips > (2/3) x 40.3 = 26.9
Vu(x = 1.3) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 1.3 = 47.5 kips

Vu(x
> (2/3)
26.9
Vu(x == 1.3)
4.8) =
= 47.5
52.78kips
- 4.06
x 4.8x =40.3
33.3= kips
Vu
x
52.78 kips
Vu(x = 4.8) = 33.3 kips > (2/3) x 40.3 = 26.9
Vu
Vu(x = 4.8) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 4.8 = 33.3 kips
52.78 kips
Vu(x
= additional
4.8) = 33.3reiforcements
kips > (2/3) xat40.3
26.9 points.
Need
both=cutoff
Need additional reiforcements at both cutoff points.
CIVL 4135
26
Bar Cutoff
Check for Shear Complications (ACI12.10.5), Continued
A f
(0.22)bw 60,000
s= v y =
= 18.33 in
60bw
60 12
Check for shear Complications (ACI 12.10.5), Continued
d
18
s=
=
= 6.7 in controls use 6 inches
8 d
2
8
6
Governs use 6 inches
Provide additional reinforcement for a length of (3/4)d/

provide additional shear reinforcedment for a length of (3/4)d
3
3
d = 18 = 13.5 inches
4
4
13'
11.7'
8.2'
1.5'
13.5 "
CIVL 4135
2-#8 2-#8 2-#8 One Layer
13.5 "
27
Bar Cutoff
page 231
Example 2.
The simply supported beam shown below is subjected to a uniform load. Cut the longitudinal reinforcing bars where they
are not required for flexure. Satisfy the provisions given in Chapter 12 of ACI 318--89.
f c = 5 ksi
f y = 60 ksi
18.5
24
21
14
10
24--0
10
12
100
V n
80
Vu (kips) 60
40
20
0
500
M n 5
400
M n 4
M n 3
300
4
6
8
Distance from support, ft
10
12
10
12
M n 2
Mu (ft--kips)
200
100
0
CIVL 4135
4
6
8
Bar Cutoff
page 232
18.5
21
14
5 -- #10 bars
4 -- #10 bars
M n5 = 480 kips ft
M n4 = 393 kips ft
d = 20 in
3 -- #10 bars
2 -- #10 bars
M n3 = 327 kips ft M n2 = 225 kips ft
d = 19.75 in
d = 21 in
d = 21 in
Determine the permited shear force

V c = 2 f c b wd =
Vs =
2 5, 000 (14)(20)
= 39.6 kips
1, 000
A vf yd
(0.4)(60)(20)
=
= 60 kips
s
8
V n = V c + V s = 99.6 kips
d varies with cross-section

but assume d = 20 in for
shear calculations.
V n = 84.7 kips
2 V = 56.5 kips
3 n
if x is measured in feet from the beam centerline:

Mu =
w uL 2
w x2
u
8
2
Number
of
Bars
CIVL 4135
M n
kip--ft
V u = w ux
Intersection of
M u with M n
x (ft)
x(in)
480
--
--
393
4.8
57.7
327
6.6
79.0
225
8.6
103.7
Bar Cutoff
page 233
OPTION 1: (d varies with cross-section, use d = 21 in.)

Cut two upper bars first
ld from centerline
OR
d, 12db from where no

longer needed for flexure
79 in + 21 in
43.1 in
V u(x = 100in) = 6.5 100 = 54.2 kips < 2 V n
12
3
100 in
satisfies 12.10.5
Cut middle bar
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 234
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
ARCH 331
Note Set 15.2
F2009abn
Beam Loads & Load Tracing

In order to determine the loads on a beam (or girder, joist, column, frame, foundation...) we can
start at the top of a structure and determine the tributary area that a load acts over and the beam
needs to support. Loads come from material weights, people, and the environment. This area is
assumed to be from half the distance to the next beam over to halfway to the next beam.
The reactions must be supported by the next lower structural element ad infinitum, to the ground.
Design Procedure
The intent is to find the most light weight member satisfying the section modulus size.
1. Know Fb (allowable stress) for the material or Fy & Fu for LRFD.
2. Draw V & M, finding Mmax.
3. Calculate Sreqd. This step is equivalent to determining f b
bh 2
4. For rectangular beams S
6
-
M max
Fb
S
For steel or timber: use the section charts to find S that will work and remember that
the beam self weight will increase Sreqd. And for steel, the design charts show the
wself wt A
lightest section within a grouping of similar Ss.
For any thing else, try a nice value for b, and calculate h or the other way around.
****Determine the updated Vmax and Mmax including the beam self weight, and verify that the
updated Sreqd has been met.******
5. Consider lateral stability
6. Evaluate horizontal shear stresses using Vmax to determine if f v Fv
3V
V
VQ
or
2 A Aweb
Ib
P
f p Fp
A
f vmax
For rectangular beams, Ws, and others:

7. Provide adequate bearing area at supports:
8. Evaluate shear due to torsion
T
T
or
Fv
J
c1 ab 2
(circular section or rectangular)
fv
9. Evaluate the deflection to determine if max LL LLallowed and/or maxTotal T allowed

**** note: when calculated > limit, Irequired can be found with:
and Sreqd will be satisfied for similar self weight *****
I req' d
too big
I trial
lim it
FOR ANY EVALUATION:

Redesign (with a new section) at any point that a stress or serviceability criteria is
NOT satisfied and re-evaluate each condition until it is satisfactory.
4
ARCH 331
Note Set 15.2
F2009abn
Beam Design Flow Chart

Collect data: L, , , llimits; find beam charts
for load cases and actual equations
ASD
LRFD
Allowable Stress or
LRFD Design?
Collect data: Fb & Fv
Collect data: load factors, Fy,

Fu, and equations for shear
capacity with V
Find Vmax & Mmax from

constructing diagrams or
using beam chart formulas
Find Vu & Mu from

with the factored loads
Find Sreqd and pick a section

from a table with Sx greater or
equal to Sreqd
Pick a steel section from a chart

having bMn Mu for the known
unbraced length
Calculate self wt. using A found

and . Find Mmax-adj & Vmax-adj.
Is Vu v(0.6FywebAweb)
No
Calculate Sreqd-adj using Mmax-adj.

Is Sx(picked) Sreqd-adj?
(OR calculate fb. Is fb Fb?)
Yes
No
pick a section
with a larger
web area
Yes
Calculate Areqd-adj using Vmax-adj.

Is A(picked) Areqd-adj?
(OR calculate fv. Is fv Fv?)
No
pick a new section with a
larger area
Calculate max (no load factors!)
using superpositioning and beam
chart equations with the Ix for the
section
is max limits?
This may be both the limit for live load
deflection and total load deflection.)
Yes
(DONE)
No
pick a section with a larger I x
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Steel Design
Notation:
a
A
Ab
Ae
=
=
=
=
Ag
Agv
An
Ant
Anv
Aw
AISC=
ASD =
b
=
=
bf
=
=
B1
c1
Cb
Cc
Cm
Cv
d
=
=
=
=
name for width dimension

name for area
area of a bolt
effective net area found from the
product of the net area An by the
shear lag factor U
gross area, equal to the total area
ignoring any holes
gross area subjected to shear for
block shear rupture
net area, equal to the gross area
subtracting any holes, as is Anet
net area subjected to tension for
block shear rupture
net area subjected to shear for block
shear rupture
area of the web of a wide flange
section
American Institute of Steel
Construction
allowable stress design
name for a (base) width
total width of material at a
horizontal section
name for height dimension
width of the flange of a steel beam
cross section
factor for determining Mu for
combined bending and compression
largest distance from the neutral
axis to the top or bottom edge of a
beam
coefficient for shear stress for a
rectangular bar in torsion
lateral torsional buckling
modification factor for moment in
ASD & LRFD steel beam design
column slenderness classification
constant for steel column design
modification factor accounting for
combined stress in steel design
web shear coefficient
calculus symbol for differentiation
depth of a wide flange section
nominal bolt diameter
db
D
DL
e
E
nominal bolt diameter

shorthand for dead load
shorthand for dead load
eccentricity
shorthand for earthquake load
modulus of elasticity
fc
axial compressive stress
fb
bending stress
fp
bearing stress
fv
shear stress
fv-max
maximum shear stress
fy
yield stress
F
shorthand for fluid load
Fallow(able) = allowable stress
Fa
= allowable axial (compressive) stress
Fb
= allowable bending stress
Fcr = flexural buckling stress
Fe
= elastic critical buckling stress
FEXX = yield strength of weld material
Fn
= nominal strength in LRFD
= nominal tension or shear strength of
a bolt
Fp
= allowable bearing stress
Ft
= allowable tensile stress
Fu
= ultimate stress prior to failure
Fv
= allowable shear stress
Fy
= yield strength
Fyw = yield strength of web material
F.S. = factor of safety
g
= gage spacing of staggered bolt
holes
G
= relative stiffness of columns to
beams in a rigid connection, as is
h
= name for a height
hc
= height of the web of a wide flange
steel section
H
= shorthand for lateral pressure load
I
= moment of inertia with respect to
neutral axis bending
Itrial = moment of inertia of trial section
Ireqd = moment of inertia required at
limiting deflection
Iy
= moment of inertia about the y axis
J
= polar moment of inertia
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
= distance from outer face of W

flange to the web toe of fillet
= shape factor for plastic design of
steel beams
K
= effective length factor for columns,
as is k
l
= name for length
= length of beam in rigid joint
b
= length of column in rigid joint
c
L
= name for length or span length
= shorthand for live load
Lb
= unbraced length of a steel beam
Lc
= clear distance between the edge of a
hole and edge of next hole or edge
of the connected steel plate in the
direction of the load
Le
= effective length that can buckle for
column design, as is e
Lr
= shorthand for live roof load
= maximum unbraced length of a
steel beam in LRFD design for
inelastic lateral-torsional buckling
Lp
= maximum unbraced length of a
steel beam in LRFD design for full
plastic flexural strength
L
= length of an angle in a connector
with staggered holes
LL = shorthand for live load
LRFD = load and resistance factor design
M
= internal bending moment
Ma = required bending moment (ASD)
Mn = nominal flexure strength with the
full section at the yield stress for
LRFD beam design
Mmax = maximum internal bending moment
Mmax-adj = maximum bending moment
adjusted to include self weight
Mp = internal bending moment when all
fibers in a cross section reach the
yield stress
Mu = maximum moment from factored
loads for LRFD beam design
My = internal bending moment when the
extreme fibers in a cross section
reach the yield stress
n
= number of bolts
n.a. = shorthand for neutral axis
S2014abn
= bearing length on a wide flange

steel section
= bearing type connection with
threads included in shear plane
p
= bolt hole spacing (pitch)
P
= name for load or axial force vector
Pa
= allowable axial force
= required axial force (ASD)
Pallowable = allowable axial force
Pc
= available axial strength
Pe1 = Euler buckling strength
Pn
= nominal column load capacity in
LRFD steel design
Pr
= required axial force
Pu
= factored column load calculated
from load factors in LRFD steel
design
Q
= first moment area about a neutral
axis
= generic axial load quantity for
LRFD design
r
= radius of gyration
ry
= radius of gyration with respect to a
y-axis
R
= generic load quantity (force, shear,
moment, etc.) for LRFD design
= shorthand for rain or ice load
= radius of curvature of a deformed
beam
Ra
= required strength (ASD)
Rn
= nominal value (capacity) to be
multiplied by in LRFD and
divided by the safety factor in
ASD
Ru
= factored design value for LRFD
design
s
= longitudinal center-to-center
spacing of any two consecutive
holes
S
= shorthand for snow load
= section modulus
= allowable strength per length of a
weld for a given size
Sreqd = section modulus required at
allowable stress
Sreqd-adj = section modulus required at
allowable stress when moment is
SC = slip critical bolted connection
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t
tf
tw
T
Note Set 18
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
thickness of the connected material

thickness of flange of wide flange
thickness of web of wide flange
torque (axial moment)
shorthand for thermal load
throat size of a weld
U
shear lag factor for steel tension
member design
Ubs = reduction coefficient for block
shear rupture
V
= internal shear force
Va
= required shear (ASD)
Vmax = maximum internal shear force
Vmax-adj = maximum internal shear force
Vn
= nominal shear strength capacity for
LRFD beam design
Vu
= maximum shear from factored loads
for LRFD beam design
w
= name for distributed load
wadjusted = adjusted distributed load for
equivalent live load deflection limit
wequivalent = the equivalent distributed load
derived from the maximum bending
moment
wself wt = name for distributed load from self
weight of member
W
= shorthand for wind load
x
= horizontal distance
X
= bearing type connection with
threads excluded from the shear
plane
S2014abn
y
Z
= vertical distance
= plastic section modulus of a steel
beam
Zreqd = plastic section modulus required
Zx
= plastic section modulus of a steel
beam with respect to the x axis
= method factor for B1 equation

actual = actual beam deflection
allowable = allowable beam deflection
limit = allowable beam deflection limit
max = maximum beam deflection
= yield strain (no units)
y
= resistance factor
= diameter symbol
= resistance factor for bending for
LRFD
= resistance factor for compression
for LRFD
= resistance factor for tension for
LRFD
= resistance factor for shear for
LRFD
= load factor in LRFD design
=
=
=
=
=
=
b
c
t
v
Steel Design
Structural design standards for steel are established
by the Manual of Steel Construction published by the
American Institute of Steel Construction, and uses
Allowable Stress Design and Load and Factor
Resistance Design. With the 13th edition, both
methods are combined in one volume which provides
common requirements for analyses and design and
requires the application of the same set of
specifications.
pi (3.1415 radians or 180)

slope of the beam deflection curve
radial distance
safety factor for ASD
symbol for integration
summation symbol
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Materials
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) is the organization responsible for material and
other standards related to manufacturing. Materials meeting their standards are guaranteed to
have the published strength and material properties for a designation.
A36 carbon steel used for plates, angles
A572 high strength low-alloy use for some beams
A992 for building framing used for most beams
(A572 Grade 50 has the same properties as A992)
Ra
ASD
Rn
Fy = 36 ksi, Fu = 58 ksi, E = 29,000 ksi

Fy = 60 ksi, Fu = 75 ksi, E = 29,000 ksi
Fy = 50 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi, E = 29,000 ksi
where
Ra = required strength (dead or live; force, moment or stress)

Rn = nominal strength specified for ASD
= safety factor
Factors of Safety are applied to the limit stresses for allowable stress values:
= 1.67
= 1.67 (nominal moment reduces)
= 1.5 or 1.67
= 2.00 (tabular nominal strength)
= 2.00
bending (braced, Lb < Lp)

bending (unbraced, Lp < Lb and Lb > Lr)
shear (beams)
shear (bolts)
shear (welds)
-
Lb is the unbraced length between bracing points, laterally

Lp is the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding
Lr is the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic lateral-torsional
buckling
LRFD
where Ru i Ri
Ru Rn
where
= resistance factor
= load factor for the type of load
R = load (dead or live; force, moment or stress)
Ru = factored load (moment or stress)
Rn = nominal load (ultimate capacity; force, moment or stress)
Nominal strength is defined as the

capacity of a structure or component to resist the effects of loads, as determined by
computations using specified material strengths (such as yield strength, F y, or ultimate
strength, Fu) and dimensions and formulas derived from accepted principles of structural
mechanics or by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled models, allowing for modeling
effects and differences between laboratory and field conditions
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Factored Load Combinations

The design strength, Rn , of each structural element or structural assembly must equal or exceed
the design strength based on the ASCE-7 (2010) combinations of factored nominal loads:
1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S
0.9D + 1.0W
0.9D + 1.0E
Criteria for Design of Beams
Fb or Fn f b
Allowable normal stress or normal stress from LRFD should not be

exceeded:
Mc
I
( M a M n / or M u b M n )
Knowing M and Fy, the minimum plastic section modulus fitting the limit is:
Z req 'd
Determining Maximum Bending Moment
M
S req' d
Fb
Ma
Fy
Drawing V and M diagrams will show us the maximum values for design. Remember:
V (w)dx
M (V )dx
dV
w
dx
dM
V
dx
Determining Maximum Bending Stress

For a prismatic member (constant cross section), the maximum normal stress will occur at the
maximum moment.
For a non-prismatic member, the stress varies with the cross section AND the moment.
Deflections
1 M ( x)
R
EI
If the bending moment changes, M(x) across a beam of constant material and cross
section then the curvature will change:
slope
The slope of the n.a. of a beam, , will be tangent to the radius of

curvature, R:
The equation for deflection, y, along a beam is:
1
M ( x)dx
EI
1
1
dx
EI
EI
M ( x)dx
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Elastic curve equations can be found in handbooks, textbooks, design manuals, etc...Computer
programs can be used as well. Elastic curve equations can be superimposed ONLY if the stresses
are in the elastic range.
The deflected shape is roughly the same shape flipped as the bending moment diagram but is
constrained by supports and geometry.
Allowable Deflection Limits

All building codes and design codes limit deflection for beam types and damage that could
happen based on service condition and severity.
ymax ( x) actual allowable L

Use
LL only
Roof beams:
Industrial
L/180
Commercial
plaster ceiling
L/240
no plaster
L/360
Floor beams:
Ordinary Usage
L/360
Roof or floor (damageable elements)
value
DL+LL
L/120
L/180
L/240
L/240
L/480
Lateral Buckling
With compression stresses in the top of a beam, a sudden popping or buckling can happen
even at low stresses. In order to prevent it, we need to brace it along the top, or laterally brace it,
or provide a bigger Iy.
Local Buckling in Steel Wide-flange Beams Web Crippling or Flange Buckling
Concentrated forces on a steel beam can cause the web to buckle (called web crippling). Web
stiffeners under the beam loads and bearing plates at the supports reduce that tendency. Web
stiffeners also prevent the web from shearing in plate girders.
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The maximum support load and interior load can be

determined from:
Pn (max end) ( 2.5k N )Fyw t w

Pn (interior) ( 5k N )Fyw t w
where
tw = thickness of the web

Fyw = yield strength of the web
N = bearing length
k = dimension to fillet found in beam section tables
= 1.00 (LRFD)
= 1.50 (ASD)
Beam Loads & Load Tracing

In order to determine the loads on a beam (or girder, joist, column, frame, foundation...) we can
start at the top of a structure and determine the tributary area that a load acts over and the beam
needs to support. Loads come from material weights, people, and the environment. This area is
assumed to be from half the distance to the next beam over to halfway to the next beam.
The reactions must be supported by the next lower structural element ad infinitum, to the ground.
LRFD - Bending or Flexure

For determining the flexural design strength, b M n , for resistance to pure bending (no axial
load) in most flexural members where the following conditions exist, a single calculation will
suffice:
i Ri M u b M n 0.9Fy Z
where
Mu = maximum moment from factored loads

b = resistance factor for bending = 0.9
Mn = nominal moment (ultimate capacity)
Fy = yield strength of the steel
Z = plastic section modulus
Plastic Section Modulus

fy = 50ksi
Plastic behavior is characterized by a yield point and an

increase in strain with no increase in stress.
E
1
y = 0.001724
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Internal Moments and Plastic Hinges

Plastic hinges can develop when all of the material in a cross
section sees the yield stress. Because all the material at that section
can strain without any additional load, the member segments on
either side of the hinge can rotate, possibly causing instability.
For a rectangular section:
I
bh 2
b2c
2bc 2
M y fy
fy
fy
fy
c
6
6
3
2
Elastic to fy:
Fully Plastic:
M ult or M p bc 2 f y 3 M y
2
For a non-rectangular section and internal equilibrium at y, the

n.a. will not necessarily be at the centroid. The n.a. occurs where
the Atension = Acompression. The reactions occur at the centroids of the
tension and compression areas.
Instability from Plastic Hinges
Atension = Acompression
Shape Factor:
The ratio of the plastic moment to the elastic moment at yield:
Mp
k = 3/2 for a rectangle

k 1.1 for an I beam
My
Plastic Section Modulus
Mp
fy
and
kZ
S
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Design for Shear
Va Vn / or Vu vVn
The nominal shear strength is dependent on the cross section shape. Case 1: With a thick or stiff
web, the shear stress is resisted by the web of a wide flange shape (with the exception of a
handful of Ws). Case 2: When the web is not stiff for doubly symmetric shapes, singly
symmetric shapes (like channels) (excluding round high strength steel shapes), inelastic web
buckling occurs. When the web is very slender, elastic web buckling occurs, reducing the
capacity even more:
Case 1) For h t w 2.24
E
Fy
Vn 0.6Fyw Aw
v = 1.00 (LRFD)
= 1.50 (ASD)
where h equals the clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner
radius for rolled shapes
Vn = nominal shear strength
Fyw = yield strength of the steel in the web
Aw = twd = area of the web
Case 2) For h t w 2.24
E
Fy
Vn 0.6Fyw AwCv
v = 0.9 (LRFD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
where Cv is a reduction factor (1.0 or less by equation)

Design for Flexure
M a M n / or M u b M n
b = 0.90 (LRFD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
The nominal flexural strength Mn is the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of
1. yielding, limited at length L p 1.76ry
E
, where ry is the radius of gyration in y
Fy
2. lateral-torsional buckling limited at length Lr

3. flange local buckling
4. web local buckling
Beam design charts show available moment, Mn/ and b M n , for unbraced length, Lb, of the
compression flange in one-foot increments from 1 to 50 ft. for values of the bending coefficient
Cb = 1. For values of 1<Cb2.3, the required flexural strength Mu can be reduced by dividing it
by Cb. (Cb = 1 when the bending moment at any point within an unbraced length is larger than
that at both ends of the length. Cb of 1 is conservative and permitted to be used in any case.
When the free end is unbraced in a cantilever or overhang, Cb = 1. The full formula is provided
below.)
NOTE: the self weight is not included in determination of Mn/ b M n
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Compact Sections
For a laterally braced compact section (one for which the plastic moment can be reached before
local buckling) only the limit state of yielding is applicable. For unbraced compact beams and
non-compact tees and double angles, only the limit states of yielding and lateral-torsional
buckling are applicable.
bf
h
E
E
0.38
Compact sections meet the following criteria:
and c 3.76
2t f
Fy
tw
Fy
where:
bf = flange width in inches
tf = flange thickness in inches
E = modulus of elasticity in ksi
Fy = minimum yield stress in ksi
hc = height of the web in inches
tw = web thickness in inches
With lateral-torsional buckling the nominal flexural strength is
M n Cb M p ( M p 0.7 Fy S x
Lb L p
Mp
)
L L
r
p
where Mp = Mn = FyZx
and Cb is a modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams where, when both ends of
the beam segment are braced:
12.5M max
Cb
2.5M max 3M A 4M B 3M C
Mmax = absolute value of the maximum moment in the unbraced beam segment
MA = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of the unbraced beam segment
MB = absolute value of the moment at the center point of the unbraced beam segment
MC = absolute value of the moment at the three quarter point of the unbraced beam
segment length.
Available Flexural Strength Plots

Plots of the available moment for the unbraced length for wide flange sections are useful to find
sections to satisfy the design criteria of M a M n / or M u b M n . The maximum moment
that can be applied on a beam (taking self weight into account), Ma or Mu, can be plotted against
the unbraced length, Lb. The limiting length, Lp (fully plastic), is indicated by a solid dot (),
while the limiting length, Lr (for lateral torsional buckling), is indicated by an open dot ( ).
Solid lines indicate the most economical, while dashed lines indicate there is a lighter section
that could be used. Cb, which is a lateral torsional buckling modification factor for non-zero
moments at the ends, is 1 for simply supported beams (0 moments at the ends). (see figure)
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Design Procedure
The intent is to find the most light weight member (which is economical) satisfying the section
modulus size.
1. Determine the unbraced length to choose the limit state (yielding, lateral torsional buckling
or more extreme) and the factor of safety and limiting moments. Determine the material.
2. Draw V & M, finding V max and Mmax.for unfactored loads (ASD, Va & Ma) or from factored
loads (LRFD, Vu & Mu)
3. Calculate Zreqd when yielding is the limit state. This step is equivalent to determining if
M
M
M
Mu
f b max Fb , Z req' d max max and Z req 'd
to meet the design criteria that
Fy
Fb
S
b Fy
M a M n / or M u b M n
If the limit state is something other than yielding,
determine the nominal moment, Mn, or use plots of
available moment to unbraced length, Lb.
4. For steel: use the section charts to find a trial Z and
remember that the beam self weight (the second number
in the section designation) will increase Zreqd. The
design charts show the lightest section within a grouping
of similar Zs.
**** Determine the updated Vmax and Mmax including the
beam self weight, and verify that the updated Zreqd has been met.******
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5. Consider lateral stability.

6. Evaluate horizontal shear using Vmax. This step is equivalent to determining if f v Fv is
satisfied to meet the design criteria that Va Vn / or Vu vVn
For I beams:
Others:
3V
V
V
2 A Aweb t w d
VQ
Ib
f vmax
f vmax
Vn 0.6Fyw Aw
or Vn 0.6Fyw AwCv
7. Provide adequate bearing area at supports. This step is equivalent to determining if

is satisfied to meet the design criteria that Pa Pn / or Pu Pn
8. Evaluate shear due to torsion
fv
fp
P
Fp
A
T
T
or
Fv (circular section or rectangular)
J
c1 ab 2
9. Evaluate the deflection to determine if max LL LLallowed and/or maxTotal Total allowed
**** note: when calculated > limit, Ireqd can be found with:
and Zreqd will be satisfied for similar self weight *****
I req' d
too big
I trial
lim it
FOR ANY EVALUATION:

Redesign (with a new section) at any point that a stress or serviceability criteria is
NOT satisfied and re-evaluate each condition until it is satisfactory.
Load Tables for Uniformly Loaded Joists & Beams

Tables exist for the common loading situation of uniformly distributed load. The tables either
provide the safe distributed load based on bending and deflection limits, they give the allowable
span for specific live and dead loads including live load deflection limits.
wequivalentL2
M max
If the load is not uniform, an equivalent uniform load can be calculated
8
from the maximum moment equation:
If the deflection limit is less, the design live load to
check against allowable must be increased, ex.
Criteria for Design of Columns

If we know the loads, we can select a section that is
adequate for strength & buckling.
If we know the length, we can find the limiting load
satisfying strength & buckling.
12
L / 360
wadjusted wll have
L / 400
table limit
wanted
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Allowable Stress Design

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual of ASD, 9 th ed:
Long and slender: [ Le/r Cc, preferably < 200]
Fcr
12 2 E
Fallowable
F .S . 23 Kl 2
r
The yield limit is idealized into a parabolic curve that blends into the Eulers Formula at C c.
Cc
With Fy = 36 ksi, Cc = 126.1

With Fy = 50 ksi, Cc = 107.0
2 2 E
Fy
Short and stubby: [Le/r < Cc]
Kl F
r y
Fa 1
2Cc2 F .S .
with:
F .S .
r Kl r
3 Kl
3 8C c
8C c3
Design for Compression

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual 14th ed:
Pa Pn / or Pu c Pn
where Pu i Pi
is a load factor
P is a load type
is a resistance factor
Pn is the nominal load capacity (strength)
= 0.90 (LRFD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
For compression Pn Fcr Ag

where :
Ag is the cross section area and Fcr is the flexural buckling stress
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The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:

when
KL
E
or ( Fe 0.44Fy ):
4.71
r
Fy
Fy
Fcr 0.658 Fe Fy
when
KL
E
or ( Fe 0.44Fy ):
4.71
r
Fy
Fcr 0.877 Fe
where Fe is the elastic critical buckling stress:
Fe
2E
KL r
Design Aids
Sample AISC Table for Available Strength in Axial Compression
Tables exist for the value of the flexural buckling stress based on slenderness ratio. In addition,
tables are provided in the AISC Manual for Available Strength in Axial Compression based on
the effective length with respect to least radius of gyration, ry. If the critical effective length is
about the largest radius of gyration, rx, it can be turned into an effective length about the y axis
by dividing by the fraction rx/ry.
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Procedure for Analysis

1. Calculate KL/r for each axis (if necessary). The largest will govern the buckling load.
2. Find Fa or Fcr as a function of KL/r from the appropriate equation (above) or table.
3. Compute Pallowable = FaA or Pn = FcrAg
or alternatively compute fc = P/A or Pu/A
4. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P Pallowable (or Pa Pn/) or Pu cPn? yes, it is; no, it is no good
or Is fc Fa (or Fcr/) or cFcr? yes, it is; no, it is no good
Procedure for Design
1. Guess a size by picking a section.
2. Calculate KL/r for each axis (if necessary). The largest will govern the buckling load.
3. Find Fa or Fcr as a function of KL/r from appropriate equation (above) or table.
4. Compute Pallowable = FaA or Pn = FcrAg
or alternatively compute fc = P/A or Pu/A
5. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P Pallowable (Pa Pn/ ) or Pu cPn? yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go
back to step 2.
Is fc Fa ( Fcr/) or cFcr? yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go back to
step 2.
6. Check design efficiency by calculating percentage of stress used:
P
P
100% a 100% or u 100%
P
Pallowable
n
c Pn

If value is between 90-100%, it is efficient.

If values is less than 90%, pick a smaller section and go back to step 2.
Columns with Bending (Beam-Columns)

In order to design an adequate section for allowable stress, we have to start somewhere:
1. Make assumptions about the limiting stress from:
- buckling
- axial stress
- combined stress
2. See if we can find values for r or A or Z.
3. Pick a trial section based on if we think r or A is going to govern the section size.
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4. Analyze the stresses and compare to allowable using the allowable stress method or
interaction formula for eccentric columns.
5. Did the section pass the stress test?
- If not, do you increase r or A or Z?
- If so, is the difference really big so that you could decrease r or A or Z to make it
more efficient (economical)?
6. Change the section choice and go back to step 4. Repeat until the section meets the
stress criteria.
Design for Combined Compression and Flexure:

The interaction of compression and bending are included in the form for two conditions based on
the size of the required axial force to the available axial strength. This is notated as Pr (either P
from ASD or Pu from LRFD) for the axial force being supported, and Pc (either Pn/ for ASD or
cPn for LRFD). The increased bending moment due to the P- effect must be determined and
used as the moment to resist.
Pr
0.2 :
For
Pc
Pr
0.2 :
For
Pc
My
P
8 Mx

1.0
Pn
M ny
9 M nx
M uy
Pu
8 M ux
1.0

c Pn 9 b M nx b M ny
(ASD)
(LRFD)
P
2 Pn
Mx
My
1.0
M
M
nx
ny
(ASD)
M ux
M uy
Pu
1.0
2c Pn b M nx b M ny
(LRFD)
where:
for compression
for bending
c = 0.90 (LRFD)
b = 0.90 (LRFD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
m
1.0
For a braced condition, the moment magnification factor B1 is determined by B1
1 ( Pu Pe1 )
where Cm is a modification factor accounting for end conditions
When not subject to transverse loading between supports in plane of bending:
= 0.6 0.4 (M1/M2) where M1 and M2 are the end moments and M1<M2. M1/M2 is
positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature (same direction), negative
when bent in single curvature.
When there is transverse loading between the two ends of a member:
= 0.85, members with restrained (fixed) ends
2 EA
= 1.00, members with unrestrained ends
Pe1
= 1.00 (LRFD), 1.60 (ASD)

Pe1 = Euler buckling strength
16
Kl r
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Criteria for Design of Connections

Connections must be able to transfer any axial force, shear, or moment from member to member
or from beam to column.
Connections for steel are typically high strength bolts and electric arc welds. Recommended
practice for ease of construction is to specified shop welding and field bolting.
Bolted and Welded Connections

The limit state for connections depends on the loads:
1. tension yielding
2. shear yielding
3. bearing yielding
4. bending yielding due to eccentric loads
5. rupture
Welds must resist shear stress. The design
strengths depend on the weld materials.
Bolted Connection Design

Bolt designations signify material and type of connection where
SC: slip critical
N: bearing-type connection with bolt threads included in shear plane
X: bearing-type connection with bolt threads excluded from shear plane
A307: similar in strength to A36 steel (also known as ordinary, common or unfinished
bolts)
A325: high strength bolts (Group A)
A490: high strength bolts (higher than A325) (Group B)
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Bearing-type connection: no frictional resistance in the contact surfaces is assumed and

slip between members occurs as the load is applied. (Load transfer through bolt
only).
Slip-critical connections: bolts are torqued to a high tensile stress in the shank, resulting
in a clamping force on the connected parts. (Shear resisted by clamping force).
Requires inspections and is useful for structures seeing dynamic or fatigue loading.
Class A indicates the faying (contact) surfaces are clean mill scale or adequate paint
system, while Class B indicates blast cleaning or paint for = 0.50.
Bolts rarely fail in bearing. The material with the hole will more likely yield first.
For the determination of the net area of a bolt hole the width is taken as 1/16 greater than the
nominal dimension of the hole. Standard diameters for bolt holes are 1/16 larger than the bolt
diameter. (This means the net width will be 1/8 larger than the bolt.)
Design for Bolts in Bearing, Shear and Tension

Available shear values are given by bolt type, diameter, and loading (Single or Double shear) in
AISC manual tables. Available shear value for slip-critical connections are given for limit states
of serviceability or strength by bolt type, hole type (standard, short-slotted, long-slotted or
oversized), diameter, and loading. Available tension values are given by bolt type and diameter
in AISC manual tables.
Available bearing force values are given by bolt diameter, ultimate tensile strength, Fu, of the
connected part, and thickness of the connected part in AISC manual tables.
Ra Rn / or Ru Rn
For shear OR tension (same equation) in bolts:
where Ru i Ri
single shear (or tension)
Rn Fn Ab
double shear
Rn Fn 2 Ab
where
= the resistance factor

Fn = the nominal tension or shear strength of the bolt
Ab = the cross section area of the bolt
= 0.75 (LRFD)
= 2.00 (ASD)
Ra Rn / or Ru Rn
where Ru i Ri
For bearing of plate material at bolt holes:
deformation at bolt hole is a concern
Rn 1.2Lc tFu 2.4dtFu
deformation at bolt hole is not a concern
Rn 1.5Lc tFu 3.0dtFu
long slotted holes with the slot perpendicular to the load
Rn 1.0LctFu 2.0dtFu
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where
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Rn = the nominal bearing strength

Fu = specified minimum tensile strength
Lc = clear distance between the edges of the hole and the next hole or edge in
the direction of the load
d = nominal bolt diameter
t = thickness of connected material
= 0.75 (LRFD)
= 2.00 (ASD)
The minimum edge desistance from the center of the outer most bolt to the edge of a member is
generally 1 times the bolt diameter for the sheared edge and 1 times the bolt diameter for the
rolled or gas cut edges.
The maximum edge distance should not exceed 12 times the thickness of thinner member or 6 in.
Standard bolt hole spacing is 3 in. with the minimum spacing of 2 2 3 times the diameter of the
bolt, db. Common edge distance from the center of last hole to the edge is 1 in..
Tension Member Design

In steel tension members, there
may be bolt holes that reduce the
size of the cross section.
g refers to the row spacing or gage
p refers to the bolt spacing or pitch
s refers to the longitudinal spacing of two consecutive holes
Effective Net Area:

The smallest effective are must be determined by subtracting the bolt hole areas. With staggered
holes, the shortest length must be evaluated.
A series of bolts can also transfer a portion of the tensile force, and some of the effective net
areas see reduced stress.
The effective net area, Ae, is determined from the net area, An, multiplied by a shear lag factor, U,
which depends on the element type and connection configuration. If a portion of a connected
member is not fully connected (like the leg of an angle), the unconnected part is not subject to the
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Note Set 18
full stress and the shear lag factor can range from 0.6 to 1.0:
The staggered hole path area is determined by:
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Ae AnU
s2
all holes
4g
where t is the plate thickness, s is each stagger spacing, and g is the gage spacing.
An Ag Aof
For tension elements:
Ra Rn / or Ru Rn
where Ru i Ri
Rn Fy Ag
1. yielding
= 0.90 (LRFD)
= 1.67 (ASD)
Rn Fu Ae
2. rupture
= 0.75 (LRFD)
= 2.00 (ASD)
where Ag = the gross area of the member

(excluding holes)
Ae = the effective net area (with holes, etc.)
Fy = the yield strength of the steel
Fu = the tensile strength of the steel (ultimate)
Welded Connections
Weld designations include the strength in the name, i.e.
E70XX has Fy = 70 ksi. Welds are weakest in shear and
are assumed to always fail in the shear mode.
The throat size, T, of a fillet weld is determined
trigonometry by: T = 0.707 weld size*
* When the submerged arc weld process is used, welds over 3/8 will have a
throat thickness of 0.11 in. larger than the formula.
Weld sizes are limited by the size of the parts being put
together and are given in AISC manual table J2.4 along
with the allowable strength per length of fillet weld,
referred to as S.
The maximum size of a fillet weld:

a) cant be greater than the material thickness if it is
or less
b) is permitted to be 1/16 less than the thickness of the
material if it is over
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The minimum length of a fillet weld is 4 times the nominal size. If it is not, then the weld size
used for design is the length.
Intermittent fillet welds cannot
be less than four times the weld
size, not to be less than 1 .
For fillet welds:
Ra Rn / or Ru Rn
where Ru i Ri
for the weld metal:
Rn 0.6FEXX Tl Sl
= 0.75 (LRFD)
= 2.00 (ASD)
where:
Available Strength of Fillet Welds

per inch of weld ( S)
Weld Size
E60XX
E70XX
(in.)
(k/in.)
(k/in.)
3
3.58
4.18
16
4.77
5.57
5.97
6.96
7.16
8.35
16
8.35
9.74
9.55
11.14
11.93
13.92
14.32
16.70
16
3
8
T is throat thickness
l is length of the weld
For a connected part, the other limit states for the

base metal, such as tension yield, tension rupture,
shear yield, or shear rupture must be considered.
(not considering increase in throat with

submerged arc weld process)
Framed Beam Connections

Coping is the term for cutting away part of the flange to connect a
beam to another beam using welded or bolted angles.
AISC provides tables that give bolt and angle available strength knowing number of bolts, bolt
type, bolt diameter, angle leg thickness, hole type and coping, and the wide flange beam being
connected. For the connections the limit-state of bolt shear, bolts bearing on the angles, shear
yielding of the angles, shear rupture of the angles, and block shear rupture of the angles, and bolt
bearing on the beam web are considered.
Group A bolts include A325, while Group B
includes A490.
There are also tables for bolted/welded
double-angle connections and all-welded
double-angle connections.
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Sample AISC Table for Bolt and Angle Available Strength in

All-Bolted Double-Angle Connections
Limiting Strength or Stability States

In addition to resisting shear and tension in bolts and shear in welds, the connected materials
may be subjected to shear, bearing, tension, flexure and even prying action. Coping can
significantly reduce design strengths and may require web reinforcement. All the following must
be considered:
shear yielding
shear rupture
block shear rupture failure of a block at a beam as a
result of shear and tension
tension yielding
tension rupture
local web buckling
lateral torsional buckling
Ra Rn / or Ru Rn
Block Shear Strength (or Rupture):
Rn 0.6 Fu Anv U bs Fu Ant 0.6 Fy Agv

= 0.75 (LRFD)
= 2.00 (ASD)
22
where Ru i Ri
U bs Fu Ant
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where:
Anv is the net area subjected to shear
Ant is the net area subjected to tension
Agv is the gross area subjected to shear
Ubs = 1.0 when the tensile stress is uniform (most cases)
= 0.5 when the tensile stress is non-uniform
Gusset Plates
Gusset plates are used for truss member connections where the geometry prevents the members
from coming together at the joint point. Members being joined are typically double angles.
Decking
Shaped, thin sheet-steel panels that span several joists or evenly spaced support behave as
continuous beams. Design tables consider a 1 unit wide strip across the supports and
determine maximum bending moment and deflections in order to provide allowable loads
depending on the depth of the material.
The other structural use of decking is to construct what is called a diaphragm, which is a
horizontal unit tying the decking to the joists that resists forces parallel to the surface of the
diaphragm.
When decking supports a concrete topping or floor, the steel-concrete construction is called
composite.
Frame Columns
Because joints can rotate in frames, the effective length of the column in a frame is harder to
determine. The stiffness (EI/L) of each member in a joint determines how rigid or flexible it is.
To find k, the relative stiffness, G or , must be found for both ends, plotted on the alignment
charts, and connected by a line for braced and unbraced fames.
where
EI l
c
G
EI
l
E = modulus of elasticity for a member

I = moment of inertia of for a member
lc = length of the column from center to center
lb = length of the beam from center to center
For pinned connections we typically use a value of 10 for .
For fixed connections we typically use a value of 1 for .
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Note Set 18
Braced non-sway frame
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Unbraced sway frame
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Example 1 (pg 330)
Note Set 18
*Hypothetically determine the size of section
required when the deflection criteria is NOT met
(unified ASD)
Fy = 50 ksi
1,000+50=1,050 lb/ft = 1.05 k/ft
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Example 2
Use ASD of the Unified Design method.
1. The unbraced length is 0 because it says it is fully braced.

2. Find the maximum shear and moment from unfactored loads:
wa = 0.450 k/ft + 0.750 k/ft = 1.20 k/ft
Va = 1.20 k/ft(35 ft)/2 = 21 k

Ma = 1.20 k/ft(35 ft)2/8 = 184 k-ft
If Ma Mn/, the maxmimum moment for design is M a: Mmax = 184 k-ft
3. Find Zreqd:
Zreqd Mmax/Fb = Mmax()/Fy = 184 k-ft(1.67)(12 in/ft)/50 ksi = 73.75 in3 (Fy is the limit stress when fully braced)
4. Choose a trial section, and also limit the depth to 18 in as instructed:
W18 x 40 has a plastic section modulus of 78.4 in3 and is the most light weight (as indicated by the bold text) in Table 9.1
Include the self weight in the maximum values:
w*a-adjusted = 1.20 k/ft + 0.04 k/ft

V*a-adjusted = 1.24 k/ft(35 ft)/2 = 21.7 k
M*a-adjusted = 1.24 k/ft(35 ft)3/8 = 189.9 k
Zreqd 189.9 k-ft(1.67)(12 in/ft)/50 ksi = 76.11 in3 And the Z we have (78.4) is larger than the Z we need (76.11), so OK.
6. Evaluate shear (is Va Vn/): Aw = dtw so look up section properties for W18 x 40: d = 17.90 in and t w = 0.315 in
Vn/ = 0.6FywAw/ = 0.6(50 ksi)(17.90 in)(0.315 in)/1.5 = 112.8 k which is much larger than 21.7 k, so OK.
9. Evaluate the deflection with respect to the limit stated of L/360 for the live load. (If we knew the total load limit we would
check that as well). The moment of inertia for the W18 x 40 is needed. I x = 612 in4
live load limit = 35 ft(12 in/ft)/360 = 1.17 in
= 5wL4/384EI = 5(0.75 k/ft)(35 ft)4(12 in/ft)3/384(29 x 103 ksi)(612 in4) = 1.42 in! This is TOO BIG (not less than the limit.
Find the moment of inertia needed:
Ireqd too big (Itrial)/limit = 1.42 in(612 in4)/(1.17 in) = 742.8 in4
From Table 9.1, a W16 x 45 is larger (by Z), but not the most light weight (efficient), as is W10 x 68, W14 x 53, W18 x 46, (W21 x
44 is too deep) and W18 x 50 is bolded (efficient). (Now look up Is). (In order: Ix = 586, 394, 541, 712 and 800 in4)
Choose a W18 x 50
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Example 3
For the same beam and loading of Example 1, select the most economical
beam using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) with the 18 depth
restriction. Assume the distributed load is dead load, and the point load is
live load.
Fy = 50 ksi and E = 30x103 ksi
(1.6)20k = 32k
(1.2)1k/ft = 1.2k/ft
1. To find Vu-max and Mu-max, factor the loads, construct a new load diagram,
shear diagram and bending moment diagram.
32.8k
32.8k
2. To satisfy Mu bMn, we find
+32.8k
and
+16k
solve for Z needed:
-16 k
-32.8k
341.6 k-ft
Choose a trial section from the Listing of W Shapes in Descending Order

of Z by selecting the bold section at the top of the grouping satisfying
our Z and depth requirement W18 x 50 is the lightest with Z = 101 in3.
(W22 x 44 is the lightest without the depth requirement.) Include the
additional self weight (dead load) and find the maximum shear and
bending moment:
, so Z (have) of 101 in3 is greater than the Z (needed).

3. Check the shear capacity to satisfy Vu vVn: Aweb = dtw and d=17.99 in., tw = 0.355 in. for the W18x50
So 33.64k 191.6 k OK
4. Calculate the deflection from the unfactored loads, including the self-weight now because it is known,
and satisfy the deflection criteria of LLLL-limit and totaltotal-limit. (This is identical to what is done in
Example 1.) Ix =800 in3 for the W18x50
total-limit = L/240 = 1.4 in., say LL = L/360 = 0.93 in
FINAL SELECTION IS W18x50
So 1.26 in. 1.4 in., and 0.658 in. 0.93 in. OK
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Example 4
A steel beam with a 20 ft span is designed to be simply supported at the ends on columns and to carry a floor system
made with open-web steel joists at 4 ft on center. The joists span 28 feet and frame into the beam from one side only
and have a self weight of 8.5 lb/ft. Use A992 (grade 50) steel and select the most economical wide-flange section
for the beam with LRFD design. Floor loads are 50 psf LL and 14.5 psf DL.
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Example 5
Select a A992 W shape flexural member (Fy = 50 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi) for a beam with distributed loads of 825 lb/ft
(dead) and 1300 lb/ft (live) and a live point load at midspan of 3 k using the Available Moment tables. The beam is
simply supported, 20 feet long, and braced at the ends and midpoint only (Lb = 10 ft.) The beam is a roof beam for
an institution without plaster ceilings. (LRFD)
1.6(3k) =4.8k
10
10
SOLUTION:
To use the Available Moment tables, the maximum moment required is plotted against
the unbraced length. The first solid line with capacity or unbraced length above what is
needed is the most economical.
w = 1.2(825 lb/ft)+1.6(1300 lb/ft) =3.07k/ft
DESIGN LOADS (load factors applied on figure):
Plotting 662 k-ft vs. 10 ft lands just on the capacity of the W21x83, but it is dashed (and not the most economical) AND we need to
consider the contribution of self weight to the total moment. Choose a trial section of W24 x 76. Include the new dead load:
Replot 680.2 k-ft vs. 10ft, which lands above the capacity of the W21x83. We cant look up because the chart ends, but we can
look for that capacity with a longer unbraced length. This leads us to a W24 x 84 as the most economical. (With the additional self
weight of 84 - 76 lb/ft = 8 lb/ft, the increase in the factored moment is only 1.92 k-ft; therefore, it is still OK.)
Evaluate the shear capacity:
so yes, 68 k 338.4k OK
Evaluate the deflection with respect to the limits of L/240 for live (unfactored) load and L/180 for total (unfactored) load:
L/240 = 1 in. and L/180 = 1.33 in.
10
10
w = 825 lb/ft + 1300 lb/ft + 84 lb/ft =2.209k/ft
So, LLLL-limit and totaltotal-limit:

0.06 in. 1 in. and 0.42 in. 1.33 in.
(This section is so big to accommodate the large
bending moment at the cantilever support that it
deflects very little.)
FINAL SELECTION IS W24x84
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Example 6
Select the most economical joist for the 40 ft
grid structure with floors and a flat roof. The
roof loads are 10 lb/ft2 dead load and 20 lb/ft2
live load. The floor loads are 30 lb/ft 2 dead
load 100 lb/ft2 live load. (Live load deflection
limit for the roof is L/240, while the floor is
L/360). Use the (LRFD) K and LH series
charts provided.
(Top values are maximum total factored load in lb/ft, while the lower (lighter) values
are maximum (unfactored) live load for a deflection of L/360)
Shaded areas indicate the bridging requirements.
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Example 6 (continued)
(Top values are maximum total factored load in lb/ft, while the lower (lighter) values
are maximum (unfactored) live load for a deflection of L/360)
Shaded areas indicate the bridging requirements.
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Example 7 (LRFD)
Example 5 (pg 311)

Total dead load
Total live load
13.9 psf X 4 ft o.c. = 55.6 plf
Total factored live snow load + dead load = 1.2(55.6) + 1.6 (57.2) = 158.2 plf
237 plf TFL and 84 plf LL
6.4 plf
7.3 plf
6.5 plf
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Example 8
A floor with multiple bays is to be supported by open-web steel joists spaced at 3 ft. on center and spanning 30 ft.
having a dead load of 70 lb/ft2 and a live load of 100 lb/ft2. The joists are supported on joist girders spanning 30 ft.
with 3 ft.-long panel points (shown). Determine the member forces at the location shown in a horizontal chord and
the maximum force in a web member for an interior girder. Use factored loads. Assume a self weight for the openweb joists of 12 lb/ft, and the self weight for the joist girder of 35 lb/ft.
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Example 9
A floor is to be supported by trusses spaced at 5 ft. on center and spanning 60 ft. having a dead load of 53 lb/ft 2 and
a live load of 100 lb/ft2. With 3 ft.-long panel points, the depth is assumed to be 3 ft with a span-to-depth ratio of
20. With 6 ft.-long panel points, the depth is assumed to be 6 ft with a span-to-depth ratio of 10. Determine the
maximum force in a horizontal chord and the maximum force in a web member. Use factored loads. Assume a self
weight of 40 lb/ft.
tributary widths
area loads
wlive
wdead
Pdead
(=wdead A)
(K)
Plive
(=wlive A)
(K)
+ 0.14 = 3.49
+ 0.29 = 7.00
self weight 0.04 k/ft (distributed)
1.2Pdead = 1.2wdead tributary width = 0.14 K

1.2Pdead = 1.2wdead tributary width = 0.29 K
3
6
NOTE end panels only have half the tributary width of interior panels
FBD 3: Maximum web force will be in the end

diagonal (just like maximum shear in a beam)
Fy = 10P1 0.5P1 FABsin45 = 0

FAB = 9.5P1/sin45 = 9.5(3.49 k)/0.707 = 46.9 k
FBD 1 for 3 ft deep truss

FBD 2: Maximum chord force (top or bottom) will be at midspan
G
MG = -9.5P1(27ft) + P1(24ft) + P1(21ft) + P1(18ft) + P1(15ft)

+ P1(12ft) + P1(9ft) + P1(6ft) + P1(3ft) + T1(3ft) = 0
FAB
T1 = P1(148.5ft)/3ft = (3.49 k)(49.5) = 172.8 k
Fy = 10P1 9.5P1 D1sin45 = 0

FBD 2 of cut just to the left of midspan
FBD 3 of cut just to right

of left support
D1 = 0.5(3.49 k)/0.707 = 2.5 k (minimum near midspan)
Fx =-C1 + T1 + D1cos45 = 0
C1 = 174.5 k
FBD 6: Maximum web force will be in the end

diagonal
Fy = 5P2 0.5P2 FABsin45 = 0
FAB = 4.5P2/sin45 = 4.5(7 k)/0.707 = 44.5 k
FBD 4 for 6 ft deep truss
FBD 5: Maximum chord (top or bottom) force will be at midspan

G
MG = -4.5P2(24ft) + P2(18ft) + P2(12ft) + P2(6ft) + T2(6ft) = 0

FAB
T2 = P2(72ft)/6ft = (7 k)(12) = 84 k
Fy = 5P2 4.5P1 Dssin45 = 0

D2 = 0.5(7 k)/0.707 = 4.9 k (minimum near midspan)
FBD 5 of cut just to the left of midspan
FBD 6 of cut just to right Fx =-C2 + T2 + D2cos45 = 0

of left support
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C2 = 87.5 k
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
Example 10 (pg 367) + LRFD
using ASD and LRFD.
Example 11 (pg 371) + chart method
Use LRFD assuming that the load is a dead load

(factor of 1.4)
ALSO: Select the W12 column using the Available Strength charts.
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Example 12
Use both ASD and LRFD. Fy = 50 ksi.

(Not using Available Strength charts)
Solution:
ASD:
1. Pa = 140 k + 420 k = 560 k
2. The effective length in the weak (y-y) axis is 15 ft, while the effective length in the strong (x-x) axis is 30 ft. (K = 1, KL = 130 ft).
To find kL/rx and kL/ry we can assume or choose values from the wide flange charts. rys range from 1 to 3 in., while rxs range from
3 to 14 inches. Lets try ry = 2 in and rx = 9 in. (something in the W21 range, say.)
kL/ry 15 ft(12 in/ft)/2 in. = 90 GOVERNS (is larger)
kL/rx 30 ft(12 in/ft)/9 in. = 40
3. Find a section with sufficient area (which then will give us real values for r x and ry):
If Pa Pn/, and Pn = Fcr A, we can find A Pa/Fcr with = 1.67
The tables provided have Fcr, so we can get Fcr by dividing by = 0.9
Fcr for 90 is 24.9 ksi, Fcr = 24.9 ksi/0.9 = 27.67 ksi so A 560 k(1.67)/27.67 ksi = 33.8 in 2
4. Choose a trial section, and find the effective lengths and associated available strength, F cr :
Looking from the smallest sections, the W14s are the first with a big enough area:
Try a W14 x 120 (A = 35.3 in2) with ry = 3.74 in and rx = 6.24 in.:
kL/ry = 48.1 and kL/rx = 57.7 (GOVERNS)
Fcr for 58 is 35.2 ksi, Fcr = 39.1 ksi so A 560 k(1.67)/39.1 ksi = 23.9 in2
Choose a W14 x 90 (Choosing a W14 x 82 would make kL/rx = 59.5, and Areqd = 24.3 in2, which is more than 24.1 in2!)
LRFD:
1. Pu = 1.2(140 k) + 1.6(420 k) = 840 k
2. The effective length in the weak (y-y) axis is 15 ft, while the effective length in the strong (x-x) axis is 30 ft. (K = 1, KL = 130 ft).
To find kL/rx and kL/ry we can assume or choose values from the wide flange charts. rys range from 1 to 3 in., while rxs range from
3 to 14 inches. Lets try ry = 2 in and rx = 9 in. (something in the W21 range, say.)
kL/ry 15 ft(12 in/ft)/2 in. = 90 GOVERNS (is larger)
kL/rx 30 ft(12 in/ft)/9 in. = 40
3. Find a section with sufficient area (which then will give us real values for rx and ry):
If Pu Pn, and Pn = Fcr A, we can find A Pu/Fcr with = 0.9
Fcr for 90 is 24.9 ksi, so A 840 k/24.9 ksi = 33.7 in 2
4. Choose a trial section, and find the effective lengths and associated available strength, Fcr :
Looking from the smallest sections, the W14s are the first with a big enough area:
Try a W14 x 120 (A = 35.3 in2) with ry = 3.74 in and rx = 6.24 in.:
kL/ry = 48.1 and kL/rx = 57.7 (GOVERNS)
Fcr for 58 is 35.2 ksi, so A 840 k/35.2 ksi = 23.9 in2

Choose a W14 x 90 (Choosing a W14 x 82 would make kL/rx = 59.5, and Areqd = 24.3 in2, which is more than 24.1 in2!)
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Example 13
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Example 14
Investigate the accepatbility of a W16 x 67 used as a beam-column under the unfactored
loading shown in the figure. It is A992 steel (Fy = 50 ksi). Assume 25% of the load is dead
load with 75% live load.
SOLUTION:
DESIGN LOADS (shown on figure):
Axial load = 1.2(0.25)(350k)+1.6(0.75)(350k)=525k
Moment at joint = 1.2(0.25)(60 k-ft) + 1.6(0.75)(60 k-ft) = 90 k-ft

Determine column capacity and fraction to choose the appropriate interaction equation:
and
525 k
(governs)
525 k
90 k-ft
90 k-ft
so use
There is no bending about the y axis, so that term will not have any values.
Determine the bending moment capacity in the x direction:
The unbraced length to use the full plastic moment (Lp) is listed as 8.69 ft, and we are
over that so of we dont want to determine it from formula, we can find the beam in the
Available Moment vs. Unbraced Length tables. The value of Mn at Lb =15 ft is 422 k-ft.
525 k
Determine the magnification factor when M 1 = 0, M2 = 90 k-ft:
USE 1.0
Finally, determine the interaction value:
525 k
Mu = (1)90 k-ft
This is NOT OK. (and outside error tolerance).

The section should be larger.
Example 15
, assuming A36 steel with E60XX electrodes.
38
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Example 16
S = 6.96 k/in
8 in + 6 in + 8 in = 22 in.
6.96 k/in = 153.1 k
72.9 k
Pn = FyAg = 0.9
72.9 k
0.9 x 36 k/in2 x 3/8 x 6= 72.9 k
3.31 k/in.
From Available Strength table, use 3/16 weld

(S = 4.18 k/in.)
72.9 k
Example 17
7-1,
required? Also determine the bearing

capacity of the wide flange sections.
tf = 0.575 in.
Factored end beam reaction = 90 k.
Fu = 65 ksi
39
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Example 18
SOLUTION:
Shear, bearing and net tension will be checked to determine the critical conditions
that governs the capacity of the connection.
Shear:
Using the AISC available shear in Table 7-3 (Group A):
Rn = 26.4 k/bolt x 4 bolts = 105.6 k

Bearing: Using the AISC available bearing in Table 7-4:
There are 4 bolts bearing on the center (1/2) plate, while there are 4 bolts bearing on
a total width of two sandwich plates (3/4 total). The thinner bearing width will govern.
Assume 3 in. spacing (center to center) of bolts. For A36 steel, F u = 58 ksi.
Rn = 91.4 k/bolt/in. x 0.5 in. x 4 bolts = 182.8 k (Table 7-4)
1 "
8
With the edge distance of 2 in., the bearing capacity might be smaller from Table 7-5
which says the distance should be 2 in for full bearing (and we have 2 in.).
Rn = 79.9 k/bolt/in. x 0.5 in. x 4 bolts = 159.8 k

Tension: The center plate is critical, again, because its thickness is less than the combined
thicknesses of the two outer plates. We must consider tension yielding and tension rupture:
Rn =FyAg
and Rn =FuAe where Ae = AnetU

4 in. 2 in.
Ag = 8 in. x in. = 4 in2

The holes are considered 1/8 in. larger than the bolt hole diameter = (7/8 + 1/8) = 1.0 in.
3.5 in
An = (8 in. 2 holes x 1.0 in.) x in. = 3.0 in2

The whole cross section sees tension, so the shear lag factor U = 1
FyAg = 0.9 x 36 ksi x 4 in2 = 129.6 k

FuAe = 0.75 x 58 ksi x (1) x 3.0 in2 = 130.5 k
The maximum connection capacity (smallest value) so far is governed by bolt shear:
Rn = 105.6 k
Block Shear Rupture: It is possible for the center plate to rip away from the sandwich plates
leaving the block (shown hatched) behind:
Rn =(0.6FuAnv + UbsFuAnt) (0.6FyAgv + UbsFuAnt)

where Anv is the area resisting shear, Ant is the area resisting tension, Agv is the gross area resisting shear, and
Ubs = 1 when the tensile stress is uniform.
Agv = 2 x (4 + 2 in.) x in. = 6 in2
Anv = Agv 1 holes areas = 6 in2 1.5 x 1 in. x in. = 5.25 in2
Ant = 3.5 in. x t 2( hole areas) = 3.5 in. x in 1 x 1 in. x in. = 1.25 in2
(0.6FuAnv + UbsFuAnt) = 0.75 x (0.6 x 58 ksi x 5.25 in2 + 1 x 58 ksi x 1.25 in2) = 191.4 k
(0.6FyAgv + UbsFuAnt) = 0.75 x (0.6 x 36 ksi x 6 in2 + 1 x 58 ksi x 1.25 in2) = 151.6 k
The maximum connection capacity (smallest value) is governed by block shear rupture:
40
Rn = 151.6 k
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Example 19
The steel used in the connection and beams is A992 with Fy = 50 ksi,
and Fu = 65 ksi. Using A490-N bolt material, determine the
maximum capacity of the connection based on shear in the bolts,
bearing in all materials and pick the number of bolts and angle length
(not staggered). Use A36 steel for the angles.
W21x93: d = 21.62 in, tw = 0.58 in, tf = 0.93 in
W10x54: tf = 0.615 in
SOLUTION:
The maximum length the angles can be depends on how it fits between the top and bottom flange with some clearance allowed
for the fillet to the flange, and getting an air wrench in to tighten the bolts. This example uses 1 of clearance:
Available length = beam depth both flange thicknesses 1 clearance at top & 1 at bottom
= 21.62 in 2(0.93 in) 2(1 in) = 17.76 in.
With the spaced at 3 in. and 1 in. end lengths (each end), the maximum number of bolts can be determined:
Available length 1.25 in. + 1.25 in. + 3 in. x (number of bolts 1)
number of bolts (17.76 in 2.5 in. - (-3 in.))/3 in. = 6.1, so 6 bolts.
It is helpful to have the All-bolted Double-Angle
Connection Tables 10-1. They are available for , 7/8,
and 1 bolt diameters and list angle thicknesses of ,
5/16, 3/8, and . Increasing the angle thickness is
likely to increase the angle strength, although the limit
states include shear yielding of the angles, shear rupture
of the angles, and block shear rupture of the angles.
For these diameters, the available shear (double) from
Table 7-1 for 6 bolts is (6)45.1 k/bolt = 270.6 kips,
(6)61.3 k/bolt = 367.8 kips, and (6)80.1 k/bolt =
480.6 kips.
Tables 10-1 (not all provided here) list a bolt and angle
available strength of 271 kips for the bolts, 296 kips
for the 7/8 bolts, and 281 kips for the 1 bolts. It
appears that increasing the bolt diameter to 1 will not
gain additional load. Use 7/8 bolts.
Rn = 367.8 kips for double shear of 7/8 bolts
Rn = 296 kips for limit state in angles
We also need to evaluate bearing of bolts on the beam web, and column flange where there are bolt holes. Table 7-4 provides
available bearing strength for the material type, bolt diameter, hole type, and spacing per inch of material thicknesses.
a) Bearing for beam web:
There are 6 bolt holes through the beam web. This is typically the critical bearing limit value
because there are two angle legs that resist bolt bearing and twice as many bolt holes to the column. The material is
A992 (Fu = 65 ksi), 0.58 thick, with 7/8 bolt diameters at 3 in. spacing.
Rn = 6 bolts(102 k/bolt/inch)(0.58 in) = 355.0 kips
b) Bearing for column flange: There are 12 bolt holes through the column. The material is A992 (F u = 65 ksi), 0.615 thick, with
1 bolt diameters.
Rn = 12 bolts(102 k/bolt/inch)(0.615 in) = 752.8 kips
Although, the bearing in the beam web is the smallest at 355 kips, with the shear on the bolts even smaller at 324.6 kips,
the maximum capacity for the simple-shear connector is 296 kips limited by the critical capacity of the angles.
41
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Beam Design Flow Chart

Collect data: L, , , limits; find beam charts
for load cases and actual equations
ASD
(Unified)
Collect data: Fy, Fu, and

safety factors
Collect data: load factors, Fy,

Fu, and equations for shear
capacity with V
Find Vmax & Mmax from

Find Vu & Mu from

with the factored loads
Find Zreqd and pick a section

from a table with Zx greater or
equal to Zreqd
Pick a steel section from a chart having

bMn Mu for the known unbraced length
OR
find Zreqd and pick a section from a table
with Zx greater or equal to Zreqd
Determine self wt (last number in

name) or calculate self wt. using A
found. Find Mmax-adj & Vmax-adj.
No
LRFD
Allowable Stress or
LRFD Design?
Determine self wt (last number in

name) or calculate self wt. using A
found. Factor with D.
Find Mu-max-adj & Vu-max-adj.
Calculate Zreqd-adj using Mmax-adj.

Is Zx(picked) Zreqd-adj?
Yes
Is Vmax-adj (0.6FywAw)/.?
No
pick a new section with a
larger web area
Yes
Is Mu bMn
Is Vu v(0.6FywAw)
Calculate max (no load factors!)

using superpositioning and beam
chart equations with the Ix for the
section
is max limits?
This may be both the limit for live load
deflection and total load deflection.)
Yes
(DONE)
42
Yes
I req' d
No
No
pick a section
with a larger
web area
too big
I trial
lim it
No
pick a section with a larger I x
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Listing of W Shapes in Descending order of Zx for Beam Design

Zx US
(in.3)
Ix US
(in.4)
Section
Ix SI
(106mm.4)
Zx SI
(103mm.3)
Zx US
(in.3)
289
Ix US
(in.4)
3100
Section
W24X104
Ix SI
(106mm.4)
1290
Zx SI
(103mm.3)
4740
514
511
7450
5680
W33X141
W24X176
3100
2360
8420
8370
287
1900
W14X159
791
4700
509
500
490
487
481
476
468
7800
6680
4330
3400
3110
4730
5170
W36X135
W30X148
W18X211
W14X257
W12X279
W21X182
W24X162
3250
2780
1800
1420
1290
1970
2150
8340
8190
8030
7980
7880
7800
7670
283
280
279
278
275
262
260
3610
3000
2670
3270
1650
2190
1710
W30X90
W24X103
W21X111
W27X94
W12X170
W18X119
W14X145
1500
1250
1110
1360
687
912
712
4640
4590
4570
4560
4510
4290
4260
467
464
6710
5660
W33X130
W27X146
2790
2360
7650
7600
254
2700
W24X94
1120
4160
442
3870
253
2420
W21X101
1010
4150
W18X192
1610
7240
437
436
432
5770
3010
4280
W30X132
W14X233
W21X166
2400
1250
1780
7160
7140
7080
244
243
234
230
2850
1430
1530
1910
W27X84
W12X152
W14X132
W18X106
1190
595
637
795
4000
3980
3830
3770
428
2720
W12X252
1130
7010
418
4580
W24X146
1910
6850
224
221
2370
2070
W24X84
W21X93
986
862
3670
3620
415
408
398
5900
5360
3450
W33X118
W30X124
W18X175
2460
2230
1440
6800
6690
6520
214
1240
W12X136
516
3510
212
211
1380
1750
W14X120
W18X97
574
728
3470
3460
395
4760
W27X129
1980
6470
390
2660
W14X211
1110
6390
200
198
2100
1490
W24X76
W16X100
874
620
3280
3240
386
2420
W12X230
1010
6330
196
1830
W21X83
762
3210
378
373
370
4930
3630
4020
W30X116
W21X147
W24X131
2050
1510
1670
6190
6110
6060
192
1240
W14X109
516
3150
186
186
1530
1070
W18X86
W12X120
637
445
3050
3050
356
3060
W18X158
1270
5830
355
348
2400
2140
W14X193
W12X210
999
891
5820
5700
177
175
173
1830
1300
1110
W24X68
W16X89
W14X99
762
541
462
2900
2870
2830
346
343
333
4470
4080
3220
W30X108
W27X114
W21X132
1860
1700
1340
5670
5620
5460
172
1600
W21X73
666
2820
164
163
933
1330
W12X106
W18X76
388
554
2690
2670
327
3540
W24X117
1470
5360
322
2750
W18X143
1140
5280
160
157
1480
999
W21X68
W14X90
616
416
2620
2570
320
2140
W14X176
891
5240
312
311
307
3990
1890
2960
W30X99
W12X190
W21X122
1660
787
1230
5110
5100
5030
153
150
1550
1110
W24X62
W16X77
645
462
2510
2460
147
147
833
716
W12X96
W10X112
347
298
2410
2410
305
3620
W27X102
1510
5000
146
1170
W18X71
487
2390
290
2460
W18X130
1020
4750
(continued)
43
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Listing of W Shapes in Descending order of Zx for Beam Design (Continued)

Zx US
(in.3)
Ix US
(in.4)
Section
Ix SI
(106mm.4)
Zx SI
(103mm.3)
Zx US
(in.3)
Ix US
(in.4)
Section
Ix SI
(106mm.4)
Zx SI
(103mm.3)
144
139
1330
881
W21X62
W14X82
554
367
2360
2280
66.5
64.2
510
348
W18X35
W12X45
212
145
1090
1050
134
133
132
130
130
129
1350
1070
740
954
623
1170
W24X55
W18X65
W12X87
W16X67
W10X100
W21X57
562
445
308
397
259
487
2200
2180
2160
2130
2130
2110
64.0
448
W16X36
186
1050
61.5
60.4
59.8
57.0
54.9
385
272
228
307
248
W14X38
W10X49
W8X58
W12X40
W10X45
160
113
94.9
128
103
1010
990
980
934
900
126
126
1140
795
W21X55
W14X74
475
331
2060
2060
54.6
340
W14X34
142
895
123
119
984
662
W18X60
W12X79
410
276
2020
1950
54.0
51.2
49.0
375
285
184
W16X31
W12X35
W8X48
156
119
76.6
885
839
803
115
722
W14X68
301
1880
113
534
W10X88
222
1850
47.3
46.8
291
209
W14X30
W10X39
121
87.0
775
767
112
890
W18X55
370
1840
110
108
984
597
W21X50
W12X72
410
248
1800
1770
44.2
43.1
301
238
W16X26
W12X30
125
99.1
724
706
107
105
959
758
W21X48
W16X57
399
316
1750
1720
40.2
39.8
245
146
W14X26
W8X40
102
60.8
659
652
38.8
171
W10X33
71.2
636
102
640
W14X61
266
1670
101
97.6
800
455
W18X50
W10X77
333
189
1660
1600
37.2
36.6
34.7
204
170
127
W12X26
W10X30
W8X35
84.9
70.8
52.9
610
600
569
96.8
533
W12X65
222
1590
95.4
92.0
843
659
W21X44
W16X50
351
274
1560
1510
33.2
31.3
199
144
W14X22
W10X26
82.8
59.9
544
513
30.4
110
W8X31
45.8
498
90.7
712
W18X46
296
1490
87.1
541
W14X53
225
1430
29.3
27.2
156
98.0
W12X22
W8X28
64.9
40.8
480
446
86.4
475
W12X58
198
1420
26.0
118
W10X22
49.1
426
85.3
394
W10X68
164
1400
82.3
586
W16X45
244
1350
24.7
23.1
130
82.7
W12X19
W8X24
54.1
34.4
405
379
78.4
78.4
612
484
W18X40
W14X48
255
201
1280
1280
21.6
20.4
96.3
75.3
W10X19
W8X21
40.1
31.3
354
334
77.9
425
W12X53
177
1280
74.6
341
W10X60
142
1220
20.1
18.7
103
81.9
W12x16
W10X17
42.9
34.1
329
306
73.0
71.9
70.1
69.6
518
391
272
428
W16X40
W12X50
W8X67
W14X43
216
163
113
178
1200
1180
1150
1140
17.4
17.0
16.0
13.6
88.6
61.9
68.9
48.0
W12X14
W8X18
W10X15
W8X15
36.9
25.8
28.7
20.0
285
279
262
223
66.6
303
W10X54
126
1090
12.6
53.8
W10X12
22.4
206
11.4
39.6
W8X13
16.5
187
8.87
30.8
W8X10
12.8
145
44
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Available Critical Stress, cFcr, for Compression Members, ksi (Fy = 36 ksi and c = 0.90)
KL/r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c Fcr
32.4
32.4
32.4
32.4
32.4
32.3
32.3
32.3
32.3
32.2
32.2
32.2
32.1
32.1
32.0
32.0
31.9
31.9
31.8
31.7
31.7
31.6
31.5
31.4
31.4
31.3
31.2
31.1
31.0
30.9
30.8
30.7
30.6
30.5
30.4
30.3
30.1
30.0
29.9
29.8
KL/r
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c Fcr
29.7
29.5
29.4
29.3
29.1
29.0
28.8
28.7
28.6
28.4
28.3
28.1
27.9
27.8
27.6
27.5
27.3
27.1
27.0
26.8
26.6
26.5
26.3
26.1
25.9
25.8
25.6
25.4
25.2
25.0
24.8
24.7
24.5
24.3
24.1
23.9
23.7
23.5
23.3
23.1
KL/r
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c Fcr
22.9
22.7
22.5
22.3
22.1
22.0
21.8
21.6
21.4
21.2
21.0
20.8
20.5
20.3
20.1
19.9
19.7
19.5
19.3
19.1
18.9
18.7
18.5
18.3
18.1
17.9
17.7
17.5
17.3
17.1
16.9
16.7
16.5
16.3
16.2
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
45
KL/r
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c Fcr
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.9
13.7
13.5
13.3
13.1
12.9
12.8
12.6
12.4
12.2
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.5
11.4
11.2
11.0
10.9
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.3
10.2
10.0
9.91
9.78
9.65
9.53
9.40
9.28
9.17
9.05
8.94
8.82
KL/r
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c Fcr
8.72
8.61
8.50
8.40
8.30
8.20
8.10
8.00
7.91
7.82
7.73
7.64
7.55
7.46
7.38
7.29
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.90
6.82
6.75
6.67
6.60
6.53
6.46
6.39
6.32
6.26
6.19
6.13
6.06
6.00
5.94
5.88
5.82
5.76
5.70
5.65
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
S2014abn
Available Critical Stress, cFcr, for Compression Members, ksi (Fy = 50 ksi and c = 0.90)
KL/r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c Fcr
45.0
45.0
45.0
44.9
44.9
44.9
44.8
44.8
44.7
44.7
44.6
44.5
44.4
44.4
44.3
44.2
44.1
43.9
43.8
43.7
43.6
43.4
43.3
43.1
43.0
42.8
42.7
42.5
42.3
42.1
41.9
41.8
41.6
41.4
41.1
40.9
40.7
40.5
40.3
40.0
KL/r
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c Fcr
39.8
39.6
39.3
39.1
38.8
38.5
38.3
38.0
37.8
37.5
37.2
36.9
36.6
36.4
36.1
35.8
35.5
35.2
34.9
34.6
34.3
34.0
33.7
33.4
33.0
32.7
32.4
32.1
31.8
31.4
31.1
30.8
30.5
30.2
29.8
29.5
29.2
28.8
28.5
28.2
KL/r
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c Fcr
27.9
27.5
27.2
26.9
26.5
26.2
25.9
25.5
25.2
24.9
24.6
24.2
23.9
23.6
23.3
22.9
22.6
22.3
22.0
21.7
21.3
21.0
20.7
20.4
20.1
19.8
19.5
19.2
18.9
18.6
18.3
18.0
17.7
17.4
17.1
16.8
16.5
16.2
16.0
15.7
46
KL/r
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c Fcr
15.4
15.2
14.9
14.7
14.5
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.6
13.4
13.2
13.0
12.8
12.6
12.4
12.2
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.5
11.4
11.2
11.0
10.9
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.3
10.2
10.0
9.91
9.78
9.65
9.53
9.40
9.28
9.17
9.05
8.94
8.82
KL/r
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c Fcr
8.72
8.61
8.50
8.40
8.30
8.20
8.10
8.00
7.91
7.82
7.73
7.64
7.55
7.46
7.38
7.29
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.90
6.82
6.75
6.67
6.60
6.53
6.46
6.39
6.32
6.26
6.19
6.13
6.06
6.00
5.94
5.88
5.82
5.76
5.70
5.65
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
Bolt Strength Tables
47
S2014abn
A325, A325M
F1858
A354 Grade BC
A449
A490, A490M
F2280
A354 Grade BD
ARCH 331
Note Set 18
48
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Note Set 18
49
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Note Set 18
50
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ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Notation:
a
= depth of the effective compression

block in a concrete beam
A
= name for area
Ag
= gross area, equal to the total area
ignoring any reinforcement
As
= area of steel reinforcement in
concrete beam design
As = area of steel compression
reinforcement in concrete beam
design
Ast = area of steel reinforcement in
concrete column design
Av
= area of concrete shear stirrup
reinforcement
ACI = American Concrete Institute
b
= width, often cross-sectional
bE
= effective width of the flange of a
concrete T beam cross section
bf
= width of the flange
bw
= width of the stem (web) of a
concrete T beam cross section
cc
= shorthand for clear cover
C
= name for centroid
= name for a compression force
Cc
= compressive force in the
compression steel in a doubly
reinforced concrete beam
Cs
= compressive force in the concrete
of a doubly reinforced concrete
beam
d
= effective depth from the top of a
reinforced concrete beam to the
centroid of the tensile steel
d
reinforced concrete beam to the
centroid of the compression steel
db
= bar diameter of a reinforcing bar
D
= shorthand for dead load
DL = shorthand for dead load
E
= modulus of elasticity or Youngs
modulus
= shorthand for earthquake load
Ec
= modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es
= modulus of elasticity of steel
f
= symbol for stress
fc
= compressive stress
= concrete design compressive stress
fpu
= tensile strength of the prestressing
reinforcement
fs
= stress in the steel reinforcement for
concrete design
fs = compressive stress in the
compression reinforcement for
fy
= yield stress or strength
F
= shorthand for fluid load
Fy
= yield strength
G
= relative stiffness of columns to
beams in a rigid connection, as is
h
= cross-section depth
H
= shorthand for lateral pressure load
hf
= depth of a flange in a T section
Itransformed = moment of inertia of a multimaterial section transformed to one
material
k
= effective length factor for columns
b
= length of beam in rigid joint
c
= length of column in rigid joint
ld
= development length for reinforcing
steel
l dh
= development length for hooks
ln
= clear span from face of support to
face of support in concrete design
L
= name for length or span length, as is
l
Lr
= shorthand for live roof load
LL = shorthand for live load
steel reinforcement at the yield
stress and concrete at the concrete
design strength for reinforced
n
= modulus of elasticity
transformation coefficient for steel
to concrete
n.a. = shorthand for neutral axis (N.A.)
fc
ARCH 331
pH
P
Po
Pn
Pu
R
Rn
s
S
t
T
U
Vc
Vs
Vu
wc
wDL
Note Set 22.1
= chemical alkalinity
= name for load or axial force vector
= maximum axial force with no
concurrent bending moment in a
reinforced concrete column
= nominal column load capacity in
concrete design
= factored column load calculated
from load factors in concrete design
= shorthand for rain or ice load
= concrete beam design ratio =
Mu/bd2
= spacing of stirrups in reinforced
concrete beams
= shorthand for snow load
= name for thickness
= name for a tension force
= shorthand for thermal load
= factored design value
= shear force capacity in concrete
= shear force capacity in steel shear
stirrups
= shear at a distance of d away from
the face of support for reinforced
= unit weight of concrete
= load per unit length on a beam from
dead load
S2014abn
wLL

live load
wself wt = name for distributed load from self
weight of member
wu
load factors
W
= shorthand for wind load
x
= horizontal distance
= distance from the top to the neutral
axis of a concrete beam
y
= vertical distance
1 = coefficient for determining stress
block height, a, based on concrete
strength, fc
= elastic beam deflection

= strain
= resistance factor
c
= resistance factor for compression
= density or unit weight
= radius of curvature in beam

deflection relationships
= reinforcement ratio in concrete
beam design = As/bd
balanced = balanced reinforcement ratio in

c = shear strength in concrete design

Structural design standards for reinforced concrete are established by the Building Code and
Commentary (ACI 318-11) published by the American Concrete Institute International, and uses
ultimate strength design (also known as limit state design).
fc = concrete compressive design strength at 28 days (units of psi when used in equations)
Materials
Concrete is a mixture of cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water. The cement
hydrates with the water to form a binder. The result is a hardened mass with filler and pores.
There are various types of cement for low heat, rapid set, and other properties. Other minerals or
cementitious materials (like fly ash) may be added.
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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ASTM designations are

Type I:
Ordinary portland cement (OPC)
Type II:
Low temperature
Type III:
High early strength
Type IV:
Low-heat of hydration
Type V:
Sulfate resistant
The proper proportions, by volume, of the mix constituents
determine strength, which is related to the water to cement ratio
(w/c). It also determines other properties, such as workability of
fresh concrete. Admixtures, such as retardants, accelerators, or
superplasticizers, which aid flow without adding more water, may
be added. Vibration may also be used to get the mix to flow into forms and fill completely.
Slump is the measurement of the height loss from a compacted cone of fresh concrete. It can be
an indicator of the workability.
Proper mix design is necessary for durability. The pH of fresh cement is enough to prevent
reinforcing steel from oxidizing (rusting). If, however, cracks allow corrosive elements in water
to penetrate to the steel, a corrosion cell will be created, the steel will rust, expand and cause
further cracking. Adequate cover of the steel by the concrete is important.
Deformed reinforcing bars come in grades 40, 60 & 75 (for 40 ksi, 60 ksi and 75 ksi yield
strengths). Sizes are given as # of 1/8 up to #8 bars. For #9 and larger, the number is a nominal
size (while the actual size is larger).
Reinforced concrete is a composite material, and the average density is considered to be 150 lb/ft3.
It has the properties that it will creep (deformation with long term load) and shrink (a result of
hydration) that must be considered.
Construction
Because fresh concrete is a viscous suspension, it is cast or placed and not poured. Formwork
must be able to withstand the hydraulic pressure. Vibration may be used to get the mix to flow
around reinforcing bars or into tight locations, but excess vibration will cause segregation,
honeycombing, and excessive bleed water which will reduce the water available for hydration
and the strength, subsequently.
After casting, the surface must be worked. Screeding removes the excess from the top of the
forms and gets a rough level. Floating is the process of working the aggregate under the surface
and to float some paste to the surface. Troweling takes place when the mix has hydrated to the
point of supporting weight and the surface is smoothed further and consolidated. Curing is
allowing the hydration process to proceed with adequate moisture. Black tarps and curing
compounds are commonly used. Finishing is the process of adding a texture, commonly by
using a broom, after the concrete has begun to set.
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Behavior
Plane sections of composite materials can still
be assumed to be plane (strain is linear), but
the stress distribution is not the same in both
materials because the modulus of elasticity is
different. (f=E)
f1 E1
E1 y
f 2 E2
E2 y
In order to determine the stress, we can define n

as the ratio of the elastic moduli:
E
E1
n is used to transform the width of the second material such that it sees the equivalent element
stress.
Transformed Section y and I

In order to determine stresses in all types of material in
the beam, we transform the materials into a single
material, and calculate the location of the neutral axis
and modulus of inertia for that material.
ex: When material 1 above is concrete and material 2 is steel

to transform steel into concrete n
Esteel
E2
E1 Econcrete
to find the neutral axis of the equivalent concrete member we transform the width of the
steel by multiplying by n
to find the moment of inertia of the equivalent concrete member, I transformed, use the new
geometry resulting from transforming the width of the steel
concrete stress: f concrete
steel stress:
f steel
My
I transformed
Myn
I transformed
4
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Note Set 22.1
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Reinforced Concrete Beam Members
Ultimate Strength Design for Beams

The ultimate strength design method is similar to LRFD. There is a nominal strength that is
reduced by a factor which must exceed the factored design stress. For beams, the concrete
only works in compression over a rectangular stress block above the n.a. from elastic
calculation, and the steel is exposed and reaches the yield stress, Fy
For stress analysis in reinforced concrete beams
the steel is transformed to concrete
any concrete in tension is assumed to be

cracked and to have no strength
the steel can be in tension, and is placed in the

bottom of a beam that has positive bending
moment
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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The neutral axis is where there is no stress and no strain. The concrete above the n.a. is in
compression. The concrete below the n.a. is considered ineffective. The steel below the n.a. is
in tension.
Because the n.a. is defined by the moment areas, we can solve for x knowing that d is the
distance from the top of the concrete section to the centroid of the steel:
x
bx nAs ( d x ) 0
2
x can be solved for when the equation is rearranged into the generic format with a, b & c in the
b b 2 4ac
binomial equation:
ax 2 bx c 0 by
x
2a
T-sections
f
If the n.a. is above the bottom of a flange in a T

section, x is found as for a rectangular section.
hf
hf
bw
If the n.a. is below the bottom of a flange in a T

section, x is found by including the flange and the
stem of the web (bw) in the moment area calculation:
bw
x h f nA ( d x ) 0
h
b f h f x f x h f bw
s
2
2
Load Combinations (Alternative values are allowed)

1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L +0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W +1.0L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S
0.9D + 1.0W
0.9D + 1.0E
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
S2014abn
Internal Equilibrium
b
0.85fc
x
d
h
As
a=
1x
a/2 C
n.a.
T
actual stress
T
Whitney stress block
C = compression in concrete = stress x area = 0.85 fcba

T = tension in steel = stress x area = Asfy
C = T and Mn = T(d-a/2)
where
fc = concrete compression strength
a = height of stress block
1 = factor based on fc
x = location to the neutral axis
b = width of stress block
fy = steel yield strength
As = area of steel reinforcement
d = effective depth of section
= depth to n.a. of reinforcement
With C=T, Asfy = 0.85 fcba
so a can be determined with a
As f y
0.85 f cb
Criteria for Beam Design

For flexure design:
Mu Mn = 0.9 for flexure (when the section is tension controlled)
so for design, Mu can be set to Mn =T(d-a/2) = Asfy (d-a/2)
Reinforcement Ratio
The amount of steel reinforcement is limited. Too much reinforcement, or over-reinforcing will
not allow the steel to yield before the concrete crushes and there is a sudden failure. A beam
with the proper amount of steel to allow it to yield at failure is said to be under reinforced.
A
The reinforcement ratio is just a fraction: s (or p) and must be less than a value
bd
determined with a concrete strain of 0.003 and tensile strain of 0.004 (minimum). When the
strain in the reinforcement is 0.005 or greater, the section is tension controlled. (For smaller
strains the resistance factor reduces to 0.65 see tied columns - because the stress is less than the
yield stress in the steel.) Previous codes limited the amount to 0.75balanced where balanced was
determined from the amount of steel that would make the concrete start to crush at the exact
same time that the steel would yield based on strain.
7
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Flexure Design of Reinforcement

One method is to wisely estimate a height of the stress block, a, and solve for As, and calculate
a new value for a using Mu.
for which is permitted to be 0.9
1. guess a (less than n.a.)
0.85 f cba
fy
3. solve for a from
2. As
setting Mu = Asfy (d-a/2):
M u
a 2 d
As f y
4. repeat from 2. until a found from step 3 matches a used in step 2.

from Reinforced Concrete, 7th,
Wang, Salmon, Pincheira, Wiley & Sons, 2007
Design Chart Method:

M
1. calculate Rn n2
bd
2. find curve for fc and fy to get
3. calculate As and a, where:
As bd and a
As f y
0.85 f cb
Any method can simplify the size of d

using h = 1.1d
Maximum Reinforcement
Based on the limiting strain of
0.005 in the steel, x(or c) = 0.375d so
a 1 ( 0.375d ) to find As-max

(1 is shown in the table above)
Minimum Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement is provided
even if the concrete can resist the
tension. This is a means to control
cracking.
3 f c
( bw d )
Minimum required: As
fy
200
( bw d )
but not less than: As
fy
where f c is in psi.
(tensile strain of 0.004)
This can be translated to min

8
3 f c
fy
but not less than
200
fy
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
S2014abn
Cover for Reinforcement

Cover of concrete over/under the reinforcement must be provided to protect the steel from
corrosion. For indoor exposure, 1.5 inch is typical for beams and columns, 0.75 inch is typical
for slabs, and for concrete cast against soil, 3 inch minimum is required.
Bar Spacing
Minimum bar spacings are specified to allow proper consolidation of
concrete around the reinforcement. The minimum spacing is the
maximum of 1 in, a bar diameter, or 1.33 times the maximum aggregate size.
T-beams and T-sections (pan joists)
Beams cast with slabs have an effective width, bE,
that sees compression stress in a wide flange beam or
joist in a slab system with positive bending.
For interior T-sections, bE is the smallest of
L/4, bw + 16t, or center to center of beams
For exterior T-sections, bE is the smallest of
bw + L/12, bw + 6t, or bw + (clear distance to next beam)
When the web is in tension the minimum reinforcement required is the same as for rectangular
sections with the web width (bw) in place of b.
When the flange is in tension (negative bending), the
6 f c
(bw d )
minimum reinforcement required is the greater value of As
fy
where f c is in psi, bw is the beam width,
and bf is the effective flange width
or
As
3 f c
fy
(b f d )
If a section is doubly reinforced, it means there is steel in
the beam seeing compression. The force in the compression
steel that may not be yielding is
Cs = As(fs - 0.85fc)
The total compression that balances the tension is now:
T = Cc + Cs. And the moment taken about the centroid of
the compression stress is Mn = T(d-a/2)+Cs(a-d)
where As is the area of compression reinforcement, and d is the effective depth to the
centroid of the compression reinforcement
Because the compression steel may not be yielding, the neutral axis x must be found from the force
equilibrium relationships, and the stress can be found based on strain to see if it has yielded.
9
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Slabs
One way slabs can be designed as one unitwide beams. Because they are thin, control of
deflections is important, and minimum depths
are specified, as is minimum reinforcement for
shrinkage and crack control when not in
flexure. Reinforcement is commonly small
diameter bars and welded wire fabric.
Maximum spacing between bars is also
specified for shrinkage and crack control as
five times the slab thickness not exceeding
18. For required flexure reinforcement the
spacing limit is three times the slab thickness
not exceeding 18.
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (and minimum for flexure reinforcement):
A
s 0.002 or As-min = 0.002bt
Minimum for slabs with grade 40 or 50 bars:
bt
A
s 0.0018 or As-min = 0.0018bt
Minimum for slabs with grade 60 bars:
bt
Shear Behavior
Horizontal shear stresses occur along
with bending stresses to cause tensile
stresses where the concrete cracks.
Vertical reinforcement is required to
bridge the cracks which are called
shear stirrups (or stirrups).
The maximum shear for design, Vu is the value at a distance of d from the face of the support.
Nominal Shear Strength
The shear force that can be resisted is the shear stress cross section area: Vc c bwd
The shear stress for beams (one way) c 2 f c so Vc 2 f c bw d
where
bw = the beam width or the minimum width of the stem.
= 0.75 for shear
One-way joists are allowed an increase of 10% Vc if the joists are closely spaced.
Av f y d
Stirrups are necessary for strength (as well as crack control): Vs
8 f c bw d (max)
s
where
Av = area of all vertical legs of stirrup
s = spacing of stirrups
d = effective depth
10
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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For shear design:
VU VC VS = 0.75 for shear

Spacing Requirements
Stirrups are required when Vu is greater than
Vc
2
Economical spacing of stirrups is considered to be greater than d/4. Common

spacings of d/4, d/3 and d/2 are used to determine the values of Vs at which
the spacings can be increased.
Vs
Av f y d
s
This figure shows the size of Vn provided by Vc + Vs (long dashes) exceeds Vu/ in a step-wise
function, while the spacing provided (short dashes) is at or less than the required s (limited by the
maximum allowed). (Note that the maximum shear permitted from the stirrups is 8 f c bw d )
The minimum recommended spacing for the first stirrup is 2 inches from the face of the support.
11
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Torsional Shear Reinforcement

On occasion beam members will see twist along the
axis caused by an eccentric shape supporting a load,
like on an L-shaped spandrel (edge) beam. The
torsion results in shearing stresses, and closed
stirrups may be needed to resist the stress that the
concrete cannot resist.
Development Length for Reinforcement

Because the design is based on the reinforcement attaining the yield stress, the reinforcement
needs to be properly bonded to the concrete for a finite length (both sides) so it wont slip. This
is referred to as the development length, ld. Providing sufficient length to anchor bars that need
to reach the yield stress near the end of connections are also specified by hook lengths. Detailing
reinforcement is a tedious job. Splices are also necessary to extend the length of reinforcement
that come in standard lengths. The equations are not provided here.
Development Length in Tension
With the proper bar to bar spacing and cover, the common development length equations are:
d b Fy
ld
#6 bars and smaller:
or 12 in. minimum
25 f c
#7 bars and larger:
ld
d b Fy
20 f c
or 12 in. minimum
0.02d b Fy
0.0003d b Fy
Development Length in Compression
ld
f c
Hook Bends and Extensions

The minimum hook length is l dh
1200d b
f c
12
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Modulus of Elasticity & Deflection

Ec for deflection calculations can be used with the transformed section modulus in the elastic
range. After that, the cracked section modulus is calculated and E c is adjusted.
Code values:
Ec 57,000 f c (normal weight)
Ec wc1.5 33 f c , wc = 90 lb/ft3 - 160 lb/ft3
Deflections of beams and one-way slabs need not be computed if the overall member thickness
meets the minimum specified by the code, and are shown in Table 9.5(a) (see Slabs).
Criteria for Flat Slab & Plate System Design

Systems with slabs and supporting beams, joists or columns typically have multiple bays. The
horizontal elements can act as one-way or two-way systems. Most often the flexure resisting
elements are continuous, having positive and negative bending moments. These moment and
shear values can be found using beam tables, or from code specified approximate design factors.
Flat slab two-way systems have drop panels (for shear), while flat plates do not.
Criteria for Column Design

(American Concrete Institute) ACI 318-02 Code and Commentary:
Pu cPn
where
Pu is a factored load
is a resistance factor
Pn is the nominal load capacity (strength)
Load combinations, ex:
1.4D (D is dead load)

1.2D + 1.6L (L is live load)
For compression, c = 0.75 and Pn = 0.85Po for spirally

reinforced, c = 0.65 and Pn = 0.8Po for tied columns where
Po 0.85 f c( Ag Ast ) f y Ast and Po is the name of the
maximum axial force with no concurrent bending moment.
Ast
, in the
Ag
range of 1% to 2% will usually be the most economical, with
1% as a minimum and 8% as a maximum by code.
Columns which have reinforcement ratios, g
Bars are symmetrically placed, typically.

Spiral ties are harder to construct.
13
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
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Columns with Bending (Beam-Columns)

Concrete columns rarely see only axial force and must be designed for the combined effects of
axial load and bending moment. The interaction diagram shows the reduction in axial load a
column can carry with a bending moment.
Design aids commonly present the
interaction diagrams in the form of
load vs. equivalent eccentricity for
standard column sizes and bars used.
Rigid Frames
Monolithically cast frames with
beams and column elements will have
members with shear, bending and
axial loads. Because the joints can
rotate, the effective length must be
determined from methods like that
presented in the handout on Rigid
Frames. The charts for evaluating k
for non-sway and sway frames can be
found in the ACI code.
Frame Columns
Because joints can rotate in frames, the effective length of the column in a frame is harder to
determine. The stiffness (EI/L) of each member in a joint determines how rigid or flexible it is.
To find k, the relative stiffness, G or , must be found for both ends, plotted on the alignment
charts, and connected by a line for braced and unbraced fames.
EI l
c
G
EI
l
where
E = modulus of elasticity for a member
I = moment of inertia of for a member
lc = length of the column from center to center
lb = length of the beam from center to center
For pinned connections we typically use a value of 10 for .
For fixed connections we typically use a value of 1 for .
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Note Set 22.1
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Unbraced sway frame
Braced non-sway frame
Example 1
15
ARCH 331
Note Set 22.1
S2014abn
Example 2
h
M n
3 f c
Fy
Mu
lb-in
Mu
M n
bd
=0.80 in2,
lb-in
mm
c
M n
Example 3
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Example 4
A simply supported beam 20 ft long carries a service dead load of 300 lb/ft and a live load of 500 lb/ft. Design an
appropriate beam (for flexure only). Use grade 40 steel and concrete strength of 5000 psi.
SOLUTION:
Find the design moment, Mu, from the factored load combination of 1.2D + 1.6L. It is good practice to guess a beam size to
include self weight in the dead load, because service means dead load of everything except the beam itself.
Guess a size of 10 in x 12 in. Self weight for normal weight concrete is the density of 150 lb/ft 3 multiplied by the cross section
area: self weight = 150 lb 3 (10in)(12in) ( 1ft ) 2 = 125 lb/ft
ft
12in
wu = 1.2(300 lb/ft + 125 lb/ft) + 1.6(500 lb/ft) = 1310 lb/ft

The maximum moment for a simply supported beam is
Mn required = Mu/ =
wl 2
:
8
Mu =
wu l 2
8
1310 lb ft (20ft) 2
8
65,500 lb-ft
65,500lb ft
= 72,778 lb-ft
0.9
To use the design chart aid, find Rn =
Mn
bd 2
, estimating that d is about 1.75 inches less than h:
d = 12in 1.75 in (0.375) = 10.25 in (NOTE: If there are stirrups, you must also subtract the diameter of the stirrup bar.)
Rn =
72,778lbft
(12 in ft ) = 831 psi
(10in)(10. 25in)2
corresponds to approximately 0.023 (which is less than that for 0.005 strain of 0.0319) , so the estimated area required, As, can
be found:
As = bd = (0.023)(10in)(10.25in) = 2.36 in2
The number of bars for this area can be found from handy charts.
(Whether the number of bars actually fit for the width with cover and space between bars must also be considered. If you are at
max do not choose an area bigger than the maximum!)
Try As = 2.37 in2 from 3#8 bars
d = 12 in 1.5 in (cover) (8/8in diameter bar) = 10 in
Check = 2.37 in2/(10 in)(10 in) = 0.0237 which is less than max-0.005 = 0.0319 OK (We cannot have an over reinforced beam!!)
Find the moment capacity of the beam as designed, Mn
a = Asfy/0.85fcb = 2.37 in2 (40 ksi)/[0.85(5 ksi)10 in] = 2.23 in
2.23in
1
M n = Asfy(d-a/2) = 0.9(2.37in2 )(40ksi)(1 0in
)(
) 63.2 k-ft 65.5 k-ft needed (not OK)
2
12 in ft
So, we can increase d to 13 in, and Mn = 70.3 k-ft (OK). Or increase As to 2 # 10s (2.54 in2), for a = 2.39 in and Mn of
67.1 k-ft (OK). Dont exceed max or max-0.005 if you want to use =0.9
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Example 5
A simply supported beam 20 ft long carries a service dead load of 425 lb/ft (including self weight) and a live load of
500 lb/ft. Design an appropriate beam (for flexure only). Use grade 40 steel and concrete strength of 5000 psi.
SOLUTION:
Find the design moment, Mu, from the factored load combination of 1.2D + 1.6L. If self weight is not included in the service
loads, you need to guess a beam size to include self weight in the dead load, because service means dead load of everything
except the beam itself.
wu = 1.2(425 lb/ft) + 1.6(500 lb/ft) = 1310 lb/ft
wl 2
The maximum moment for a simply supported beam is
:
8
w l 2 1310 lb ft ( 20 ft )
Mu = u
8
8
65,500 lb-ft
65,500lb ft
= 72,778 lb-ft
0.9
Mn
To use the design chart aid, we can find Rn =
, and estimate that h is roughly 1.5-2 times the size of b, and h = 1.1d (rule of
bd 2
thumb): d = h/1.1 = (2b)/1.1, so d 1.8b or b 0.55d.
Mn required = Mu/ =
We can find Rn at the maximum reinforcement ratio for our materials, keeping in mind max at a strain = 0.005 is 0.0319 off of the
chart at about 1070 psi, with max = 0.037. Lets substitute b for a function of d:
lb ft
Rn = 1070 psi = 72,778
(12 in ft )
2
Rearranging and solving for d = 11.4 inches
(0.55d )(d )
That would make b a little over 6 inches, which is impractical. 10 in is commonly the smallest width.
So if h is commonly 1.5 to 2 times the width, b, h ranges from 14 to 20 inches. (10x1.5=15 and 10x2 = 20)
Choosing a depth of 14 inches, d 14 - 1.5 (clear cover) - (1 diameter bar guess) -3/8 in (stirrup diameter) = 11.625 in.
Now calculating an updated Rn =
72,778lb ft
(10in)(11.625in)2
(12in ) 646.2psi
ft
now is 0.020 (under the limit at 0.005 strain of 0.0319), so the estimated area required, As, can be found:
As = bd = (0.020)(10in)(11.625in) = 1.98 in2
The number of bars for this area can be found from handy charts.
(Whether the number of bars actually fit for the width with cover and space between bars must also be considered. If you are at
max-0.005 do not choose an area bigger than the maximum!)
Try As = 2.37 in2 from 3#8 bars. (or 2.0 in2 from 2 #9 bars. 4#7 bars dont fit...)
d(actually) = 14 in. 1.5 in (cover) (8/8 in bar diameter) 3/8 in. (stirrup diameter) = 11.625 in.
Check = 2.37 in2/(10 in)(11.625 in) = 0.0203 which is less than max-0.005 = 0.0319 OK (We cannot have an over reinforced
beam!!)
M n = Asfy(d-a/2) = 0.9(2.37in2 )(40ksi)(11.625in 2.23in) ( 1 ) 74.7 k-ft > 65.5 k-ft needed
in
2
12
ft
OK! Note: If the section doesnt work, you need to increase d or A s as long as you dont exceed max-0.005
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Example 6
A simply supported beam 25 ft long carries a service dead load of 2 k/ft, an estimated self weight of 500 lb/ft and a
live load of 3 k/ft. Design an appropriate beam (for flexure only). Use grade 60 steel and concrete strength of
3000 psi.
SOLUTION:
Find the design moment, Mu, from the factored load combination of 1.2D + 1.6L. If self weight is estimated, and the selected size
has a larger self weight, the design moment must be adjusted for the extra load.
2
7.8 k ft ( 25 ft )2
So, Mu = wu l
609.4 k-ft
wu = 1.2(2 k/ft + 0.5 k/ft) + 1.6(3 k/ft) = 7.8 k/ft
k ft
Mn required = Mu/ =
609.4
0.9
= 677.1 k-ft
To use the design chart aid, we can find Rn =
Mn
, and estimate that h is roughly 1.5-2 times the size of b, and h = 1.1d (rule of
bd 2
thumb): d = h/1.1 = (2b)/1.1, so d 1.8b or b 0.55d.
We can find Rn at the maximum reinforcement ratio for our materials off of the chart at about 700 psi with max-0.005 = 0.0135.
Lets substitute b for a function of d:
k ft
Rn = 700 psi = 677.1
( 1000 lb / k )
( 0.55d )( d )2
Rearranging and solving for d = 27.6 inches
( 12 in ft )
That would make b 15.2 in. (from 0.55d). Lets try 15. So,
h d + 1.5 (clear cover) +(1 diameter bar guess) +3/8 in (stirrup diameter) = 27.6 +2.375 = 29.975 in.
Choosing a depth of 30 inches, d 30 - 1.5 (clear cover) - (1 diameter bar guess) -3/8 in (stirrup diameter) = 27.625 in.
Now calculating an updated Rn =
677,100lb ft
(15in)(27.625in)2
(12 in ) 710psi
ft
This is larger than Rn for the 0.005 strain limit!
We cant just use max-.005. The way to reduce Rn is to increase b or d or both. Lets try increasing h to 31 in., then Rn = 661 psi
with d = 28.625 in.. That puts us under max-0.005 . Wed have to remember to keep UNDER the area of steel calculated, which is
hard to do.
From the chart, 0.013, less than the max-0.005 of 0.0135, so the estimated area required, As, can be found:
As = bd = (0.013)(15in)(29.625in) = 5.8 in2
The number of bars for this area can be found from handy charts. Our charts say there can be 3 6 bars that fit when
aggregate is used. Well assume 1 inch spacing between bars. The actual limit is the maximum of 1 in, the bar diameter or 1.33
times the maximum aggregate size.
Try As = 6.0 in2 from 6#9 bars. Check the width: 15 3 (1.5 in cover each side) 0.75 (two #3 stirrup legs) 6*1.128 5*1.128 in. =
-1.16 in NOT OK.
Try As = 5.08 in2 from 4#10 bars. Check the width: 15 3 (1.5 in cover each side) 0.75 (two #3 stirrup legs) 4*1.27 3*1.27 in. =
2.36 OK.
d(actually) = 31 in. 1.5 in (cover) (1.27 in bar diameter) 3/8 in. (stirrup diameter) = 28.49 in.
8.0in
1
)(
) 559.8 k-ft < 609 k-ft needed!! (NO GOOD)
M n = Asfy(d-a/2) = 0.9(5.08in2 )(60ksi)(2 8.49in
2
12 in ft
More steel isnt likely to increase the capacity much unless we are close. It looks like we need more steel and lever arm. Try h = 32 in.
AND b = 16 in., then Mu* (with the added self weight of 33.3 lb/ft) = 680.2 k-ft, 0.012, As = 0.012(16in)(29.42in)=5.66 in2. 6#9s
wont fit, but 4#11s will: = 0.0132 , a = 9.18 in, and Mn = 697.2 k-ft which is finally larger than 680.2 k-ft OK
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Note Set 22.1
Example 7
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Example 8
Design a T-beam for a floor with a 4 in slab supported by 22-ft-span-length beams cast monolithically with the slab.
The beams are 8 ft on center and have a web width of 12 in. and a total depth of 22 in.; fc = 3000 psi and fy = 60 ksi.
Service loads are 125 psf and 200 psf dead load which does not include the weight of the floor system.
SOLUTION:
0.0024(66)(19) = 3.01 in.2
Use 3#9 (As = 3.00 in.2)

7.125 in
1.125
19.56 in.
(O.K.)
1.2(0.625 + 1.60) + 1.6(1.00) = 4.27 kip/ft
4.27(22)2
258 ft-kips
3.00 in2
= 0.0135(66)(19)
= 16.93 in.2 > 3.00 in.2
(O.K)
12. Verify the moment capacity:

(Is
)
a = (3.00)(60)/[0.85(3)(66)] = 1.07 in.
= 256.9.1 ft-kips
(Not O.K)
Choose more steel, As = 3.16 in2 from 4-#8s

d = 19.62 in, a = 1.13 in
Mn = 271.0 ft-kips, which is OK

13. Sketch the design
258
Rn =
258
0.1444 ksi
Rn of 0.1444 ksi
required =0.0024
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Example 9
Design a T-beam for the floor system shown for which
bw and d are given. MD = 200 ft-k, ML = 425 ft-k,
fc = 3000 psi and fy = 60 ksi, and simple span = 18 ft.
SOLUTION
rectangular
correct. If the
. Now
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Note Set 22.1
Example 10
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Example 11
1.2wDL + 1.6wLL
1.2(0.075) + 1.6(0.400)
0.730 kip/ft
0.73(10)2
9.125 ft-kips
11. Verify the moment capacity:

(Is
)
Rn :
Rn =
9.125(12)
0.4257 ksi
Rn = 0.4257, the required = 0.0077.
= 10.6 ft-kips
12. A design sketch is drawn:
0.0181 > 0.0077

0.0077.
0.0077(12)(4.88)=0.45 in.2/ft
25
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Note Set 22.1
Example 12
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Example 13
For the simply supported concrete beam shown in Figure 5-61, determine the stirrup spacing (if required) using No.
3 U stirrups of Grade 60 (fy = 60 ksi). Assume fc = 3000 psi.
with 2 legs, then
(0.75)
32.0
Vc + Vs
Vs= Vu - Vc = 50 32.0 = 18.0 kips

sreqd
AvFyd
(<
64.1
( 0.75 )( 0.22in )( 60ksi )( 32.5in )

18.0k
17.875 in.
sreqd
V
when Vc>Vu> c
2
, but 16 (d/2) would be the maximum

as well.
Use #3 U @ 16 max spacing
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Example 14
Design the shear reinforcement for the simply supported
reinforced concrete beam shown with a dead load of 1.5 k/ft
and a live load of 2.0 k/ft. Use 5000 psi concrete and Grade
60 steel. Assume that the point of reaction is at the end of the
beam.
SOLUTION:
29.9
15
111 in
78 in
Shear diagram:
Find self weight = 1 ft x (27/12 ft) x 150 lb/ft 3 = 338 lb/ft = 0.338 k/ft
wu = 1.2 (1.5 k/ft + 0.338 k/ft) + 1.6 (2 k/ft) = 5.41 k/ft (= 0.451 k/in)
Vu (max) is at the ends = wuL/2 = 5.41 k/ft (24 ft)/2 = 64.9 k
Vu (support) = Vu (max) wu(distance) = 64.9 k 5.4 1k/ft (6/12 ft) = 62.2 k
Vu for design is d away from the support = Vu (support) wu(d) = 62.2 k 5.41 k/ft (23.5/12 ft) = 51.6 k
Concrete capacity:
We need to see if the concrete needs stirrups for strength or by requirement because Vu Vc + Vs (design requirement)
Vc = 2 f c bwd = 0.75 (2) 5000 psi (12 in) (23.5 in) = 299106 lb = 29.9 kips (< 51.6 k!)
Locating end points:
Stirrup design and spacing
29.9 k = 64.9k 0.451 k/in x (a)

a = 78 in
15 k = 64.9k 0.451 k/in x (b)
b = 111 in.
We need stirrups: Av = Vss/fyd
Vs Vu - Vc = 51.6 k 29.9 k = 21.7 k

Spacing requirements are in Table 3-8 and depend on Vc/2 = 15.0 k and 2Vc = 59.8 k
2 legs for a #3 is 0.22 in2, so sreqd Avfyd/ Vs = 0.75(0.22 in2)(60 ksi)(23.5 in)/21.7 k = 10.72 in Use s = 10
our maximum falls into the d/2 or 24, so d/2 governs with 11.75 in Our 10 is ok.
This spacing is valid until Vu = Vc and that happens at (64.9 k 29.9 k)/0.451 k/in = 78 in
We can put the first stirrup at a minimum of 2 in from the
support face, so we need 10 spaces for (78 2 - 6 in)/10 in =
7 even (8 stirrups altogether ending at 78 in)
2 in
After 78 we can change the spacing to the required (but not

more than the maximum of d/2 = 11.75 in 24in);
s = Avfy / 50bw = 0.22 in2 (60,000 psi)/50 (12 in) = 22 in
We need to continue to 111 in, so (111 78 in)/ 11 in = 3
even
8 - #3 U stirrups
at 10 in
28
3 - #3 U stirrups at 11 in
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Note Set 22.1
Example 15
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As-min = 0.12 in2/ft
No. 3 at 11 temperature reinforcement

No. 3 at 8
No. 3 at 8
No. 3 at 9
No. 3 at 8
No. 3 at 11
Example 16
1.2
1.6
= 1.2(93.8) + 1.6(250) = 112.6 + 400.0 = 516.2 psf (design load)
Because we are designing a slab segment that is 12 in. wide, the foregoing loading is the same as 512.6 lb/ft
or 0.513 kip/ft.
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(0.513)(11)2 = 4.43 ft-kips
(end span)
(0.513)(11)2 = 3.88 ft-kips
(interior span)
(0.513)(11)2 = 6.20 ft-kips
(end span - first interior support)
(0.513)(11)2 = 5.64 ft-kips
(interior span both supports)
(0.513)(11)2 = 2.58 ft-kips
(end span exterior support)
Similarly, the shears are determined using the ACI shear equations. In the end span at the face of the first
interior support,
3.24 kips
1.15(0.513)
=(0.513)
4.
(end span first interior support)
2.82 kips
Design the slab. Assume #4 bars for main steel with in. cover: d = 5.5 0.75 (0.5) = 4.5 in.
5. Design the steel. (All moments must be considered.) For example, the negative moment in the end span at the
first interior support:
Rn
Mu
6.20( 12 )( 1000 )
340 ft kips
2
bd
0.9( 12 )( 4.5 ) 2
so 0.006
As = bd = 0.006(12)(4.5) = 0.325 in2 per ft. width of slab Use #4 at 7 in. (16.5 in. max. spacing)
The minimum reinforcement required for flexure is the same as the shrinkage and temperature steel.
(Verify the moment capacity is achieved: a 0.67 in. and Mn = 6.38 ft-kips > 6.20 ft-kips)
For grade 60 the minimum for shrinkage and temperature steel is:
As-min = 0.0018bt = 0.0018 (12)(5.5) = 0.12 in 2 per ft. width of slab Use #3 at 11 in. (18 in. max spacing)
6.
Check the shear strength.

Vc 2 f cbd 0.75( 2 ) 3000( 12 )( 4.5 ) 4436.6lb = 4.44 kips
Vu Vc
Therefore the thickness is O.K.
7. Development length for the flexure reinforcement is required. (Hooks are required at the spandrel beam.)
For example, #6 bars:
d b Fy
#3 at 11 o.c. temperature reinforcement
or 12 in. minimum
ld
25 f c
#3 at 11 o.c.
#4 at 7 o.c.
#4 at 8 o.c.
With grade 40 steel and 3000 psi concrete:
ld
in (40,000 psi)
21.9in
25 3000 psi
#4 at 12 o.c.
(which is larger than 12 in.)

8.
Sketch:
31
#4 at 15 o.c.
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Note Set 22.1
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Example 17
A building is supported on a grid of columns that is spaced at 30 ft on center in both the north-south and east-west
directions. Hollow core planks with a 2 in. topping span 30 ft in the east-west direction and are supported on precast
L and inverted T beams. Size the hollow core planks assuming a live load of 100 lb/ft 2. Choose the shallowest
plank with the least reinforcement that will span the 30 ft while supporting the live load.
SOLUTION:
The shallowest that works is an 8 in. deep hollow core plank.
The one with the least reinforcing has a strand pattern of 68-S, which contains 6 strands of diameter 8/16 in. = in. The S
indicates that the strands are straight. The plank supports a superimposed service load of 124 lb/ft 2 at a span of 30 ft with an
estimated camber at erection of 0.8 in. and an estimated long-time camber of 0.2 in.
The weight of the plank is 81 lb/ft2.
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Note Set 22.1
Example 18
Also, design for e = 6 in.
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Example 19
Determine the capacity of a 16 x 16 column with 8- #10 bars, tied. Grade 40 steel and 4000 psi concrete.
SOLUTION:
Find Pn, with =0.65 and Pn = 0.80Po for tied columns and
Po 0.85 f c( Ag Ast ) f y Ast

Steel area (found from reinforcing bar table for the bar size):
Ast = 8 bars (1.27 in2) = 10.16 in2
Concrete area (gross):
Ag = 16 in 16 in = 256 in2
Grade 40 reinforcement has fy = 40,000 psi and f c = 4000psi
Pn = (0.65)(0.80)[0.85(4000 psi )(256 in2 10.16 in2) + (40,000 psi)(10.16 in2)] = 646,026 lb = 646 kips
Example 20
16 x 16 precast reinforced columns support inverted T girders
on corbels as shown. The unfactored loads on the corbel are
81 k dead, and 72 k live. The unfactored loads on the column
are 170 k dead and 150 k live. Determine the reinforcement
required using the interaction diagram provided. Assume that
half the moment is resisted by the column above the corbel and
the other half is resisted by the column below. Use grade 50
steel and 5000 psi concrete.
34
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Note Set 22.1
Example 21
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Example 22
ACI 7.7: Concrete exposed to earth or weather:

No. 6 through No. 18 bars....... 2 in. minimum
(0.75)(4)(452)
0.808
(0.75)(4)(452)(24)
0.103
0.02
(0.02)(452) = 9.04 in.2
0.75
#8, Ast = 9.48 in.2
17 bars of #8 can be arranged in
ACI 10.12: In nonsway frames it shall be permitted to ignore slenderness effects for
compression members that satisfy:
36
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M
34 12 1
M 2
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Note Set 22.1
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Factored Moment Resistance of Concrete Beams, Mn (k-ft) with fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksia

Approximate Values for a/d
0.1
b x d (in)
10 x 14
0.2
Approximate Values for

0.0057
0.01133
0.3
0.017
2 #6
53
3 #5
72
2 #8
90
2 #9
146
3 #8
127
3 #9
207
10 x 22
2 #7
113
3 #8
211
(3 #10)
321
12 x 16
2 #7
82
2 #8
135
2 #8
162
3 #8
154
3 #9
243
3 #9
292
4 #8
193
4 #9
306
(4 #10)
466
15 x 20
3 #7
154
4 #8
256
5 #9
383
15 x 25
3 #8
253
3 #8
304
4 #9
405
5 #9
608
4 #11
597
(5 #11)
895
3 #8
5 #9
6 #10
243
3 #9
385
3 #10
586
486
6 #9
729
6 #10
1111
700
(6 #11)
1074
(7 #11)
1504
3 # 10
7#9
6 # 11
489
4 #9
599
6 #8
811
851
5 #11
1106
6 #11
1516
1074
(7 #11)
1462
(9 #11)
2148
6 #8
7 #10
(8 #11)
648
6 #9
1026
5 #10
1152
7 #11
1769
(8 #11)
1528
(10 #11)
2387
(13 #11)
1303
2426
3723
10 x 18
12 x 20
12 x 24
15 x 30
18 x 24
18 x 30
18 x 36
20 x 30
20 x 35
20 x 40
24 x 32
24 x 40
24 x 48
a
Table yields values of factored moment resistance in kip-ft with reinforcement indicated. Reinforcement choices
shown in parentheses require greater width of beam or use of two stack layers of bars. (Adapted and corrected from
Simplified Engineering for Architects and Builders, 11th ed, Ambrose and Tripeny, 2010.
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Note Set 22.1
Column Interaction Diagrams
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Note Set 22.1
Column Interaction Diagrams
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Note Set 22.1
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Beam / One-Way Slab Design Flow Chart

Collect data: L, , , llimits, hmin (or tmin); find
beam charts for load cases and actual equations
(estimate wself weight = x A)
Collect data: load factors, fy, f'c
Find Vu & Mu from constructing diagrams

or using beam chart formulas with the
factored loads (Vu-max is at d away
from face of support)
Assume b & d (based

on hmin or tmin for slabs)
Determine Mn required by
Mu/, choose method
Chart (Rn vs )
Find Rn off chart with fy, fc and

select min max
Select min max
Choose b & d combination based

on Rn and hmin (tmin slabs),
estimate h with 1 bars (#8)
Calculate As = bd
Select bar size and spacing to fit

width or 12 in strip of slab and not
exceed limits for crack control
Find new d / adjust h;

Is min max ?
YES
Increase h, find d*
NO
or provide As min
Increase h, find d
Calculate a, Mn
Is Mu Mn?
Yes
NO
(on to shear reinforcement for beams)
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Note Set 22.1
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Beam / One-Way Slab Design Flow Chart - continued

Beam, Adequate for Flexure
Determine shear capacity of plain
concrete based on fc, b & d
NO
Is Vu (at d for beams) Vc?
Beam?
NO
YES
YES
Slab?
NO
Is Vu < Vc?
YES
Increase h and re-evaluate

flexure (As and Mn of
previous page)*
Determine Vs = (Vu - Vc)/
Is Vs
YES
Determine s & As
Find where V = Vc
and provide minimum
As and change s
Find where V = Vc
and provide stirrups
just past that point
Yes
41
(DONE)
NO
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Note Set 22.2
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Note Set 22.2
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Note Set 22.2
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Note Set 22.2
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Note Set 24
F2009abn
Torsion
Notation:
a
b
c
ci
co
c1
c2
= name for width dimension
G
J
L
s
= area bounded by the centerline of a

thin walled section subjected to
torsion
= name for height dimension
= radial distance to shear stress
location
= inner radial distance to shear stress
location
= outer radial distance to shear stress
location
= coefficient for shear stress for a
= coefficient for shear twist for a
t
T
=
=
=
=
shear modulus
polar moment of inertia
length
length of a segment of a thin walled
section
= torque (axial moment)
= angle of twist
= pi (3.1415 radians or 180)
= radial distance
= engineering symbol for shearing
stress
= summation symbol
Deformation in Torsionally Loaded Members

Axi-symmetric cross sections subjected to axial moment or torque
will remain plane and undistorted.
At a section, internal torque (resisiting applied torque) is made up of
shear forces parallel to the area and in the direction of the torque.
The distribution of the shearing stresses depends on the angle of
twist, . The cross section remains plane and undistored.
Shearing Strain
Shearing strain is the angle change of a straight line segment
along the axis.
where
is the radial distance from the centroid to the point under strain.
The maximum strain is at the surface, a distance c from the centroid:
G is the Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity:
max
c
L
ARCH 331
Note Set 24
F2009abn
Shearing Strain and Stress

In the linear elastic range: the torque is the summation of torsion stresses over
the area:
gives:
T
J
Maximum torsional stress, max, occurs at the outer diameter (or perimeter).
Polar Moment of Inertia

For axi-symmetric shapes, there is only one value for polar moment of
inertia, J, determined by the radius, c:
solid section:
c 4
hollow section:
co 4 ci 4
Combined Torsion and Axial Loading

Just as with combined axial load and shear, combined torsion and
axial loading result in maximum shear stress at a 45 oblique plane
of twist.
Shearing Strain
In the linear elastic range:
TL
JG
and for composite shafts:
Ti Li
J i Gi
Torsion in Noncircular Shapes

J is no longer the same along the lateral axes. Plane sections do not
remain plane, but distort. max is still at the furthest distance away from
the centroid. For rectangular shapes:
max
T
c1ab 2
For a/b > 5:
c1 c 2
TL
c 2ab3G
1
1 0.630 b
a
3
a>b
2
ARCH 331
Note Set 24
F2009abn
Open Sections
For long narrow shapes where a/b is very large
(a/b ) c1 = c2 = 1/3 and:
max
T
1 ab 2
3
TL
1 ab 3G
3
Shear Flow of Closed Thin Walled Sections
q is the internal shearing force per unit length, and is constant on a cross section
even though the thickness of the wall may very.
is the area bounded by the
centerline of the wall section; s i, is a length segment of the wall and t i is the
corresponding thickness of the length segment.
T
Shear Flow in Open Sections 2t
TL
4t 2
si
t
i
The shear flow must wrap around at all edges, and the total torque is distributed
among the areas making up the cross section in proportion to the torsional rigidity
of each rectangle (ab2/3). The total angle of twist is the sum of the values from each
rectangle. t i is the thickness of each rectangle and bi is the length of each rectangle.
max
Tt max
1 b t 3
3
i i
TL
1 Gb t 3
3
i i
ARCH 331
Note Set 24
F2009abn
Example 1
J (14ksi )( 393.7 in 4 ) 1 ft
87.5 k ft
5.25in
12in
4
4
( c o4 ci4 ) (( 5.25in ) ( 4.75in ) )
T
2t
a (14ksi )2( 0.5in )( 72in
T 2t
a (12in )( 6in ) 72in

max
Tt max
1
3
bi t i3
393.7 in 4
1 ft
84k ft
12in
J (14ksi )( 4.08in 4 ) 1 ft
t max
1in
12in
4.8 k ft
J 13 10in( 0.5in )3 ( 5.5in )( 1in )3 ( 5.5in )( 1in )3 4.08in 4
ARCH 331
Note Set 25.1
F2012abn
One-Way Frame Analysis

Simplified Design, 3rd ed., PCA 2004
Notation:
D
ln
L
= shorthand for dead load

= clear span from face of support to
face of support in concrete design
wd
wl
wu

dead load
live load
load factors
ARCH 331
Note Set 25.1
F2012abn
ARCH 331
Note Set 25.2
Thickness and Cover Requirements for Fire Protection

Simplified Design, PCA 1993
F2008abn
ARCH 331
Note Set 25.3
Openings in Concrete Slab Systems

from Notes on ACI 318-99, Portland Cement Association, 1999
Su2011abn
ARCH 331
Note Set 25.3
Su2011abn
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Foundation Design
Notation:
a
A
b
=
=
=
=
=
name for width dimension

name for area
width of retaining wall stem at base
width resisting shear stress
bo
perimeter length for two-way shear
in concrete footing design
B
= spread footing or retaining wall base
dimension in concrete design
cc
= shorthand for clear cover
d
reinforced concrete member to the
= name for diameter
e
= eccentric distance of application of a
force (P) from the centroid of a
cross section
f
= symbol for stress
fc
Fhorizontal-resisting = total force resisting
horizontal sliding
Fsliding = total sliding force
Fx
= force in the x direction
F.S. = shorthand for factor of safety
hf
= height of a concrete spread footing
H
= height of retaining wall
HA = horizontal force due to active soil
pressure
ld
steel
L
M
= moment due to a force
Moverturning = total overturning moment
Mresisting = total moment resisting overturning
about a point
n
= name for number
N
= name for normal force to a surface
o
= point of overturning of a retaining
wall, commonly at the toe
p
pA
P
PD
PL
Pu
q
qa
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
qg
qnet
=
=
qu
=
=
R
SF
t
=
=
=
T
V
Vc
Vu
=
=
=
=
w
wu
=
=
W
x
y
=
=
=
c
s
=
=
=
=
=
pressure
active soil pressure
name for axial force vector
force due to a pressure
dead load axial force
live load axial force
factored axial force
soil bearing pressure
allowable soil bearing stress in
allowable stress design, as is qallowable
gross soil bearing pressure
net allowed soil bearing pressure, as
is qn
ultimate soil bearing strength in
factored soil bearing capacity in
concrete footing design from load
factors, as is qnu
name for reaction force vector
shorthand for factor of safety
thickness of retaining wall stem at
top
name of a tension force
name for volume
shear force capacity in concrete
factored shear for reinforced
concrete design
name for width
load per unit length on a beam from
load factors
name for force due to weight
horizontal distance
the distance in the y direction from a
reference axis to the centroid of a
shape
resistance factor
density or unit weight of concrete
density or unit weight of soil
pi (3.1415 radians or 180)
reinforcement ratio in concrete
beam design = As/bd
coefficient of static friction
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Foundations
A foundation is defined as the engineered interface between the earth and the structure it supports
that transmits the loads to the soil or rock. The design differs from structural design in that the
choices in material and framing system are not available, and quality of materials cannot be
assured. Foundation design is dependent on geology and climate of the site.
Soil Mechanics
Soil is another building material and the properties, just like the ones necessary for steel and
concrete and wood, must be known before designing. In addition, soil has other properties due to
massing of the material, how soil particles pack or slide against each other, and how water affects
the behavior. The important properties are
specific weight (density)
allowable soil pressure
factored net soil pressure allowable soil pressure less surcharge with a factor of safety
shear resistance
backfill pressure
cohesion & friction of soil
effect of water
settlement
rock fracture behavior

slip zone
Structural Strength and Serviceability

There are significant serviceability
considerations with soil. Soils can settle
considerably under foundation loads, which
can lead to redistribution of moments in
punched wedge
continuous slabs or beams, increases in
stresses and cracking. Excessive loads can
cause the soil to fail in bearing and in shear. The presence of water can cause soils to swell or
shrink and freeze and thaw, which causes heaving. Fissures or fault lines can cause seismic
instabilities.
A geotechnical engineer or engineering service can use tests on soil bearings from the site to
determine the ultimate bearing capacity, qu. Allowable stress design is utilized for soils because of
the variability do determine the allowable bearing capacity, qa = qu/(safety factor).
Values of qa range from 3000 4000 psi for most soils, while clay type soils have lower capacities
and sandy soils to rock have much higher capacities.
2
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Soil acts somewhat like water, in that it exerts a lateral pressure because
of the weight of the material above it, but the relationship is not linear.
Soil can have an active pressure from soil behind a retaining wall and a
passive pressure from soil in front of the footing. Active pressure is
typically greater than passive pressure.
active
(trying to
move wall)
passive
(resists
movement)
Foundation Materials
Typical foundation materials include:
plain concrete
reinforced concrete
steel
wood
composites, ie. steel tubing filled with concrete
Foundation Design
Generalized Design Steps
Design of foundations with variable conditions and variable types of foundation structures will be
different, but there are steps that are typical to every design, including:
1. Calculate loads from structure, surcharge, active & passive pressures, etc.
2. Characterize soil hire a firm to conduct soil tests and produce a report that includes soil
material properties
3. Determine footing location and depth shallow footings are less expensive, but the
variability of the soil from the geotechnical report will drive choices
4. Evaluate soil bearing capacity the factor of safety is considered here
5. Determine footing size these calculations are based on working loads and the allowable
soil pressure
6. Calculate contact pressure and check stability
7. Estimate settlements
8. Design the footing structure design for the material based on applicable structural design
codes which may use allowable stress design, LRFD or limit state design (concrete).
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Shallow Foundation Types

Considered simple and cost effective because little soil is removed
or disturbed.
Spread footing A single column bears on a square or rectangular
pad to distribute the load over a bigger area.
Wall footing A continuous wall bears on a wide pad to distribute
the load.
Eccentric footing A spread or wall footing that also must resist a
moment in addition to the axial column load.
Combined footing Multiple columns (typically two) bear on a
rectangular or trapezoidal shaped footing.
Unsymmetrical footing A footing with a shape that does not
evenly distribute bearing pressure from column loads and moments. It typically involves a
hole or a non-rectangular shape influenced by a boundary or property line.
Strap footing A combined footing consisting of two spread footings with a beam or strap
connecting the slabs. The purpose of this is to limit differential settlements.
Mat foundation A slab that supports multiple columns. The mat can be stiffened with a grid or
grade beams. It is typically used when the soil capacity is very low.
Deep Foundation Types
Considerable material and excavation is required, increasing cost and effort.
Retaining Walls A wall that retains soil or other materials, and must resist sliding and
overturning. Can have counterforts, buttresses or keys.
Basement Walls A wall that encloses a basement space, typically next to a floor slab, and that
may be restrained at the top by a floor slab.
Piles Next choice when spread footings or mats wont work, piles are used to distribute loads
by end bearing to strong soil or friction to low strength soils. Can be used to resist uplift, a
moment causing overturning, or to compact soils. Also useful when used in combination to
control settlements of mats or
Pa A p fa
slabs.
P
P
Drilled Piers Soil is removed to the
shape of the pier and concrete is
added.
Caissons Water and possibly wet
soil is held back or excavated
while the footing is constructed
or dropped into place.
Rs =(adhesion)
N
Rp
end
bearing
RP 0
friction
tapered
friction
Pile Types
uplift/tension
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Loads and Stresses

Bearing loads must be distributed to the soil materials, but because of their
variability and the stiffness of the footing pad, the resulting stress, or soil
pressure, is not necessarily uniform. But we assume it is for design because
dealing with the complexity isnt worth the time or effort.
The increase in weight when replacing soil with concrete is called the
overburden. Overburden may also be the result of adding additional soil to
the top of the excavation for a retaining wall. It is extra uniformly
distributed load that is considered by reducing the allowable soil pressure
(instead of increasing the loads), resulting in a net allowable soil pressure,
qnet:
q q
h ( )
net
allowable
RIGID footing on sand
RIGID footing on clay
In order to design the footing size, the actual stress P/A must be less than
or equal to the allowable pressure:
P
qnet
A
IDEAL stress
Design Stresses
The result of a uniform pressure on the underside of a
footing is identical to a distributed load on a slab over a
column when looked at upside down. The footing slab
must resist bending, one-way shear and two-way shear
(punching).
one-way shear
two-way shear
Stresses with Eccentric Loading

Combined axial and bending stresses increase the pressure
on one edge or corner of a footing. We assume again a
linear distribution based on a constant relationship to
settling. If the pressure combination is in tension, this
effectively means the contact is gone between soil and
footing and the pressure is really zero. To avoid zero
pressure, the eccentricity must stay within the kern. The
maximum pressure must not exceed the net allowable
soil pressure.
P
M
If the contact is gone, the maximum pressure can be

determined knowing that the volume of the pressure
wedge has to equal the column load, and the centroid of
the pressure wedge coincides with the effective eccentricity.
wpx
where w is the width, p is the soil pressure, and x
2
2P 2 N
M
M
is the wedge length (3a), so p
(and e
and a= width - e)
or
or
wx
wx
P
N
Wedge volume is V
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Overturning is considered in design such that the resisting moment from the soil pressure
(equivalent force at load centroid) is greater than the overturning moment, M, by a factor of
safety of at least 1.5
SF
M resist
1.5
M overturning
where
Mresist = average resultant soil pressure x width x location of load centroid with respect to
column centroid
Moverturning = P x e
Combined Footings
The design of combined footing requires that the centroid of the
area be as close as possible to the resultant of the two column
loads for uniform pressure and settling.
P2
P1
Retaining Walls
The design of retaining walls must consider overturning,
settlement, sliding and bearing pressure. The water in the retained
soil can significantly affect the loading and the active pressure of
the soil. The lateral force acting at a height of H/3 is determined
from the active pressure, pA, (in force/cubic area) as:
pAH 2
HA
Overturning is considered the same as for eccentric footings:
SF
y
R = P1+P2
HA
pA
H/3
M resist
1.5 2
M overturning
where
Mresist = summation of moments about o to resist rotation, typically including the
moment due to the weight of the stem and base and the moment due to the
passive pressure.
Moverturning = moment due to the active pressure about o.
W
Fx
Sliding must also be avoided:

o
F
SF horizontalresist 1.25 2
F sliding
Fresist
where:
Fhorizontal-resist = summation of forces to resist sliding, typically including the force from the
passive pressure and friction (F=N where is a constant for the materials in
contact and N is the normal force to the ground acting down and shown as R).
Fsliding = sliding force as a result of active pressure.
6
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
For sizing, some rules of thumbs are:
footing size, B
reinforced concrete, B 2/5 - 2/3 wall height (H)
footing thickness, hf 1/12 - 1/8 footing size (B)
base of stem, b 1/10 - 1/12 wall height (H+hf)
top of stem, t 12 inches
H
b
hf
B
PD = 200k PL = 300k
Example 1
Soil density = 100 lb/ft3, Concrete density = 150 lb/ft3
15 square column
hf
w
hf
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Example 2
For the 16 in. thick 8.5 ft. square reinforced concrete footing carrying 150 kips dead load and 100 kips live load on
a 24 in. square column, determine if the footing thickness is adequate for 4000 psi . A 3 in. cover is required with
concrete in contact with soil.
Also determine the moment for reinforced concrete design.
SOLUTION:
Pu
A
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2 (150 k) + 1.6 (100 k) = 340 k
340k
qu
= 4.71 k/ft2
(8.5 ft ) 2
1. Find design soil pressure: qu
2. Evaluate one-way shear at d away from column face (Is Vu < Vc?)
d = hf c.c. distance to bar intersection
presuming #8 bars:
d = 16 in. 3 in. (soil exposure) - 1 in. x (1 layer of #8s) = 12 in.
Vu = total shear = qu (edge area)
Vu on a 1 ft strip = qu (edge distance) (1 ft)
Vu = 4.71 k/ft2 [(8.5 ft 2 ft)/2 (12 in.)(1 ft/12 in.)] (1 ft) = 10.6 k
Vn = one-way shear resistance = 2 f c bd

for a one foot strip, b = 12 in.
Vc = 0.75(2 4000 psi)(12 in.)(12 in.) = 13.7 k > 10.6 k OK

3. Evaluate two-way shear at d/2 away from column face (Is Vu < Vc?)
bo = perimeter = 4 (24 in. + 12 in.) = 4 (36 in.) = 144 in
Vu = total shear on area outside perimeter = P u qu (punch area)
Vu = 340 k (4.71 k/ft2)(36 in.)2(1 ft/12 in.)2 = 297.6 kips
Vn = two-way shear resistance = 4 f c bod = 0.75(4 4000 psi)(144 in.)(12 in.) = 327.9 k > 297.6 k OK
4. Design for bending at column face
Mu = wuL2/2 for a cantilever. L = (8.5 ft 2 ft)/2 = 3.25 ft, and wu for a 1 ft strip = qu (1 ft)
Mu = 4.71 k/ft2(1 ft)(3.25 ft)2/2 = 24.9 k-ft (per ft of width)
To complete the reinforcement design, use b =12 in. and trial d = 12 in., choose , determine As, find if Mn > Mu.....
5. Check transfer of load from column to footing:
Pn = 0.85fc?A1 A2
A1
0.85fc2A1 = 0.65(0.85)(4000psi)(2)(12 in.)(12 in.) = 636.5 k > 340 k OK
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.1
F2012abn
Example 3
100
= 6.25 kips/ft2 < qn = 7 1(0.150-0.125) = 6.975 kips/ft2 O.K.
16
Example 4
Determine the depth required for the group of 4 friction piles having 12 in. diameters if the column load is 100
kips and the frictional resistance is 400 lbs/ft 2.
P = 100 kips
SOLUTION:
The downward load is resisted by a friction force. Friction is determined by multiplying the friction
resistance (a stress) by the area: F fASKIN
d
The area of n cylinders is: ASKIN n(2 L)
2
Our solution is to set P F and solve for length:
100k 400 lb ft 2 ( 4 piles )( 2 )(
1 ft
12in
1k
)L (
)(
)
2
12in 1000lb
L 19.9 ft pile
P = 300 kips
Example 5
Determine the depth required for the friction and bearing pile having a 36 in. diameter if the column load is
300 kips, the frictional resistance is 600 lbs/ft 2 and the end bearing pressure allowed is 8000 psf.
SOLUTION:
The downward load is resisted by a friction force and a bearing force, which can be determined from multiplying the
bearing pressure by the area in contact: F fASKIN qATIP
d2
4
Our solution is to set P F and solve for length:
1 ft
( 36in ) 2 1 ft 2
36in
1k
1k
300k 600 lb ft 2 2 (
)L (
)(
) 8000 lb ft 2
(
) (
)
2
12in 1000lb
4
12in
1000lb
L 43.1 ft
The area of a circle is: ATIP
10
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
Design of Isolated Square and Rectangular Footings (ACI 318-02)

Notation:
a
Ag
Areq
As
A1
A2
b
bf
bo
B
Bs
c
C
d
db
df
fc
fy
hf
ld
l dc
= equivalent square column size in

spread footing design
= depth of the effective compression
block in a concrete beam
= gross area, equal to the total area
ignoring any reinforcement
= area required to satisfy allowable
stress
concrete design
= area of column in spread footing
design
= projected bearing area of column
load in spread footing design
= rectangular column dimension in
concrete footing design
= width of the flange of a steel or
cross section
= perimeter length for two-way shear
in concrete footing design
= spread footing dimension in
concrete design
= dimension of a steel base plate for
= width within the longer dimension
of a rectangular spread footing that
reinforcement must be concentrated
within for concrete design
= rectangular column dimension in
= dimension of a steel base plate for
reinforced concrete member to the
= bar diameter of a reinforcing bar
= depth of a steel column flange
(wide flange section)
= yield stress or strength
= height of a concrete spread footing
steel
= development length for column
ls
L
Lm
= lap splice length in concrete design

= projected length for bending in
L
= length of the one-way shear area in
concrete flexure design
P
= name for axial force vector
Pdowels = nominal capacity of dowels from
concrete column to footing in
concrete design
PD = dead load axial force
PL
= live load axial force
Pn
= nominal column or bearing load
capacity in concrete design
Pu
= factored axial force
qallowable = allowable soil bearing stress in
qnet = net allowed soil bearing pressure
qu
= factored soil bearing capacity in
concrete footing design from load
factors
Vc
= shear force capacity in concrete
Vn
= nominal shear force capacity
Vu1 = maximum one-way shear from
factored loads for LRFD beam
design
Vu2 = maximum two-way shear from
factored loads for LRFD beam
design
c
= ratio of long side to short side of the
column in concrete footing design
= resistance factor
c = density or unit weight of concrete

s
= density or unit weight of soil
= reinforcement ratio in concrete
beam design = As/bd

c = shear strength in concrete design
1
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
NOTE: This procedure assumes that the footing is concentrically loaded and carries no moment so that the soil
pressure may be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the base.
1) Find service dead and live column loads:

PD = Service dead load from column
PL = Service live load from column
P = PD + PL (typically see ACI 9.2)
2) Find design (factored) column load, Pu:
PU = 1.2PD + 1.6PL
3) Find an approximate footing depth, hf
h f d 4" and is usually in multiples of 2, 4 or 6 inches.

a) For rectangular columns
4d 2 2(b c)d
b) For round columns
d ad
2
Pu
Pu
c
a
d 2
4
where: a is the equivalent square column size
c 4 f c for two-way shear

= 0.75 for shear
4) Find net allowable soil pressure, qnet:
By neglecting the weight of any
additional top soil added, the net
allowable soil pressure takes into
account the change in weight when
soil is removed and replaced by
concrete:
qnet qallowable h f ( c s )
where c is the unit weight of concrete (typically 150 lb/ft3)
and s is the unit weight of the displaced soil
5) Find required area of footing base and establish length and width:
Areq
P
q net
For square footings choose B Areq

For rectangular footings choose B L Areq
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
6) Check transfer of load from column to footing: ACI 15.8

a) Find load transferred by bearing on concrete in column: ACI 10.17
basic: Pn 0.85 f cA1 where = 0.65 and A1 is the area of the column
with confinement: Pn 0.85 f cA1
A2
where
A1
A2
cannot exceed 2.
A1
IF the column concrete strength is lower than the

footing, calculate Pn for the column too.
loaded area A1
b) Find load to be transferred by dowels:
Pdowels Pu Pn
IF Pn Pu only nominal dowels are required.
c) Find required area of dowels and choose bars
Req. dowel As
A2 measured on
this plane
Pdowels
where = 0.65 and fy is the reinforcement grade
f y
Choose dowels to satisfy the required area and nominal requirements:

i)
Minimum of 4 bars
ii)
Minimum As 0.005 Ag ACI 15.8.2.1

where Ag is the gross column area
iii)
4 - #5 bars
d) Check dowel embedment into footing for compression: ACI 12.3

ldc
0.02 f y db
f c
but not less than 0.0003 f y db or 8 where db is the bar diameter
NOTE: The footing must be deep enough to accept ldc. Hooks are not considered effective in compression
and are only used to support dowels during construction.
e) Find length of lapped splices of dowels with column bars: ACI 12.16
l s is the largest of:

i)
larger of ldc or 0.0005 f y db (fy of grade 60 or less)

of smaller bar (0.0009 f y 24)db (fy over grade 60)
ii)
ldc of larger bar
iii)
not less than 12
See ACI 12.17.2 for possible reduction in ls

3
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
7) Check two-way (slab) shear:

a) Find dimensions of loaded area:
i)
ii)
For concrete columns, the area coincides

with the column area, if rectangular, or
equivalent square area if circular
(see 3)b))
For steel columns an equivalent loaded
area whose boundaries are halfway
between the faces of the steel column
and the edges of the steel base plate is
used: ACI 15.4.2c.
b bf
c df
(B bf )
2
where bf is the width of column flange and B is base plate side
(C d f )
2
where df is the depth of column flange and C is base plate side
b) Find shear perimeter: ACI 11.12.1.2

Shear perimeter is located at a distance of d
outside boundaries of loaded area and
length is bo 2(c d ) 2(b d )

(average d = hf 3 in. cover 1 assumed bar diameter)
c) Find factored net soil pressure, qu:
qu
Pu
P
or u
2
B
B L
d) Find total shear force for two-way shear, Vu2:
Vu 2 Pu qu (c d )(b d )
e) Compare Vu2 to two-way capacity, Vn:
4
Vu 2 2 f cbo d 4 f cbo d ACI 11.12.2.1
c
where = 0.75 and c is the ratio of long side to short

side of the column
NOTE: This should be acceptable because the initial footing
size was chosen on the basis of two-way shear limiting. If it is
not acceptable, increase h f and repeat steps starting at b).
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
8) Check one-way (beam) shear:

The critical section for one-way shear extends across the
width of the footing at a distance d from the face of the
loaded area (see 7)a) for loaded area). The footing is
treated as a cantilevered beam. ACI 11.12.1.1
a) Find projection, L:
i)
For square footing:

L
B
(d b ) where b is the smaller dim. of
2
2
the loaded area

ii)
For rectangular footings:

L
L
(d ) where is the dim. parallel to
2
2
the long side of the footing

b) Find total shear force on critical section, Vu1:
Vu1 BLqu
c) Compare Vu1 to one-way capacity, Vn:
Vu1 2 f cBd ACI 11.12.3.1 where = 0.75

NOTE: If it is not acceptable, increase h f .
9) Check for bending stress and design reinforcement:

Square footings may be designed for moment in one direction and the same reinforcing used
in the other direction. For rectangular footings the moment and reinforcing must be
calculated separately in each direction. The critical section for moment extends across the
width of the footing at the face of the loaded area. ACI 15.4.1, 15.4.2.
a) Find projection, Lm:
Lm
B
where is the smaller dim. of column for a square
2 2
footing. For a rectangular footing, use the value perpendicular to

the critical section.
b) Find total moment, Mu, on critical section:
M u qu
BL2m
2
(find both ways for a rectangular footing)
ARCH 331
Note Set 27.2
F2010abn
c) Find required As:
Rn
Mn
Mu
, where = 0.9, and can be found

2
bd
bd 2
from Figure 3.8.1 of Wang & Salmon.
or:
i)
guess a
ii)
As
iii)
M u
solve for a 2 d
As f y
iv)
0.85 f cba
fy
repeat from ii) until a converges, solve for As
Minimum As
= 0.0018bh
Grade 60 for temperature and shrinkage control
= 0.002bh
Grade 40 or 50
ACI 10.5.4 specifies the requirements of 7.12 must be met, and max. spacing of 18
d) Choose bars:
For square footings use the same size and number of bars uniformly spaced in each
direction (ACI 15.4.3). Note that required As must be furnished in each direction.
For rectangular footings bars in long direction should be uniformly spaced. In the short
direction bars should be distributed as follows (ACI
15.4.4 ):
i)
In a band of width Bs centered on column:

# bars
2
(# bars in B) (integer)
L 1
B
ii)
Remaining bars in short direction should be

uniformly spaced in outer portions of footing.
e) Check development length:
Find required development length, ld, in tension from handout or from equations in ACI
12.2. ld must be less than (Lm 2) (end cover). If not possible, use more bars of smaller
diameter.
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Masonry Design
Notation:
A
An
= name for area

= net area, equal to the gross area
subtracting any reinforcement
Anv = net shear area of masonry
As
masonry design
Ast = area of steel reinforcement in
masonry column design
ACI = American Concrete Institute
ASCE = American Society of Civil Engineers
b
C
= name for a compression force
Cm = compression force in the masonry
for masonry design
CMU = shorthand for concrete masonry unit
d
reinforced masonry beam to the
e
= eccentric distance of application of a
force (P) from the centroid of a cross
section
fa
= axial stress
fb
= bending stress
fm = calculated compressive stress in
masonry
fm = masonry design compressive stress

fs
= stress in the steel reinforcement for
masonry design
fv
= shear stress
Fa
= allowable axial stress
Fb
= allowable bending stress
Fs
= allowable tensile stress in
reinforcement for masonry design
Ft
= allowable tensile stress
Fv
= allowable shear stress
Fvm = allowable shear stress of the
masonry
Fvs = allowable shear stress of the shear
reinforcement
h
= name for height
= effective height of a wall or column
Ix
= moment of inertia with respect to an
x-axis
= multiplier by effective depth of

masonry section for moment arm, jd
k
= multiplier by effective depth of
masonry section for neutral axis, kd
L
M
= internal bending moment
= type of masonry mortar
Mm = moment capacity of a reinforced
masonry beam governed by steel
stress
Ms = moment capacity of a reinforced
masonry beam governed by masonry
stress
MSJC = Masonry Structural Joint Council
n
= modulus of elasticity transformation
coefficient for steel to masonry
n.a. = shorthand for neutral axis (N.A.)
N
NCMA = National Concrete Masonry
Association
O
P
= name for axial force vector
Pa
= allowable axial load in columns
r
= radius of gyration
S
= section modulus
Sx
= section modulus with respect to an
x-axis
t
T
= name for a tension force
Ts
= tension force in the steel
reinforcement for masonry design
TMS = The Masonry Society
w
= name for distributed load
1 = coefficient for determining stress
block height, c, in masonry LRFD
design
m = strain in the masonry
s
= strain in the steel
= reinforcement ratio in masonry

design
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Reinforced Masonry Design

Structural design standards for reinforced masonry are established by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee consisting of ACI, ASCE and The Masonry Society (TMS), and presents
allowable stress design as well as limit state (strength) design.
Materials
fm = masonry prism compressive strength from testing
Reinforcing steel grades are the same as those used for reinforced concrete beams.
Units can be brick, concrete or stone.
Mortar consists of masonry cement, lime, sand, and water. Grades are named from the word
MASONWORK, with average strengths of 2500psi, 1800 psi, 750 psi, 350 psi, and 75 psi,
respectively.
Grout is a flowable mortar, usually with a high amount of water to cement material. It is used to
fill voids and bond reinforcement.
Allowable Stress Design

For unreinforced masonry, like masonry walls, tension stresses are allowed in flexure. Masonry
walls typically see compression stresses too.
For reinforced masonry, the steel is presumed to resist all tensile stresses and the tension in the
masonry is ignored.
Factors of Safety are applied to the limit stresses for allowable stress values:
bending (reinforced)
bending (tension/unreinforced)
beam shear (unreinforced for flexure)
Fb = 1/3 f m
Fb = 0.45 f m
table 2.2.3.2
Fv = 1.5 f m 120 psi
beam shear (reinforced) M/(Vd) 0.25
Fv = 3.0
beam shear (reinforced) M/(Vd) 1.0

Grades 40 or 50 reinforcement
Grades 60 reinforcement
Wire joint reinforcement
Fv = 2.0 f m
Fs = 20 ksi
Fs = 32 ksi
Fs = 30 ksi
bending (unreinforced)
where fm = specified compressive strength of masonry
f m
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Internal Equilibrium for Bending

Cm = compression in masonry = stress x area = f m
b(kd )
2
Ts = tension in steel = stress x area = Asfs

STRAIN
m
Cm = Ts and
STRESS
fm
Cm=fmb(kd)/2
kd
Mm = Ts(d-kd/3) = Ts(jd)
Ms =Cm(jd)
n.a.
t
grout
As
jd
s
fs/n
Ts=Asfs
unit
BIA Teknote 17 series
As
bd
F=0: A s f s fmb
kd
2
where
fm = compressive stress in the masonry from flexure
fs = tensile stress in the steel reinforcement
kd = the height to the neutral axis
b = width of stress area
d = effective depth of section = depth to n.a. of reinforcement
jd = moment arm from tension force to compression force
As = area of steel
n = Es/Em used to transform steel to equivalent area of masonry for elastic stresses
= reinforcement ratio
Criteria for Beam Design

For flexure design:
kd
M m f mb
jd 0.5 f m bd 2 jk or M s As f s jd bd 2 jf s
2
The design is adequate when f b Fb in the masonry and f s Fs .in the steel.
Shear stress is determined by fv = V/Anv where Anv is net shear area. Shear strength is determined
from the shear capacity of the masonry and the stirrups: Fv = Fvm + Fvs. Stirrup spacings are
limited to d/2 but not to exceed 48 in.
where:
1
P
M
where M/(Vd) is positive and cannot exceed 1.0
4.0 1.75 f m 0.25
2
An
Vd
A Fd
(Fv = 3.0 f m when M/(Vd) 0.25 )
Fvs 0.5 v s
Anv s
(Fv = 2.0 f m when M(Vd) 1.0.) Values can be linearly interpolated.
Fvm
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Load and Resistance Factor Design

The design methodology is similar to reinforced concrete ultimate strength
design. It is useful with high shear values and for seismic design. The limiting
masonry strength is 0.80fm.
Criteria for Column Design

(Masonry Joint Code Committee) Building Code Requirements and Commentary for Masonry
Structures define a column as having b/t < 3 and h/t > 4.
where
b = width of the wall
t = thickness of the wall
h = height of the wall
A slender column has a minimum dimension of 8 on one side and h/t 25.
Columns must be reinforced, and have ties. A minimum eccentricity (causing bending) of 0.1
times the side dimension is required.
Allowable Axial Load for Reinforced Masonry
h 2
Pa 0.25 f m An 0.65 Ast Fs 1
for h/t 99
140r
70r
Pa 0.25 f m An 0.65 Ast Fs
for h/t > 99
Allowable Axial Stresses for Unreinforced Masonry

h 2
Fa 0.25 f m 1
for h/t 99

140r
70r
Fa 0.25 f m
for h/t > 99
where
h = effective length
r = radius of gyration
An = effective (or net) area of masonry
Ast = area of steel reinforcement
f m = specified masonry compressive strength
Fs = allowable compressive stress in column reinforcement with lateral confinement.
Combined Stresses
When maximum moment occurs somewhere other than at the end of the column or wall, a
virtual eccentricity can be determined from e = M/P.
4
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Masonry Columns and Walls

There are no modification factors, but in addition to satisfying
fa
f
b 1.0 , the tensile stress
Fa Fb
cannot exceed the allowable: f b f a Ft or the compressive stress exceed allowable for
reinforced masonry: f a f b Fb provided f a Fa .
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
Example 1
Determine if the unreinforced CMU wall can sustain its loads
with the wind. Specify a mortar type and unit strength per
MSJC.
M
fa
f
fb
Fb 13 f m
b 1.0
S
Fa Fb
2
h
h
Fa 0.25 f m 1
for 99
r
140r
fa
P
A
14-1B:
h
70r
Fa 0.25 f m
for 99
r
h
12 12in 2
h 12 ft ( 12in )
44.9 so Fa 0.25 f m 1
0.224 f m
r
3.21in
140 3.21in
fa
3.21
4k( 1000 lb k )
133 psi
30in 2
(1 ftkips/ft2) (ft)
(in/ft)
Mmax = Pe
fb 1/3fm
fm 154/(1/3) = 462 psi
psi
1;
M = Pe/2
Mmax = wL2/8
Moment distribution Moment distribution from

from eccentricity
distributed wind load
1056 psi
25 psi
1038 psi
0.224
fm = 1056 psi (governs)
ARCH 331
Note Set 28.1
Su2013abn
page 193
Chapter 10.
BOND AND ANCHORAGE
Chapter 5 of text
ACI 318 Chapter 12.
10.2. Introduction
Reinforcement for concrete to develop the strength of a section in tension depends on the
compatibility of the two materials to act together in resisting the external load. The reinforcing element, such as a reinforcing bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding
concrete in order to prevent the discontinuity or separation of the two materials under load. The modulus of elasticity, the ductility, and the yield or rupture strength of the reinforcement must also be
considerably higher than those of the concrete to raise the capacity of the reinforced concrete section
to a meaningful level. Consequently, materials such as brass, aluminum, rubber, or bamboo are not
suitable for developing the bond or adhesion necessary between the reinforcement and the concrete.
Steel and fiber glass do possess the principal factors necessary: yield strength, ductility, and bond
value.
Bond strength results from a combination of several parameters, such as the mutual adhesion
between the concrete and steel interfaces and the pressure of the hardened concrete against the steel
bar or wire due to the drying shrinkage of the concrete. Additionally, friction interlock between the
bar surface deformations or projections and the concrete caused by the micro movements of the tensioned bar results in increased resistance to slippage. The total effect of this is known as bond. In
summary, bond strength is controlled by the following major factors:
1. Adhesion between the concrete and the reinforcing elements
2. Gripping effect resulting from the drying shrinkage of the surrounding concrete and the
shear interlock between the bar deformations and the surrounding concrete
3. Frictional resistance to sliding and interlock as the reinforcing element is subjected to
tensile stress
4. Effect of concrete quality and strength in tension and compression
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 194
5. Mechanical anchorage effect of the ends of bars through development length, splicing,
hooks, and crossbars
6. Diameter, shape, and spacing of reinforcement as they affect crack development
The individual contributions of these factors are difficult to separate or quantify. Shear interlock, shrinking confining effect, and the quality of the concrete can be considered as major factors.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 195
10.3. Bond Stress Development

Bond stress is primarily the result of the shear interlock between the reinforcing element and
the enveloping concrete caused by the various factors previously enumerated. It can be described as
a local shearing stress per unit area of the bar surface. This direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length.
P
dx
C+dC
C
M
M+dM
T+dT
M + dM
T = M
;
T + dT =
Z
Z
For equilibrium of the bar section:
T + Udx = T + dT
dM = V
dx
u =
dT = dM
Z
Udx = dT
U = dT = dM 1
Z
dx
dx
T
kipsinch
T+dT
dx
U = V
Z
u = flexural bond stress; kips/in

0 = 0 Z
where 0is the perimeter or sum of perimeters of the bars at the section considered.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 196
10.4. Local Bond Effects near Cracks
Bars are greased before pouring concrete.
Main Reinforcing Bars:
Deformed Bars
(assume no bond)
-- Beam acts as a tied arch,
will not collapse
-- Tension in bars is uniform
and equal
M
T = max
Z
-- Stress in stell is maximum only

over a short section -- less
elsewhere
-- much smaller total deflection
-- Cracks are distributed, narrow
-- Linear total deformation results in large beam deflection,

large cracks
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 197
Beam segment subjected to pure bending
Bar force T,
Bond Stress u =
U = dT
dx
U
0 Z
Load bond stress effects add to the above overal effects:
u total =
0 Z
overal
CIVL 4135
dTdx
0
local
Development Length
page 198
10.5. Bond Failure

Bond failure is likely to occur near ends of beams, where high flexural bond stresses can
combine with high local bond stresses.
Bond failure may take two forms, both of which result from wedging action as the bar is
pulled relative to the concrete and often acts in concrete with shear crack and often acts in concrete
with shear crack.
Bond
splitting
vertical crack
shear crack
Horizontal crack
Tests at N.B.S. (National Bureau of Standards) and University of Texas indicate that bond failure
will occur when bond force U reaches a critical value. It is interesting to note that at failure, the force
U is independent of bar size. Consistent with concept of wedge action, when splitting force depends on driving force, not wedge width.
wedge action is when the ribs of deformed bars, bears against the concrete.
Tests have shown that for single bars causing vertical splits or for bars spaced further than 6
inches apart
U n = 35 f c
bar
vertical crack
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 199
For bars spaced less than 6 inches apart, (causing horizontal splitting)
U n = 0.80 35 f c = 28 f c
bar
Horizontal crack
In terms of stresses rather than forces

un =
Un
35 f c
11 f c
=
d b
db
10.6. Development Length

Consider a beam similar to that used to obtain the results above:
M=0
T = As fS
T =0
fs = 0
T s = A bf s = Ul
(Average bond force per inch ) * length
or
A fs
Ts
Average bond force per unit length
= b
l
l
We may also solve for l to obtain the critical development length.
U =
ld =
A bf s
Un
Un is the ultimate bond force per unit length
Two criteria control development length calculation:

CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 200
1) Bond must be counted on to develop bar yield force (fs = fy)

2) Average ultimate bond force is limited to 35sqrt(fc) or 28sqrt(fc)
for spacing of greater than 6 inches
ld =
A bf y
35 f c
0.029A bf y
f c
for spacing of less than 6 inches:

ld =
A bf y
28 f c
0.0357A bf y
f c
If these lengths are provided, bond failure will not occur, obviously, small bars have less
bond problem than large bars. Smaller bars require less development length because
A b = 1 d 2b
4
therefore, the development length, ld , is proportional to squared of bar diameter. the smaller the bar
diameter the smaller will be the required development length.
According to ACI, the development length for design is obtained by a basic development
length as given above and then it is modified by a series of modification factors.
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 201
10.7. Example of Embedment Length of Deformed bars

Calculate the required embedment length of the deformed bars in the following two cases: (12 inches
of concrete below top reinforcement). Assume that #3 stirrups are used for shear and stirrup spacing
based on shear calculations is 6.0 in. throughout the beam, S=6.0 in., d=15 in., Asrequired = 1.6 in.2
A) 3#7 bars top reinforcement in single layer in a beam with No. 3 stirrups
fyt = 60,000 psi and fy = 60,000 psi
clear spacing between bars are 2db , clear side cover is 1.5 inches on each side.
B) Same as part (A), except that the clear spacing between bars is equal to one inch. The bars
are epoxy coated.
Solution (A)
ACI Sect. 12.2.3
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.0
Uncoated reinforcement
s = 1.0
= 1.0
d b = 0.875
in
= 3 0.875 = 1.31
2
2

A tr = 0.22
in
Controls
1.5 + 0.875 + 3 = 2.31

8
2
in.2
n = 3
s = 6 in.
A 40
K tr = strn
K tr = 0.22 40 = 0.49
36
CIVL 4135
Development Length
page 202
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
c + K tr
= 1.31 + 0.49 = 2.06 < 2.5 ok
db
0.875
ld =
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 0.875 = 39.3 in.

(2.06)
40 1 4, 000
l d = 50
As required
As provided
A reqd
s
ACI Section 12.2.5
A provided
s
=
=
1.6 in.2
3--#7= 1.8 in.2
l d = 39.3 1.6 = 35
1.8
12 in.
in. >
Alternative Solution I.
Can use Ktr = 0 as a design simplification even if transvers reinforcements are present
c + K tr
= 1.31 = 1.5 < 2.5 ok
db
0.875
ld =
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 0.875 = 54 in.

40 1 4, 000
1.5
l d = 54 1.6 = 48
1.8
in. >
12 in.
Alternative Solution II.

ACI 12.2.2
f y t e
ld =
d b = 60000 1.3 1.0 0.875 = 61.6 in.
20 1 4000
20 f c
l d = 61.6 1.6 = 55
1.8
CIVL 4135
in. >
12 in.
Development Length
page 203
Solution (B)
ACI Sect. 12.2.3
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+K
db
d
tr
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.5
Epoxy coated reinforcement
s = 1.0
t e = 1.3 1.5 = 1.95 < 1.7 use 1.7
ld =
= 1.0
d b = 0.875
in.
l d = 51.4 1.6 = 45.7

1.8
CIVL 4135
3 60, 000 1.7 1 1 0.875 = 51.4 in.

(2.06)
40 1 4, 000
in. >
12 in.
Development Length
page 204
10.8. Example. Development length in tension. Figure below shows a beam--column joint in a continuous building frame. Based on frame analysis, the negative steel required at the end of the beam is
2.90 in2 and two No. 11 bars are used. providing A, = 3.12 in2. Beam dimensions are b = 10 in d = 18
in and h = 21 in. The design will include No. 3 stirrups spaced four at 3 inches followed by a constant
5 inches spacing in the region of the support. with 1.5 in. clear cover. Normal density concrete is to be
used, with fc = 4000 psi. and rebars have fy = 60,000 psi. Find the minimum distance ld at which the
negative bars can be cut off based on development of the required steel area at the face of the column.
3.43
Center to Center Spacing:
10 2(1.5) 2(3) 1.41 = 4.83 inches
8
Clear spacing:
4.83 1.41 = 3.43 inches
CIVL 4135
4.83
Development Length
page 205
ACI Sect. 12.2.3

f
y
t e s
l d = 3
40 fc c+Ktr
db
db

= 1 (4.83) = 2.41 in
2
2
Controls
1.5 + 38 + 1.412 = 2.58 in
A tr = 0.22
A 40
K tr = strn
K tr = 0.22 40 = 0.88
52
c + K tr
+ 0.88 = 2.33 < 2.5 ok
= 2.41 1.41
db
t = 1.3
Top bars
e = 1.0
Not Epoxy coated
s = 1.0
= 1.3 1.0 = 1.3 < 1.7
ld =
= 1.0
d b = 1.41
in
2.9 = 52
l d = 56 3.12
CIVL 4135
3 60, 000 1.3 1 1 1.41 = 56 in

(2.33)
40 1 4, 000
in >
12 in
Development Length
page 225
Bar Splices (ACI 12.14 -- 12.16, Chapter 10 of text)

In general reinforcing bars are stocked by suppliers in lengths of 60 ft for bars from No. 5 to No. 18,
and in 20 to 40 ft lengths for smaller bar sizes. For this reason, and because it is often more convenient to work
with shorter bar lengths, it is frequently necessary to splice bars in the field. Should try to:
Stagger splices;
Avoid splicing at points of maximum stress.
Lab Splices in Tension (ACI 12.14)

Splices for No. 11 bars and smaller are usually made simply by lapping the bars in a sufficient distance
to transfer stress by bond from one bar to the other. The lapped bars are usually placed in contact and lightly
wired so that they stay in position as the concrete is poured.
fy
fs = 0
Ab fy
Ab fy
ls
fs = 0
fy
ACI 12.14.2.1. Lap splices should not be used for bars larger than No. 11 bars.
Required lap for tension splices, may be stated in terms of development in tension ld . Find ldb
according to code, use the modification factors (reduction for excess reinforcement should not
be applied because that factor is already accounted for in the splice specification).
Two classes of lap splices are specified by the ACI Code. The minimum length ls not less than
12 inches is:
Class A:
ls = 1.0 ld
Class B:
ls = 1.3 ld
ACI Sect. (12.15)
The the work sheet provided in the next page of tension lab splices.
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 226
Tension Lap Splice Calculation Work Sheet

1. Tension Development Length (from Tension Development Calculation Work Sheet except that
step 8 should not be applied).
ld
2. Lap Splice Classes (Section 12.15.1)

Class A:
ls = 1.0 ld =
Class B:
ls = 1.3 ld =
3a. Required Lap Splices -- other than Columns (12.15.2)

required lap length
(As provided) / (As required)*
<= 50
>50
>= 2
Class A
Class B
<2
Class B
Class B
LAP
3a. Required Lap Splices -- Columns (12.17.2)

required lap length
Maximum stress in the bar
<= 50%
> 50%
> 0.5fy
Class A
Class B
<= 0.5fy
Class B
Class B
LAP
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 227
Compression Splices (ACI 12.16)

Reinforcing bars in compression are spliced mainly in columns, where bars are normally terminated just above each floor or every other floor. This is done partly for construction convenience,
to avoid handling and supporting very long column bars, but it is also done to permit column steel
area to be reduced in steps, as loads become lighter at higher floors.
The lap length ls should be equal to at least the development length in compression and the
modifiers. ls should also satisfy the following, but not less than 12 inches:
if fc > 3,000 psi then
f y 60, 000 psi
l s 0.0005f yd b
f y > 60, 000 psi
l s (0.0009f y 24)d b
if fc < 3,000 psi then

f y 60, 000 psi
l s 1.333 0.0005f yd b
f y > 60, 000 psi
l s 1.333 (0.0009f y 24)d b
Column Splices (ACI 12.17.2)
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
Example of Bar Cutoff

A floor system consists of single span T-beams 8 ft on centers, supported by 12 in masonry walls spaced
at 25 ft between inside faces. The general arrangement is shown in below. A 5-inch monolithic slab to
be used in heavy storage warehouse. Determine the reinforcement configuration and the cutoff points.
Check the provisions of ACI 318 for bar cutoff.

fy = 60,000 psi
8.0'
b
8.0'
26'
1.0'
8.0'
Typical
1.0'
?
5"
22" 18"
26'-0"
for definition
SeeSee
ACIACI
8.9 8.7
for definition
of span
of
span
length
length
12"
DeadDead
LoadLoad
Weight of5 slab = <tok_Tab>5 (in) x (1/12) (ft/in) x 150 (lb/ft3) x 7 (ft)
<tok_Tab><tok_Tab><tok_Tab>440
Weight of slab
= ( ft )(7 ft )(150lb / ft 3 ) = 440 lblb/ft
/ ft
12beam=<tok_Tab>
weight of
<tok_Tab>wd
= 440 + 275 = 715 lb/ft
12
22
Weight of beam
= ( ft )( =ft860
<tok_Tab>1.2wd
lb/ft
)((150
lb / ft 3 ) = 275 lb / ft
12
12
wD = 440 + 275 = 715 lb / ft

Live Load.1.2wD = 860 lb / ft
Referring to Table 1.1 in your notes, for Storage Warehouse - Heavy, wL =250 psf
Live Load
<tok_Tab>wL = 250 (lb/ft2) x (8 ft) = 2,000 lb/ft
Referring to Table
of 1.1 in your
<tok_Tab>1.6wL
= notes,
3,200 for
lb/ftStorage Warehouse Heavy, wL = 250 psf
wL = (250lb / ft 2 )(8 ft ) = 2, 000lb / ft
1.6wL = 3, 200 lb / ft
CIVL 4135
17
Bar Cutoff
Find Flange Width
26 12
= 78 inches
4
16h f + bw = 80 + 12 = 92 inches
Controls b = 48 inches
L/4 =
Centerline spacing = 8 12 = 96 inches

Determine Factored Load
wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL = 860 + 3, 200 = 4060 lb / ft = 4.06 kips/ft

Determine Factored Moment
1
M u = wu l 2
8
1
M u = (4.06)(26) 2 = 343 ft-kips
8
Design the T-beam
Use a trial and error procedure. First, assume for the first trial that the stress block depth
will be equal to the slab thickness (a = 5 inches):
As =
a=
Mu
343 12
76.2
= 4.92 in2
=
=
f y (d a / 2) 0.9 60(18 5 / 2) 18 5 / 2
As f y
'
c
0.85 f b
4.92 60
= 4.92 0.226 = 1.11 < h f = 5 inches ok.
0.85 4 78
The stress block depth is less than the slab thickness; therefore, the beam will act as a
rectangular beam and the rectangular beam equations are valid.
Adjust trial
As =
a=
Mu
76.2
=
= = 4.37 in2
f y (d a / 2) 18 1.11 / 2
As f y
0.85 f c'b
= 4.73 0.226 = 0.99
Next trial
As =
Mu
76.2
=
= = 4.35 in2
f y (d a / 2) 18 0.99 / 2
Close enough to previous iteration of 4.37 in2. Stop here.
CIVL 4135
18
Bar Cutoff
Use 6- #8 bars As = 4.71 in2
1.5"
clear
1.5"
clear
Check ACI for Maximum Steel:
78"
78"
hf=5"
0.85 f c'
Cc
Cc
d = 18"
18"
d c
max
2
AAsmax
=
?
in
= ? in2
s
d*c
Ts = As f y
s = t = 0.004
12"
Using similar triangles:
u
0.004
c
0.007
c
=
c = 7.71 inches
d c
0.004 18 c
a = 1c = 0.85 7.71 = 6.65 inches

Asmax f y = 0.85 fc' [78 5 + 12 1.56] Asmax = 23.16 in2
Since As = 4.71 in 2 23.16 in 2 , we satisfy the ACI code and we will have tension failure.
CIVL 4135
19
Bar Cutoff
1.5"
clear
d = 18 in
6- #8
As=4.71 in2
d = 18+0.5+.5
d =19 in 2- #8
As=1.57 in2
4- #8
As=3.14 in2
CASE 1
CASE 2
4 bars
As = 3.14
d = 18 in
2 bars
As = 1.57
d = 19 in
6 bars
As = 4.71
d = 18 in
center60
to center spacing = 3.63 in
CASE 3
Vu (kips)

40
20
stirrups
bars
cover
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Determine the Development Length Distance From Support (ft)
10
11
12
13
10
11
12
13
400
350
Mu (ft-kips)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
CIVL 4135
20
Bar Cutoff
Note:
Note:Code allows discontinuing 2/3 of longitudinal bars for simple spans. Therefore, lets cut 4 bars.
<tok_Tab>Code allows discontinuities of 2/3 of longitudinal bars for simple spans. Therefore, let's
cut 4 bars
Capacity
after 4 bars are discontinued:
As f yof section
1.57 60
a=
=
= 0.355 inches
0.85 f c'b 0.85 4 78
a
2
0.355 1
M u (2 bars) = 0.9 1.57 60(19
) = 133
2
12
ft kips

a=
As f y
'
c
0.85 f b
3.14 60
= 0.71 inches
0.85 4 78
a
2
0.71 1
M u (4 bars) = 0.9 3.14 60(18
) = 250 ft kips
2
12
Find the location where the moment is equal to Mu( 2 bars)
wu wu==4.06
kip / ft
4.06 k/ft
Find the location where the moment is equal

to M u (2 bars ) :
x
1
M = 52.7 x (4.06) x 2
2
52.78 kips
52.78 kips
M = 52.7 x 2.03x 2
M u (2bars ) = 52.7 x 2.03x = 133
2
52.78 52.782 4 133 2.03

Find2.03
the location
where
the= moment
x 2 52.78
x + 133
0 x = is equal to Mu (4 bars)
= 2.8 ft
2 2.03
Find the location where the moment is equal to M u (4 bars ) :
M u (4 bars ) = 52.7 x 2.03x 2 = 250
2.03x 2 52.78x + 250 = 0 x =
CIVL 4135
52.78 52.782 4 250 2.03

= 6.3 ft
2 2.03
21
Bar Cutoff
CIVL 4135
22
Bar Cutoff
1.5"
clear
6- #8
As=4.71 in2
d = 18 in
4- #8
As=3.14 in2
CASE 1
d = 18+0.5+.5
d =19 in 2- #8
As=1.57 in2
CASE 2
4 bars
As = 3.14
d = 18 in
2 bars
As = 1.57
d = 19 in
6 bars
As = 4.71
d = 18 in
CASE 3

3
8
= 12 2 stirrups
no. of bars bars
2 (1.5 ) cover
no. of bars in one row - 1
8
8
Determine the Development Length
Determine the development length
t = 1.0
s = 1.0
e = 1.0
= 1.0
Atr = 0.22 in 2
n=3
s = 9 in
ktr =
Atr f yt
1500 sn
0.22 60,000
= 0.33
1500 9 3
1
(3.63) = 1.8 in control
c = 2
1.5 + 3/ 8 + 0.5 = 2.375 in
CIVL 4135
c + ktr 1.8 + 0.33

=
= 2.13 < 2.5 ok
db
1.00
23
Bar Cutoff
3 60,000 1111
3 f y t e s
ld =
db =
1 = 33 in
40 f ' c + k
40
2.13
4,000
tr
c

db
ld = 33 in = 2.75 ft
ld = 2.75
Asrequired
4.35
= 2.75
= 2.54
provided
As
4.71
CIVL 4135
ft
24
Bar Cutoff
Extend bars:
12db = 12 1.00 = 12 inches = 1 ft
= 18 Bars:
inches = 1.5 ft controls
d Extend
<tok_Tab>12db = 12 ( 1.0) = 12 inches = 1.0 ft

or
<tok_Tab>d = 18 / 12 = 1.5 ft
Governs
400
350
Mu (ft-kips)
300
250
200
150
100
CL
50
0
0
10
11
12
13
> ld = 2.54'
3.05'
2.8'
6.7'
3.5'
> ld = 2.54'
5'
11.7'
> ld = 2.54'
8.2'
1.3'
3"
1.5'
1.5'
2-#8 2-#8 2-#8 One Layer

12"
CIVL 4135
25
Bar Cutoff
Check Zero Moment:
Check Zero Moment:
3"
Check Zero Moment:
ld 1.3
Mn
+ la
Vu
343
= 381 ft.kips
0.9
38112
ld 1.3
+ 3.00 = 116 inches
52.78
ld = 2.54 ft = 2.54 12 = 31 inches 116 inches ok
Mn =
Mu
3"
12"
12"
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of sufficiently small diameter
sufficiently small diameter and the required
the required
anchorage
requirement
anchorage
requirement
of the ACI code
is satisfied. of the ACI code is satisfied.
and
This is to ensure that the continued steel is of sufficiently small diameter and
of the ACI code is satisfied.
Check for
shear Complication
Complications(ACI
12.10.5)
Check
shear
12.10.5)
the for
required
anchorage(ACI
requirement
Vc = 2 f c' bwd = 2 4,000 12 18 = 27.3 kips

A for
f d shear
Check
Complications
(ACI 12.10.5)
(0.22)
60 18
Vs = v y =
= 26.4 kips
s
9
Vu = (Vc + Vs ) = 0.75 ( 27.3 + 26.4 ) = 40.3 kips
4.06 k/ft
Vu(x = 1.3) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 1.3 = 47.5 kips
4.06 k/ft
Vu(x = 1.3) = 47.5 kips > (2/3) x 40.3 = 26.9
Vu(x = 1.3) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 1.3 = 47.5 kips

Vu(x
> (2/3)
26.9
Vu(x == 1.3)
4.8) =
= 47.5
52.78kips
- 4.06
x 4.8x =40.3
33.3= kips
Vu
x
52.78 kips
Vu(x = 4.8) = 33.3 kips > (2/3) x 40.3 = 26.9
Vu
Vu(x = 4.8) = 52.78 - 4.06 x 4.8 = 33.3 kips
52.78 kips
Vu(x
= additional
4.8) = 33.3reiforcements
kips > (2/3) xat40.3
26.9 points.
Need
both=cutoff
Need additional reiforcements at both cutoff points.
CIVL 4135
26
Bar Cutoff
Check for Shear Complications (ACI12.10.5), Continued
A f
(0.22)bw 60,000
s= v y =
= 18.33 in
60bw
60 12
Check for shear Complications (ACI 12.10.5), Continued
d
18
s=
=
= 6.7 in controls use 6 inches
8 d
2
8
6
Governs use 6 inches
Provide additional reinforcement for a length of (3/4)d/

provide additional shear reinforcedment for a length of (3/4)d
3
3
d = 18 = 13.5 inches
4
4
13'
11.7'
8.2'
1.5'
13.5 "
CIVL 4135
2-#8 2-#8 2-#8 One Layer
13.5 "
27
Bar Cutoff
page 231
Example 2.
The simply supported beam shown below is subjected to a uniform load. Cut the longitudinal reinforcing bars where they
are not required for flexure. Satisfy the provisions given in Chapter 12 of ACI 318--89.
f c = 5 ksi
f y = 60 ksi
18.5
24
21
14
10
24--0
10
12
100
V n
80
Vu (kips) 60
40
20
0
500
M n 5
400
M n 4
M n 3
300
4
6
8
10
12
10
12
M n 2
Mu (ft--kips)
200
100
0
CIVL 4135
4
6
8
Bar Cutoff
page 232
18.5
21
14
5 -- #10 bars
4 -- #10 bars
M n5 = 480 kips ft
M n4 = 393 kips ft
d = 20 in
3 -- #10 bars
2 -- #10 bars
M n3 = 327 kips ft M n2 = 225 kips ft
d = 19.75 in
d = 21 in
d = 21 in
Determine the permited shear force

V c = 2 f c b wd =
Vs =
2 5, 000 (14)(20)
= 39.6 kips
1, 000
A vf yd
(0.4)(60)(20)
=
= 60 kips
s
8
V n = V c + V s = 99.6 kips
d varies with cross-section

but assume d = 20 in for
shear calculations.
V n = 84.7 kips
2 V = 56.5 kips
3 n
if x is measured in feet from the beam centerline:

Mu =
w uL 2
w x2
u
8
2
Number
of
Bars
CIVL 4135
M n
kip--ft
V u = w ux
Intersection of
M u with M n
x (ft)
x(in)
480
--
--
393
4.8
57.7
327
6.6
79.0
225
8.6
103.7
Bar Cutoff
page 233
OPTION 1: (d varies with cross-section, use d = 21 in.)

Cut two upper bars first
ld from centerline
OR
d, 12db from where no

longer needed for flexure
79 in + 21 in
43.1 in
V u(x = 100in) = 6.5 100 = 54.2 kips < 2 V n
12
3
100 in
satisfies 12.10.5
Cut middle bar
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff
page 234
CIVL 4135
Bar Cutoff

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4.

Flexural Members -- Elastic

Strains vary linearly with distance from N.A.

Stress--strain relationship linear

c. Concrete is capable of some tension.

2. Plain concrete beam. - before cracking

Therefore, moment when cracking is about to occur:

3. Plain concrete beam -- After cracking

4.3. Reinforced Concrete Beam - Uncracked

define as the reinforcement ratio:

For any concrete tension < fr

4.4. Example 1. Calculate Cracking Moment (Mcr)

Given Material Properties

29, 000 (ksi)

Having f1, we can easily calculate all forces:

Check equilibrium, does it satisfy Cc = Ts + Tc ?

Calculate moment about N.A. ( or any point on the cross section)

Total M = 13.73 in--kips

4.5. Example 2. Calculate Moment Capacity of a Cracked Beam

Calculate forces (kips)

Check equilibrium, does it satisfy Cs = Ts + Tc ?

Calculate moment about N.A. ( or any point on the cross section)

Total M = 14.9 in--kips

c )(3220 ksi) 1 4(c) = 6.66 c 2

T c = 1 (0.5 ksi)[0.151(5 c)(4 in)] = 0.151(5 c)

1.246 1.246 2 + 5.651 4

T c = 0.151(5 1.83) = 0.48

Calculate moment about N.A. ( or any point on the cross section)

Total M = 29.71 in--kips

4.7. Linear Stress--Strain Relationship for Concrete in Compression

for linear stress--strain relationship we have

divide both sides by bd and note =

then we will have:

Remember this equation is good only when concrete behaves linearly.

4.8. Method of transformed Sections

Limited to consideration of sections in which concrete stress-- strain is linear.

Applicable to either sections in bending or axial compression.

Knowledge or assumption about the depth of cracking of the section is required.

General examination of the method

4.9. Method of Transformed Section for Beams:

4.9.2. Cracked Sections

4.10. Example of Transformed Section Applied to Beam

29, 000, 000 psi

2y = 8(15 y) 15 2 y + (12 y)(7.92)

c = 0.65 therefore c = 0.65d = 7.78 in

moment of inertia of the cross section

(13.83 ft kips) (12 inft) (7.78 in)

(13.83 ft kips) (12 inft) (15 7.78 in)

4.11. Example 2. Calculate Yield Moment for the Beam

(0.014 7) 2 + 2(0.014)(7) (0.014)(7)

M y = A sf yd(1 k ) = (1.32 in 2)(60 ksi)(12 in)(1 0.355)

5. Flexural Analysis and Design of Beams

5.1. Reading Assignment

5.3. Flexure Strength

Figure 5.2. Strain, Stress, and Force Diagrams

5.4. Two Different Types of Failure

Beam will fail by tension of steel

Compression failure of concrete

0.56 < < 0.72

5.5. Tension Failure

From Eq. (5.9) we have

Substitute c from Eq. (5.13) in Eq. (5.10)

f c = 4, 000 psi or any other strength