HOME COMPOSTING

1. INTRODUCTION
Composting is an inexpensive, natural process that transforms your kitchen and garden waste
into a valuable and nutrient rich food for your garden. It's easy to make and use. It is
important to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill. Even for households that are already
composting, new research has found that almost half of the food waste in their rubbish bins
could have been composted.

Composting at home for just one year can save global warming gases equivalent to all the
CO2 kettle produces annually, washing machine produces in three months. When waste is
sent to landfill, air cannot get to the organic waste. Therefore as the waste breaks down it
creates a harmful greenhouse gas, methane, which damages the Earth's atmosphere. However,
when this same waste is composted above ground at home, oxygen helps the waste to
decompose aerobically which means hardly any methane is produced, which is good news for
the planet. And what's more, after nine to twelve months, you get a free fertiliser for your
garden and plant pots to keep them looking beautiful. Compost is a nutrient-rich food product
for your garden and will help improve soil structure, maintain moisture levels, and keep your
soil's pH balance in check while helping to suppress plant disease. It will have everything
your plants need including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and it will help buffer soils
that are very acidic or alkaline. Compost improves soil's condition.

2. COMPOSTING
Compost is an organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil
amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At its most essential, the process
of composting requires simply piling up waste outdoors and waiting a year or more. Modern,
methodical composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of
water, air and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition process is aided by
shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the
mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Aerobic bacteria manage the
chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium. The
ammonium is further converted by bacteria into plant-nourishing nitrites and nitrates through
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the process of nitrification. Compost can be rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens,
landscaping, horticulture, and agriculture. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in
many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic
acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control,
land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover. Organic ingredients
intended for composting can alternatively be used to generate biogas through anaerobic
digestion.

2.1. FACTORS AFFECTING COMPOSTING

a) CARBON/ENERGY SOURCE:
For their carbon/energy source, microorganisms in the composting process rely on carbon in
the organic material, unlike higher plants that rely on carbon dioxide and sunlight. Since most
municipal and agricultural organics and yard trimmings contain an adequate amount of
biodegradable forms of carbon, it is not a limiting factor in the composting process. As more
easily degradable forms of carbon are decomposed, a small portion of the carbon is converted
into microbial cells, and a significant portion is converted to carbon dioxide and lost to the
atmosphere. As the composting process progresses, the loss of carbon results in a decrease in
weight and volume of the feedstock.
b) NUTRIENTS:
Among the plant nutrients (i.e., nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium), nitrogen is of greatest
concern, because it is lacking in some plant materials. The carbon-nitrogen ratio, which is
established on the basis of available carbon rather than total carbon, is considered critical in
determining the rate of decomposition. Leaves, for example, are a good source for carbon,
and fresh grass, manure and slaughter house waste are the sources of nitrogen. To aid the
decomposition process, the bulk of the organic matter should be carbon with just enough
nitrogen. In general, an initial ratio of 30:1(C:N or Carbon: Nitrogen) is considered ideal.
Higher ratios tend to retard the process of decomposition, while ratios below 25:1 may result
in odour problems. Finished compost should have ratios of 15 to 20:1. To lower the carbon to
nitrogen ratios, nitrogen-rich materials such as yard trimmings, animal manures, or bio-solids
are often added. Adding partially decomposed or composted materials (with a lower carbon:
nitrogen ratio) as inoculums may also lower the ratio. As the temperature in the compost pile
rises and carbon- nitrogen ratio falls below 25:1, the nitrogen in the fertilizer is lost as gas
(ammonia) to the atmosphere. The composting process slows, if there is not enough nitrogen,

HOME COMPOSTING
and too much nitrogen may cause the generation of ammonia gas, which can create
unpleasant odours.

c) MOISTURE:
Water is an essential part of all forms of life, and the microorganisms living in a compost pile
are no exception. Since most compostable materials have lower than ideal water content, i.e.,
50 to 60% of total weight, the composting process may be slower than desired, if water is not
added. However, it should not be high enough to create excessive free flow of water and
movement caused by gravity. Excessive moisture and flowing water from leachate, which
creates potential liquid waste management problems including water and air pollution (e.g.,
odour). For example, excess moisture impedes oxygen transfer to the microbial cells, can
increase the possibility of developing anaerobic conditions and may lead to rotting and
obnoxious odours. Controlling the size of piles can minimize evaporation from compost piles,
as piles with larger volumes have less evaporating surface/unit volume than smaller piles.
The water added must be thoroughly mixed so that the organic fraction in the bulk of the
material is uniformly wetted and composted under ideal conditions. Properly wetted compost
has the consistency of a wet sponge. Systems that facilitate the uniform addition of water at
any point in the composting process are preferable.
d) OXYGEN:
Composting is considered as an aerobic process. Decomposition can occur under both aerobic
(requiring oxygen) and anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen) conditions. The compost pile
should have enough void space to allow free air movement so that oxygen from the
atmosphere can enter the pile and the carbon dioxide and other gases emitted can be
exhausted to the atmosphere. To maintain aerobic conditions, in which decomposition occurs
at a fast rate, the compost pile is mechanically aerated or turned frequently to expose the
microbes to the atmosphere and to create more air spaces by fluffing up the pile. 10 to 15%
oxygen concentration is considered adequate, although a concentration as low as 5% may be
sufficient for leaves. While higher concentrations of oxygen will not negatively affect the
composting process, circulation of an excessive amount of air can cause problems. For
example, excess air removes heat, which cools the pile and also promotes excess evaporation.
In other words, excess air slows down the rate of composting. Excess aeration is also an
added expense that increases production costs.
e) pH:
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The pH factor affects the amount of nutrients available for the microorganisms, the solubility
of heavy metals and the overall metabolic activity of the microorganisms. A pH between 6
and 8 is considered optimum, and it can be adjusted upward by the addition of lime, or
downward with sulphur, although such additions are normally not necessary. The composting
process itself produces carbon dioxide, which, when combined with water, produces carbonic
acid, which could lower the pH of the compost. As the composting process progresses, the
final pH vary, depending on the specific type of feedstock used and operating conditions.
Wide swings in pH are unusual since organic materials are naturally well buffered with
respect of pH changes.
f) PARTICLE SIZE:
Smaller particles usually have more surface area per unit weight, they facilitate more
microbial activity on their surfaces, which leads to rapid decomposition. The optimum
particle size has enough surface area for rapid microbial activity and also enough void space
to allow air to circulate for microbial respiration.
g) TEMPERATURE:
Composting can occur at a range of temperatures, and the optimum temperature range is
between 32 and 550 C. Temperatures above 650 C are not ideal for composting as thermal
destruction of cell proteins kills the organisms. Similarly, temperatures below the minimum
required for a group of organisms affect the metabolic activity (i.e., regulatory machinery) of
the cells. When compost is at a temperature greater than 55 0 C for at least three days,
pathogen destruction occurs. It is important that all portions of the compost material are
exposed to such temperatures to ensure pathogen destruction throughout the compost.
Attaining and maintaining 550 C for three days is not difficult for in vessel composting
system. However, to achieve pathogen destruction with windrow composting systems, the 55 0
C temperature level must be maintained for a minimum of 15 days. The longer duration and
increased turning are necessary to achieve uniform pathogen destruction in the entire pile.

2.2 HOUSEHOLD WASTE MATERIALS TO USE AND AVOID

a) Greens
Quick to rot and provide important nitrogen and moisture.

Animal manure with straw, Annual weed, Bindweed, Bracken, Brussels sprout stalk,
Carrot tops, Citrus peel, Coffee grounds, Comfrey leaves, Cut flowers, Deadly
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Nightshade, Fruit peelings and pulp, Fruit seeds, Grass mowing, Hay, Hedge clippings,
House plants, Ivy leaves, Nettles, Old bedding plants, Perennial weeds, Poisonous plants,
Rhubarb leaves, Seaweed, Soft prunings and plant debris, Tea leaves and bags, Urine,
Vegetable peelings and pulp
b) Browns
Slower to rot, provide carbon & fibre and allow air pockets to form.

Autumn leaves, Cardboard, Christmas tree, Corn starch liners, Cotton towels, Cotton
wool, Egg boxes, Egg shells, Evergreen prunings, Hair, Natural corks, Nuts, Paper bags,
Privet, Straw, Sweetcorn cobs, Thorny prunings, Tomato plants, Used kitchen paper,
Vacuum cleaner contents, Wood ash, Wool.

c) Materials to avoid:
Certain things should never be placed in compost bin.

Bones, Bread, Cans, Cat litter, Cigarette ends, Cling film, Coal ash, Crisp packets,
Dairy products, Disposable nappies, Dog faeces, Dog food, Drink cartons, Meat and fish
scraps, Olive oil, Plastic bags, Plastic bottles, Soiled tissues.

3. METHODS OF COMPOSTING
There are four methods of composting: holding units, turning units, heaps and sheet
composting.
3.1 Holding units
Holding units are bins used to hold yard and kitchen materials until composting is complete.
They need relatively little maintenance, and some models can be used by apartment dwellers
for composting on balconies. Nonwoody materials can be added to a holding unit as they are
generated. (Many of the commercial one bin systems sold in stores and mail-order catalogs
are holding units.) Using a holding unit is one of the easiest ways to compost but is generally
slower. This type of enclosure makes it difficult to turn the heap as a way of increasing
oxygen. No turning is required, but the lack of aeration causes the composting process to take
from six months to two years.
The process can be hastened by using portable bins. Some lightweight units are designed to
be taken apart and easily moved. These units can be removed from an existing heap and
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HOME COMPOSTING
transferred to an adjacent location. The heap is then turned back over into the unit, mixing
and aerating materials. Portable units can be purchased (usually plastic) or constructed from
circles of wire fencing or hardware cloth, snow fencing, or wire framed in wood.
3.2 Turning Units
Turning units are systems designed to be turned or aerated. These units work faster than
holding units, because aerobic bacteria are provided with the oxygen they need to break down
materials. There are two general forms of turning units: either a series of bins, or a rotating
barrel or rolling ball. When organic materials are turned and mixed on a regular basis (every
five to ten days), compost can be made in two months or less (assuming a good
carbon/nitrogen mix and proper moisture content). Frequent turning offers important
advantages in addition to faster composting. Higher temperatures produced as a result of
turning (30 - 60 C) will kill major disease organisms and fly larvae, help kill weed seeds,
and provide a good environment for the most effective decomposer organisms.
Turning systems typically cost more than holding units and/or require greater effort to build.
Turning composting materials in multiple bins and rolling balls may be difficult for people
with back problems or limited physical strength. In contrast, some barrel units are designed
for ease of turning and maintenance. These systems may actually be easier to use than
holding units for older or physically challenged composters. Barrel units tend to have smaller
capacities than most other bins, which make them better suited for people with small amounts
of yard trimmings and food scraps.
Materials need to be carefully prepared and added to turning units in stockpiled batches.
Materials should be saved until there is enough to fill one bin of a multiple unit, or to fill a
barrel unit to the prescribed level. Food wastes can be accumulated in a pest-proof container
such as a plastic, five gallon bucket. If necessary, sawdust can be added to the top of each
day's scraps to reduce odor.
3.3 Heap Composting
Heap composting is similar to composting with holding and turning units except that it does
not require a structure. Recommended dimensions for a heap are 0.9m wide x 0.9m high.
Length can vary depending on the amount of materials used. Heaps take more space due to
gravity. The wider width will help the pile retain heat better. Materials can be added as they
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are generated or they can be stored until enough are available to make a good sized heap.
During fall months, making a good sized heap will help the composting process work longer
into the winter season. Ideally, two heaps are better than one. When the first heap is large
enough, it should be allowed to compost undisturbed. A second heap can be started with new
materials.
Turning a heap is optional. The composting process will obviously take longer if the pile is
not turned. Food scraps should not be thrown on an unturned pile because pests are likely to
be attracted. Woody materials may also pose a problem. If woody materials are not cut up
into small pieces, the pile may tend to become more of a brush pile than a composting pile. A
woody pile decomposes extremely slowly, usually over a period of several years.
3.4 Sheet Composting
Sheet composting is a way to obtain the benefits of decayed organic material without building
a composting pile. Sheet composting involves spreading a thin layer of organic materials,
such as leaves, over a garden area. The materials are then tilled in with a hoe, spade, garden
fork, or rotary tiller. Leaves, garden debris, weeds, grass clippings, and vegetative food scraps
are examples of materials that can be easily tilled into the soil. To aid decomposition,
materials should be shredded or chopped prior to layering.
The danger of sheet composting as a compost-making method is that carbon containing
residues will call upon the nitrogen reserves of the soil for their decomposition. On the other
hand, high-nitrogen materials may release their nitrogen too quickly in the wrong form. What
may take a matter of weeks in a compost pile, given confined and thermophilic conditions,
may take a full season in the soil.
To ensure adequate decomposition of organic materials before planting, it is best to do sheet
composting in the fall. Spread a 2 to 4-inch layer of organic materials on the soil surface and
till in. A rotary tiller will do the most thorough job of working materials into a vegetable
garden. In a flower bed containing perennials and bulbs, it may be necessary to carefully
work the organic material in with a garden fork or hoe.

HOME COMPOSTING

Figure 1 Turning Units

Figure 2 Holding Units

Figure 3 Heaps

Figure 4 Sheet Composting

4. STEPS OF COMPOSTINGThere are five basic steps involved in all composting practices, namely preparation, digestion,
curing, screening or finishing, and storage or disposal. However, differences (among various
composting processes) may occur in the method of digestion or in the amount of preparation
and the finished product.
a) Preparation- The preparation phase of composting involves several steps, and these
depend upon the sophistication of the plant and the amount of resource recovery practiced. A
typical preparation process, however, may include activities such as the sorting of recyclable
materials, the removal of non-combustibles, the shredding, pulping, grinding and the adding
of water sludge. The separation of other non-compostable recyclable materials like glass,
metal, rag, plastic, rubber and paper may be accomplished by either hand or mechanical
means. Since the refuse characteristics vary from one load to the next, a final step in the
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preparation phase of composting may be to adjust the moisture and nitrogen content of the
solid waste to be composted. The optimum moisture content ranges from 45 to 55% of wet
weight, while the optimum carbon to nitrogen ratio should be below 30%. The moisture and
nutrient adjustments can be accomplished most efficiently through the addition of raw waste
water sludge. This increases the volume of composted material by 6 to 10%, in addition to
accelerating the composting operation and producing a better final product in terms of
nutrient contents.
b) Digestion- Digestion techniques are the most unique feature of the various composting
processes and may vary from the backyard composting process to the highly controlled
mechanical digester.
c) Curing- During curing, the compost becomes biologically stable, with microbial activity
occurring at a slower rate than that during actual composting. Curing piles may be either
force-aerated or passive aerated with occasional turning. As the pile cures, the
microorganisms generate less heat and the pile begins to cool. Cooling is merely a sign of
reduced microbial activity, which can result from lack of moisture, inadequate oxygen within
the pile, nutrient imbalance or the completion of the composting process. Curing may take
from a few days to several months to complete. The cured compost is then marketed.
d) Screening or finishing- Compost is screened or finished to meet the market
specifications. Sometimes, this processing is done before the compost is cured. One or two
screening steps and additional grindings are used to propagate the compost for markets.
During the composting operation, the compostable fraction separated from the noncompostable fraction, through screens, undergoes a significant size reduction. The noncompostable fraction retained on the coarse screen is sent to the landfill, while the
compostable materials retained on finer screens may be returned to the beginning of the
composting process to allow further composting.
The screened compost may contain inert particles such as glass or plastic that may have
passed through the screen. The amount of such inert materials depends on feedstock
processing before composting and the composting technology used. To successfully remove
the foreign matter and recover the maximum compost by screening, the moisture content
should be below 50%. Drying should be allowed only after the compost has sufficiently
cured. If screening takes place before curing is complete, moisture addition may be necessary
to cure the compost. The screen size used is determined by market specifications of particle
size.

HOME COMPOSTING
Storage or disposal - In the final analysis, regardless of the efficiency of the composting
process, the success or failure of the operation depends upon the method of disposal. Even
when a good market for compost exists, provision must be still made for storage.

5. MAINTENANCE:
If compost is properly mixed and maintained, a final product may be obtained in one to two
months under optimum summer conditions. It should be about half its original size with an
earthy smell. Proper moisture and air levels are especially important. Dry plant wastes
quickly stop composting. Plant materials often dry on the outside while the center remains
moist. Water consistently to keep compost uniformly moist but not wet. Use an aeration tool
to reach into the compost to lift and move plant materials. Turn the entire mass occasionally
to provide uniform aeration. Small amounts of fresh materials may be added to compost,
particularly if a vertical composting system is used. In other systems, too much fresh material
results in a mixture of fully-decomposed and fresh materials.

6. USES OF THE HOME COMPOST:

Fresh compost is nutrient-rich food for your garden and will help improve soil structure,
maintain moisture levels and keep your soils pH balance in check while helping suppress
plant disease. It has everything your plants need, including nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium and it will help improve soils that are very acidic or alkaline. Compost improves
your soil's condition and your plants and flowers will love it!
a) Flowerbeds
Help your new plants and flowers bloom by digging a 10cm layer of compost into the soil
prior to planting.
If your flowers have already been planted, you simply need to spread a thin layer of compostenriched soil around the base of the plants. Nutrients will work their way down to the roots
and your plants will enjoy the healthy boost compost provides.It is important that you leave
gaps around any soft stemmed plants.

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b) Enrich new borders
The borders of your garden will also greatly appreciate your compost.Spread up to a 5cm
layer of compost over the existing soil. Worms will quickly like getting to work mixing it in
for you! Otherwise you can dig your finished compost into the soil prior to planting.It is
important that you leave gaps around any soft stemmed plants.
c) Mulch
Using your compost as mulch is a great idea. Using 'rough' compost (where not everything
has completely broken down) over flowerbeds and around shrubs, helps prevent soil erosion
and will replenish much needed nutrients.A layer of 5cm should do the trick. Make sure that
you leave a gap around any soft stemmed plants.Adding mulch after it has rained will help
keep the moisture in the soil.
d) Around trees
Compost is great for your trees. Spreading a 5-10cm layer around the roots will provide them
with important nutrients and can protect against drought and disease.Avoid the base of the
tree and do not spread too close to the trunk. Your trees will also benefit from less weeds
growing around them. Doing this once or twice a year will help your trees grow taller and
bushier in no time at all.
e) Replenish pots
Give your potted plants and containers an extra boost by removing the top few centimetres of
existing soil and adding freshly made compost.Leave a gap around soft stemmed plants. This
will provide food for your plants and flowers and is a great way to make them more healthy
and robust.
f) Patio containers
You can mix home compost with regular soil or leaf mould to create your own healthy
potting mixture for patio containers.
Your plants and any new plants from seeds will enjoy the additional nutrients and minerals
that your compost enriched potting mixture contains, and outdoor container plants will love it
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too.About a third of the mix should be compost, slightly less when you are planting seeds.
The reason for this is that homemade compost is too strong to use on its own for planting
into.
g) Healthier herbs and vegetables
Compost is excellent for growing herbs such as chives, parsley and mint.Simply crumble it
around the base of the plants for healthier, leafier herbs. Your vegetables will also grow better
with compost added to their soil. Apply compost with each rotation - it's exceptionally good
for planting potatoes and carrots.
h) Feeding your lawn
Dressing your lawn with compost helps young grass take root and can make your garden
healthier and greener.First, you'll need to sieve the compost and remove any large twigs or
any other items that have not quite broken down. Next, mix it with an even amount of sharp
sand to compost as this will allow it to spread more easily.

7. CASE STUDY

On-Site Composting at Virdel Village, Maharashtra, India.

7.1 PROJECT PROFILE & SUMARY:
On-site composting for multi-family at Virdel Village, Maharashtra, India. In an effort to
increase organics diversion and reduce waste-hauling costs in the multi-family sector, Virdel
is currently piloting a fully automated, on-site composting system. Virdel Village, a 776
townhouse complex, is the first affordable-housing facility (and the first site in north
Maharashtra) to obtain an on-site composting unit. Residents are using the device to compost
their kitchen scraps. A 5-year payback period is expected, due to reduced waste-hauling costs
from the site. All finished material will be used in community allotment gardens and for
landscaping around the complex itself.
The goal is to achieve an overall 70 % composting and recycling rate by 2015, and an 80%
waste diversion rate by 2020. Diverting compostable organics is a priority to meet the target
for a total ban of organic waste from the landfill by 2015.

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7.2 SITE STATISTICS :
Population: 3573 (Stats 2011)
Land Area: 9 km2
Density: 400 persons/km2
Median Age: 40.2
Average persons per household: 4.6
COLLECTION OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE:
Residents who have completed training on acceptable composting materials are given keys to
one side of the compound area containing three green totters (40 litre bins). They use kitchen
catchers to bring organics to the bins. The other side of the compound enclosure holds The
Rocket and only the complex housing manager and weekend resident volunteer have access
to the vessel itself. The site manager empties the green bins daily (resident volunteer on
weekends), mixing buckets of food scraps with wood chips (provided by a local arborist) in a
50:50 ratio. The automated composter can process approximately 20 kilograms of mixed
organic materials, including meat products, vegetable wastes and food soiled paper per day.
Material is screened prior to being added to ensure that plastic, tin foil and other
contaminants are removed. Pre-screening also removes large food items (whole oranges,
avocado pits or pineapple tops). These require cutting up to break down properly.
PROCESSING:
Material makes its way through the unit in 14 days, after which, it is transferred into garbage
cans (they have 8 in the compound) to cure for 4 additional weeks. Food scraps, which have
not completely broken down, are fed back into the unit a second time. The unit has an
automatic auger mixing and advancing the material 4 times/day (materials do not have to be
rotated manually). A heating element in the vessel ensures optimal temperature to promote
microbial activity. After 6 weeks, the finished product can be used un-sifted as mulch on
landscaped areas, but the preferred use is to screen it before using it in planter boxes and
community allotment gardens.
7.3 PROJECT RESULTS & CONCLUSION
FINANCIAL DATA:

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Capital Costs: The capital cost of the project was Rs.1,80,000. The unit itself cost
Rs.1,32,000 with the remainder used for installation and construction of the compound to
house the system. The compound at Virdel is covered by a roof and surrounded by a chain
link fence that can be locked to prevent vandalism and restrict public access. A large (3.66 m
x 4.88 m) wooden shed might be a cost effective solution in other locations.
Operating Costs: There are minor operating costs associated with the composting facility.
Garbage bins used for curing and green bins for storing resident material will require
replacement along with cleaning supplies and hand tools (shovels, pitchforks). Estimated
cost: less than Rs 6000/yr.
Staffing Implications: The building manager looks after unit Monday to Friday, and a
resident volunteer does the same on weekends. The staff member feeds the unit, keeps the
area clean, conducts minor maintenance, disposes of leachate and cleans the machine as it is
exposed to weather. This person should be compost savvy to be able to tell if product looks
right (i.e. enough brown input). No additional staffing was provided / budgeted for. The
operation and maintenance of the unit is integrated into the existing job of the facilitys
building manager. All compost is used on site at. If the site Virdel had no garden or
landscaped areas to apply the finished product, then a partner would be required to remove
the finished product.
Cost Recovery: The project will pay for itself (Rs.1,80,000 including installation and
construction) within four to five years through waste hauling and landscape savings.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA:
Reduction and Diversion: The goal is to achieve an overall 70 % composting and recycling
rate by 2015, and an 80% waste diversion rate by 2020. The current composting and
recycling rate for single-family dwellings is 57%. Multi-family dwellings are estimated to be
at a much lower rate of 27%. The 10 kg of food scraps processed per day at this 776 unit
complex translates to a removal of 3,650 kg/yr (3.65 tonnes) of organics removed from the
waste stream in one year alone.
Disposal Impact / Landfill Space Savings: The processes an average of 20 kg per day of
food scraps, however, given the 50:50 mix with wood chips, only 10 kg per day of organics
are being processed with the current unit (3,650 kg/yr). The next size up costs Rs 3,64,000
and is able to accept 3x the capacity of organics.
Pre-program Per Capita Waste Disposal Rate: 230 kg/capita/year

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Current Per Capita Waste Disposal Rate: 209 kg/capita/year (*within project population
only)
GHG Reduction: Ten kg of food scraps processed per day translates to a removal of 3,650
kg/year (3.65 tonnes) of organics removed from the waste stream in one year alone.

8. REFERENCES:
1) Bhide, AD. & Sundaresan, B.B. 1983. Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries,
New Delhi: Indian National Scientific Documentation Center.
2) Dhule Mahanagar Palika, 2013-2014. Details of Information Submitted to Legislative
Subject Committee on Housing and Urban Development, Dhule.
3) Bhuvaneshwari, R. 1994. Approaches to Urban Solid Waste Management by NGOs &
CBOs in Indian Cities, Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam.
4) Chaturvedi. T.N. 1995. "The New Constitutionalism and Urban Government; Impeding
Transformations", Paper presented at the Conference on Urban Local Government and
Decentralisation, Bangalore, March 10-12, 1995.
5) Cointreau, S. 1982. Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in Developing
Countries, Washington.D.C: Urban Development Department , World Bank.1) Michel, F.C.,
6) D. Graeber, L.J. Forney, and C.A. Reddy. 1996. "The fate of lawn care pesticides during
composting." Biocycle, 37(3) March, 64-66.
7) Appelhof, M. 1997. Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set Up and Maintain a Worm
Composting System (2nd Edition). 176 pp.
8) Van Der Puy, D., Characteristics of Herbicides Used in Agronomic Crops. 1985. North
Dakota Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin #W-871.
9) Rodale, J.I. The Complete Guide to Composting. 1971. Rodale Books, Inc. Emmaus, PA,
9th printing.

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