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Users Guide
VERSION 4.3b
May 2013
COMSOL 4.3b
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Part No. CM020801
C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
About the Heat Transfer Module
14
C h a p t e r 2 : H e a t Tr a n s f e r T h e o r y
Theory for the Heat Transfer User Interfaces
18
53
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
CONTENTS
|i
61
63
Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Activating Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer and Thickness . . . . . . . . . 64
Theory for the Bioheat Transfer User Interface
65
66
68
. . . . . . . . . . 72
75
C h a p t e r 3 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r B r a n c h
About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
78
81
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat
Transfer User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Heat Transfer in Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Translational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Heat Transfer in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Heat Transfer with Phase Change
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
ii | C O N T E N T S
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
104
104
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
106
Thermal Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
111
112
Pressure Work
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112
Viscous Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
114
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
116
118
118
120
121
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
Point Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
124
125
125
127
127
Out-of-Plane Radiation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
130
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
130
132
Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
133
Bioheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
134
136
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat
Transfer in Porous Media User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . .
137
CONTENTS
| iii
137
Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
C h a p t e r 4 : H e a t Tr a n s f e r i n T h i n S h e l l s
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells User Interface
146
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
148
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
150
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
Insulation/Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
154
154
155
156
156
157
C h a p t e r 5 : R a d i a t i o n H e a t Tr a n s f e r
The Radiation Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer User
Interface
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation User Interface . .
160
160
161
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer User Interface . . . . . . . .
iv | C O N T E N T S
161
164
167
168
Opaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
Diffuse Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
173
Prescribed Radiosity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
174
Radiation Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
178
182
182
188
190
192
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
194
196
197
199
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
in Participating Media User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
201
202
Opaque Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203
Incident Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
205
206
207
207
208
209
210
211
212
CONTENTS
|v
214
216
216
219
223
221
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
224
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
227
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
228
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
231
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
233
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
236
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
237
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
237
239
Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
240
Interior Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
242
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
244
Grille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
245
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
246
246
vi | C O N T E N T S
247
250
. . . . . . . . . . . .
250
251
253
254
257
260
260
264
270
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity . .
273
274
274
275
276
C h a p t e r 7 : T h e C o n j u g a t e H e a t Tr a n s f e r B r a n c h
About the Conjugate Heat Transfer User Interfaces
280
280
282
283
285
285
289
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
289
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes Settings for the
NITF User Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid
292
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
300
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303
Pressure Work
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304
Viscous Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
305
Symmetry, Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
305
Symmetry, Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
306
CONTENTS
| vii
308
310
315
Chapter 8: Glossary
Glossary of Terms
viii | C O N T E N T S
318
Introduction
This guide describes the Heat Transfer Module, an optional package that extends
the COMSOL Multiphysics modeling environment with customized physics
interfaces for the analysis of heat transfer.
This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.
About the Heat Transfer Module
Overview of the Users Guide
2 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
mechanisms including conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. Using the
physics interfaces in this module along with the inherent multiphysics capabilities of
COMSOL Multiphysics, you can model a temperature field in parallel with other
featuresa versatile combination increasing the accuracy and predicting power of your
models.
This book introduces the basic modeling process. The different physics interfaces are
described and the modeling strategy for various cases is discussed. These sections cover
different combinations of conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. This
guide also reviews special modeling techniques for highly conductive layers, thin
conductive shells, participating media, and out-of-plane heat transfer. Throughout the
guide the topics and examples increase in complexity by combining several heat
transfer mechanisms and also by coupling these to physics interfaces describing fluid
flowconjugate heat transfer.
Another source of information is the Heat Transfer Module Model Library, a set of
fully-documented models that is divided into broadly defined application areas where
heat transfer plays an important roleelectronics and power systems, processing and
manufacturing, and medical technologyand includes tutorial and verification
models.
Most of the models involve multiple heat transfer mechanisms and are often coupled
to other physical phenomena, for example, fluid dynamics or electromagnetics. The
authors developed several state-of-the art examples by reproducing models that have
appeared in international scientific journals. See Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Library?.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
If you have an Subsurface Flow Module combined with the Heat Transfer Module, this
also enhances the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface.
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow (nitf) and Non-Isothermal Flow,
Turbulent Flow (nitf) interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Non-Isothermal
Flow branch are identical to the Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces
(Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow) found under the Heat
Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer branch. The difference is that Fluid is the
default domain node for the Non-Isothermal Flow interfaces.
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow, k-
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
initialization; transient
with initialization
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Fluid Flow
Single-Phase Flow
Laminar Flow*
Turbulent Flow
Non-Isothermal Flow
Laminar Flow
4 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION
Turbulent Flow, k-
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
initialization; transient
with initialization
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Bioheat Transfer
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
htsh
3D
stationary; time
dependent
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow, k-
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
nitf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
initialization; transient
with initialization
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow
Heat Transfer
Radiation
Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION
ht
3D, 2D
stationary; time
dependent
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
rad
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Radiation in Participating
Media
rpm
3D, 2D
stationary; time
dependent
jh
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Electromagnetic Heating
Joule Heating*
* This is an enhanced interface, which is included with the base COMSOL package but has
added functionality for this module.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E S T U D Y C A P A B I L I T I E S
Table 1-1 lists the Preset Studies available for the interfaces most relevant to this
module.
6 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PRESET
STUDIES*
Laminar Flow
spf
u, p
Turbulent Flow, k-
spf
u, p, k, ep
spf
u, p, k, ep, G
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
TIME DEPENDENT
TAG
STATIONARY
PHYSICS INTERFACE
TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
nitf
u, p, T
Turbulent Flow, k-
nitf
u, p, k, ep, T
nitf
u, p, k, ep, G, T
ht
ht
ht
Bioheat Transfer**
ht
htsh
Laminar Flow
HEAT TRANSFER
Laminar Flow**
nitf
u, p, T
nitf
u, p, k, ep, T
nitf
u, p, k, ep, G, T
ht
T, J
HEAT TRANSFER>RADIATION
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
PRESET
STUDIES*
ht
T, I (radiative
intensity)
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
rad
Radiation in Participating
Media
rpm
I (radiative intensity)
T, V
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
TIME DEPENDENT
TAG
STATIONARY
PHYSICS INTERFACE
TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
Joule Heating**
jh
There are several general options available for the physics user interfaces and for
individual nodes. This section is a short overview of these options, and includes links
to additional information when available.
The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual (or any external guide) do not work in the PDF, only
from within the online help.
8 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
To display additional options for the physics interfaces and other parts of the model
tree, click the Show button (
) on the Model Builder and then select the applicable
option.
After clicking the Show button (
), additional sections get displayed on the settings
window when a node is clicked and additional nodes are available from the context
menu when a node is right-clicked. For each, the additional sections that can be
displayed include Equation, Advanced Settings, Discretization, Consistent Stabilization,
and Inconsistent Stabilization.
You can also click the Expand Sections button (
) in the Model Builder to always show
) and select Reset to Default to reset to
some sections or click the Show button (
display only the Equation and Override and Contribution sections.
For most nodes, both the Equation and Override and Contribution sections are always
) and then select Equation View to display the
available. Click the Show button (
Equation View node under all nodes in the Model Builder.
Availability of each node, and whether it is described for a particular node, is based on
the individual selected. For example, the Discretization, Advanced Settings, Consistent
Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization sections are often described individually
throughout the documentation as there are unique settings.
SECTION
CROSS REFERENCE
Discretization
Show Discretization
DiscretizationSplitting of
complex variables
Compile Equations
Consistent and
Inconsistent Stabilization
Show Stabilization
Constraint Settings
Numerical Stabilization
At the main level, some of the common settings found (in addition to the Show
options) are the Interface Identifier, Domain, Boundary, or Edge Selection, and
Dependent Variables.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
At the nodes level, some of the common settings found (in addition to the Show
options) are Domain, Boundary, Edge, or Point Selection, Material Type, Coordinate
System Selection, and Model Inputs. Other sections are common based on application
area and are not included here.
SECTION
CROSS REFERENCE
Coordinate System
Selection
Coordinate Systems
Interface Identifier
Material Type
Materials
Model Inputs
Pair Selection
The Heat Transfer Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database
with temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.
For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Material Database, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
10 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes all user interfaces and
functionality included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also
has instructions about how to use COMSOL and how to access the documentation
electronically through the COMSOL Help Desk.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:
Press F1 or select Help>Help (
or
and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.
If you have added a node to a model you are working on, click the Help
button (
) in the nodes settings window or press F1 to learn more
about it. Under More results in the Help window there is a link with a
search string for the nodes name. Click the link to find all occurrences of
the nodes name in the documentation, including model documentation
and the external COMSOL website. This can help you find more
information about the use of the nodes functionality as well as model
examples where the node is used.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
11
Each model comes with documentation that includes a theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL
as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications.
In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and
dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are available.
) from the main menu, and
To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library (
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Help
button (
) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or browse
by module.
The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update (
) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.
If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at info@comsol.com.
CONT ACT ING COMSOL BY EMAIL
12 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
COMSOL WEBSITES
COMSOL website
www.comsol.com
Contact COMSOL
www.comsol.com/contact
Support Center
www.comsol.com/support
Download COMSOL
www.comsol.com/support/download
www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase
Product Updates
www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Community
www.comsol.com/community
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
13
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.
H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
The Heat Transfer Theory chapter starts with the general theory underlying the heat
transfer interfaces used in this module. It then discusses theory about heat transfer
coefficients, highly conductive layers, and out-of-plane heat transfer. The last three
sections briefly describe the underlying theory for the Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer
in Thin Shells, and Heat Transfer in Porous Media interfaces.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
The module includes interfaces for the simulation of heat transfer. As with all other
physical descriptions simulated by COMSOL Multiphysics, any description of heat
transfer can be directly coupled to any other physical process. This is particularly
relevant for systems based on fluid-flow, as well as mass transfer.
14 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Bioheat Transfer
The Bioheat Transfer Interface section discusses modeling heat transfer within
biological tissue using the Bioheat Transfer interface.
The Conjugate Heat Transfer Branch chapter describes the Non-Isothermal Flow
Laminar Flow (nitf) and Turbulent Flow (nitf) interfaces found under the Fluid Flow
branch, which are identical to the Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces. Each section
describes the applicable interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying theory
for the interfaces.
THE FLUID FLOW USER INTERFACES
The Single-Phase Flow Branch chapter describe the single-phase laminar and turbulent
flow interfaces in detail. Each section describes the applicable interfaces in detail and
concludes with the underlying theory for the interfaces.
O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E
15
16 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
17
18 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
T p t
(2-1)
where
is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kgK))
T is absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s):
1
S = --- u + u T
2
Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
19
+ v = 0
t
The heat transfer interfaces use Fouriers law of heat conduction, which states that the
conductive heat flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient:
T
q i = k -------x i
(2-2)
where k is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(mK)). In a solid, the thermal
conductivity can be anisotropic (that is, it has different values in different directions).
Then k becomes a tensor
k xx k xy k xz
k = k yx k yy k yz
k zx k zy k zz
and the conductive heat flux is given by
qi =
kij ------x j
j
20 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
The second term on the right of Equation 2-1 represents viscous heating of a fluid. An
analogous term arises from the internal viscous damping of a solid. The operation :
is a contraction and can in this case be written on the following form:
a:b =
anm bnm
n m
The third term represents pressure work and is responsible for the heating of a fluid
under adiabatic compression and for some thermoacoustic effects. It is generally small
for low Mach number flows. A similar term can be included to account for
thermoelastic effects in solids.
Inserting Equation 2-2 into Equation 2-1, reordering the terms and ignoring viscous
heating and pressure work puts the heat equation into a more familiar form:
T
C p ------- + C p u T = kT + Q
t
The Heat Transfer in Fluids physics solves this equation for the temperature, T. If the
velocity is set to zero, the equation governing pure conductive heat transfer is
obtained:
T
C p ------- + k T = Q
t
The total energy flux for a fluid is equal to (Ref. 4, chapter 3.5)
u H 0 + k T + u + q r
(2-3)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
21
1
H 0 = H + --- u u
2
where in turn H is the enthalpy. In Equation 2-3 is the viscous stress tensor and qr is
the radiative heat flux. in Equation 2-3 is the force potential. It can be formulated
in some special cases, for example, for gravitational effects (Chapter 1.4 in Ref. 4), but
it is in general rather difficult to derive. Potential energy is therefore often excluded
and the total energy flux is approximated by
1
u H + --- u u k T + u + q r
(2-4)
For a simple compressible fluid, the enthalpy, H, has the form (Ref. 5)
T
H = H ref +
-
Cp dT + --- 1 + ---- -----T
T ref
p ref
dp
p
(2-5)
where p is the absolute pressure. The reference enthalpy, Href, is the enthalpy at
reference temperature, Tref, and reference pressure, pref. Tref is 298.15 K and pref is
one atmosphere. In theory, any value can be assigned to Href (Ref. 7), but for practical
reasons, it is given a positive value according to the following approximations
Solid materials and ideal gases: HrefCp,refTref
Gasliquid: HrefCp,refrefTrefprefref
where the subscript ref indicates that the property is evaluated at the reference state.
The two integrals in Equation 2-5 are sometimes referred to as the sensible enthalpy
(Ref. 7). These are evaluated by numerical integration. The second integral is only
included for gas/liquid since it is commonly much smaller than the first integral for
solids and it is identically zero for ideal gases.
For the evaluation of H to work, it is important that the dependence of
Cp, , and on the temperature are prescribed either via model input or
as a function of the temperature variable. If Cp, , or depends on the
pressure, that dependency must be prescribed either via model input or
by using the variable pA, which is the variable for the absolute pressure.
TO T A L H E A T F L U X
22 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
uU k T + q r
(2-6)
(2-7)
What is the difference between Equation 2-4 and Equation 2-7? As an example,
consider a channel with fully developed incompressible flow with all properties of the
fluid independent of pressure and temperature. The walls are assumed to be insulated.
Assume that the viscous heating is neglected. This is a common approximation for
low-speed flows.
There is a pressure drop along the channel that drives the flow. Since there is no viscous
heating and the walls are isolated, Equation 2-5 gives that HinHout. Since
everything else is constant, Equation 2-4 shows that the energy flux into the channel
is higher than the energy flux out of the channel. On the other hand UinUout, so the
heat flux into the channel is equal to the heat flux going out of the channel.
If the viscous heating on the other hand is included, then HinHout (first law of
thermodynamics) and UinUout (since work has been converted to heat).
NAME
tflux
Domains, boundaries
dflux
Domains, boundaries
turbflux
Domains, boundaries
aflux
Domain, boundaries
trlflux
Domains, boundaries
teflux
Domains, boundaries
not applicable
Domains
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
23
NAME
ccflux_u
ntflux
Boundaries
ndflux
Boundaries
naflux
Boundaries
ntrlflux
Boundaries
nteflux
Boundaries
ndflux_u
Interior boundaries
ndflux_d
Interior boundaries
naflux_u
Interior boundaries
naflux_d
Interior boundaries
ntrlflux_u
Interior boundaries
ntrlflux_d
Interior boundaries
ntflux_u
Interior boundaries
ntflux_d
Interior boundaries
nteflux_u
Interior boundaries
ccflux_d
ccflux_z
rflux_u
rflux_d
rflux_z
q0_u
q0_d
q0_z
24 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
NAME
nteflux_d
Interior boundaries
ndflux_acc
Exterior boundaries
ntflux_acc
Exterior boundaries
nteflux_acc
Exterior boundaries
ndflux_acc_u
Interior boundaries
ndflux_acc_d
Interior boundaries
ntflux_acc_u
Interior boundaries
ntflux_acc_d
Interior boundaries
nteflux_acc_u
Interior boundaries
nteflux_acc_d
Interior boundaries
rflux
Boundaries
ccflux
Boundaries
Qtot
Domains
Qbtot
Boundaries
Ql
Edges
Qp
Points
On domains the heat fluxes are vector quantities. Their definition can vary depending
on the active physics nodes and selected properties.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
25
For solid domains, for example heat transfer in solids and biological tissue domains,
the total heat flux is defined by:
tflux = trlflux + dflux
For fluid domains (for example, heat transfer in fluids), the total heat flux is defined by:
tflux = aflux + dflux
26 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
For heat transfer in porous media, keff = keq, where keq is the equivalent conductivity
defined in the Heat Transfer in Porous Media feature.
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media feature requires one of the following
products: Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, CFD Module, Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry
Module, Electrodeposition Module, Heat Transfer Module, or
Subsurface Flow Module.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
27
When the out-of-plane property is activated (1D and 2D only), out-of-plane domain
fluxes are defined. If there are no out-of-plane physics features, they are evaluated to
zero.
28 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
rflux_z = z T amb z T
All the domain heat fluxes (vector quantity) are also available as boundary heat fluxes.
The boundary heat fluxes are then equal to the mean value of the adjacent domains.
In addition normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are available on boundaries.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
29
rflux = T amb T + G T + q w
where the terms respectively account for surface-to-ambient radiative flux,
surface-to-surface radiative flux, and radiation in participating net flux.
The internal normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are available on interior
boundaries. They are calculated using the upside and the downside value of heat fluxes
from the adjacent domains.
30 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
31
ACCURATE FLUXES
32 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
The sum of the domain heat sources added by different physics features are available
in one variable, Qtot (SI unit: W/m3). This variable Qtot is the sum of:
Q which is the heat source added by Heat Source(described for the Heat Transfer
interface and Electromagnetic Heat Source (described for the Joule Heating
interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual) feature.
Qmet which is the heat source added by the Bioheat feature.
The out-of-plane contributions (convective heat flux, heat flux, and
radiation), and the blood contribution in Bioheat are considered flux so
that they are not added to Qtot.
BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCES
The sum of the boundary heat sources added by different boundary conditions is
available in one variable, Qb,tot (SI unit: W/m2). This variable Qbtot is the sum of:
Qb which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Heat Source
boundary condition.
Qsh which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source boundary condition (described for the Joule Heating interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Qs: which is the boundary heat source added by a Layer Heat Source subfeature of
a highly conductive layer.
LINE AND POINT HEAT SOURCES
The sum of the line heat sources is available in a variable called Ql (SI unit: W/m).
The sum of the point heat sources is available in a variable called Qp (SI unit: W).
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
33
About the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer User Interfaces
TE M P E R A T U RE A N D H E A T F L U X B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S
The heat equation accepts two basic types of boundary conditions: specified
temperature and specified heat flux. The specified temperature is of a constraint type
and prescribes the temperature at a boundary:
T = T0
on
on
where
q is the conductive heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2) where q = kT.
n is the normal vector of the boundary.
q0 is inward heat flux (SI unit: W/m2), normal to the boundary.
The inward heat flux, q0, is often a sum of contributions from different heat transfer
processes (for example, radiation and convection). The special case q0 0 is called
thermal insulation.
A common type of heat flux boundary conditions are those where q0hTinfT,
where Tinf is the temperature far away from the modeled domain and the heat transfer
coefficient, h, represents all the physics occurring between the boundary and far
away. It can include almost anything, but the most common situation is that h
represents the effect of an exterior fluid cooling or heating the surface of solid, a
phenomenon often referred to as convective cooling or heating.
O VE R R I D I N G M E C H A N I S M F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S
This section includes information for features that may require additional
modules.
34 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
Many boundary conditions are available in heat transfer. Some of them can be
associated (for example, Heat Flux and Highly Conductive Layer). Others cannot be
associated (for example, Heat Flux and Thermal Insulation).
Several categories of boundary condition exist in heat transfer. Table 2-2 gives the
overriding rules for these groups.
Temperature, Convective Outflow, Open Boundary, Inflow Heat Flux
Thermal Insulation, Symmetry, Periodic Heat Condition
Highly Conductive Layer
Heat Flux, Convective Heat Flux
Boundary Heat Source, Radiation Group
Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Re-radiating Surface, Prescribed Radiosity,
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Opaque Surface, Incident Intensity, Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Thin Thermally Resistive Layers, Thermal Contact
TABLE 2-2: OVERRIDING RULES FOR HEAT TRANSFER BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
A\B
1-Temperature
2-Thermal Insulation
3-Highly Conductive
Layer
4-Heat Flux
X
X
X
X
7-Opaque Surface
8-Thin Thermally
Resistive Layer
X
X
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
35
Example 1
Consider a boundary where Temperature is applied. Then a Surface-to-Surface Radiation
boundary condition is applied on the same boundary afterward.
Temperature belongs to group 1.
Surface-to-surface radiation belongs to group 6.
The cell on the line of group 1 and the column of group 6 is empty so Temperature
and Surface-to-Surface radiation contribute.
Example 2
Consider a boundary where Convective Heat Flux is applied. Then a Symmetry boundary
condition is applied on the same boundary afterward.
Convective Heat Flux belongs to group 4.
Symmetry belongs to group 2.
The cell on the line of group 4 and the column of group 2 contains an X so
Convective Heat Flux is overridden by Symmetry.
36 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
J =G + T4
G
,T
,T
(2-8)
The net inward radiative heat flux, q, is then given the difference between the
irradiation and the radiosity:
q = GJ
(2-9)
Using Equation 2-8 and Equation 2-9 J can be eliminated and a general expression is
obtained for the net inward heat flux into the opaque body based on G and T.
q = 1 G T
(2-10)
Most opaque bodies also behave as ideal gray bodies, meaning that the absorptivity and
emissivity are equal, and the reflectivity is therefore given from the following relation:
= = 1
(2-11)
q = G T
(2-12)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
37
G = T amb
(2-13)
Inserting Equation 2-13 into Equation 2-12 results in the net inward heat flux for
surface-to-ambient radiation
4
q = T amb T
(2-14)
38 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section contains two consistent stabilization methods: streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion. These are consistent stabilization methods, which means that they
do not perturb the original transport equation.
The consistent stabilization methods take effect for fluids and for solids with
Translational Motion. A stabilization method is active when the corresponding check
box is selected.
Streamline Diffusion
Streamline diffusion is active by default and should remain active for optimal
performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a convective
or translational term.
Crosswind Diffusion
Streamline diffusion introduces artificial diffusion in the streamline direction. This is
often enough to obtain a smooth numerical solution provided that the exact solution
of the heat equation does not contain any discontinuities. At sharp gradients, however,
undershoots and overshoots can occur in the numerical solution. Crosswind diffusion
addresses these spurious oscillations by adding diffusion orthogonal to the streamline
directionthat is, in the crosswind direction.
INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
39
default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of id to increase or decrease the
amount of isotropic stabilization.
HUMIDITY
Moisture Content
The moisture content (also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) is defined as the ratio
of water vapor mass mv to dry air mass ma:
pv Mv
mv
x vap = ------- = -------------ma
pa M a
(2-15)
where pv is the water vapor partial pressure, pa is the dry air partial pressure, and Ma
and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively. Without
condensation, the moisture content is not affected by temperature and pressure.
The Moisture content represents a ratio of mass, and it is thus a dimensionless number
(SI unit: 1).
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of an air mixture is expressed as follows:
pv
= -------p sat
40 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
(2-16)
where pv is the water vapor partial pressure and psat is the saturation pressure of water
vapor.
According to Daltons law, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the
partial pressures of each individual gas; that is, p=pv+pa where pa is the dry air
partial pressure.
The relative humidity formulation is often used to quantify humidity. However, for a
same quantity of moisture content, the relative humidity changes with temperature
and pressure, so in order to compare different values of , it has to be at the same
temperature and pressure conditions.
This quantity is very useful to study the condensation as it defines the boundary
between the liquid phase and the vapor phase. In fact, when the relative humidity
reaches unity, it means that the vapor is saturated and that water vapor will condense.
The Reference relative humidity (SI unit: 1) is a quantity defined between 0 and 1,
where 0 corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water vapor-saturated air. This Reference
relative humidity associated to the Reference temperature and the Reference pressure
are used to calculate the moisture content. Then the thermodynamical properties of
moist air can be deduced through the mixture formula described below.
The Reference relative humidity cannot be greater than one, above which
value the water vapor is condensing. If the value is greater than one, the
Reference relative humidity value is forced to be one. The condensation
area cannot be simulated.
Specific Humidity
The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of water vapor mv to the total mass
mtot=mv+ma:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
41
mv
= ----------m tot
(2-17)
As the water vapor only accounts for a few percent in the total mass, the
moisture content and the specific humidity are very close: xvap (only
for low values). For bigger values of , the two quantities are more
precisely related by:
x vap = ------------1
Concentration
The concentration is defined by:
nv
c v = -----V
(2-18)
where nv is the amount of water vapor in mol and V is the total volume. The water
vapor concentration is defined in this SI unit: mol/m3.
According to the ideal gas hypothesis, the saturation concentration is defined as
follows:
p sat T
c sat = -----------------RT
SATURATION STATE
The saturation state is reached when the relative humidity reaches one. It means that
the partial pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure (which
depends on the temperature too).
The saturation pressure can be defined using the Clausius-Clapeyron formulation of
the vaporization-condensation equilibrium. Under ideal gas hypothesis and
considering only the gas volume:
h fg M v p
dp
------= ------------------2
dT
RT
(2-19)
where p is the pressure, T is the temperature, hfg is the latent heat of vaporization, Mv
is the molar mass of water vapor, and R is the universal gas constant.
42 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
R
T
T
ref
sat
(2-20)
where the reference values are: pref101325Pa (1 atm), Tref373.15K (100 C),
and hfg=2.26106J/kg.
The temperature and saturation pressure can easily be deduced from this formulation.
MOIST AIR PROPERTIES
The thermodynamical properties of moist air can be found with some mixture laws.
Preliminary Definitions
Molar Fraction The molar fraction of dry air Xa and the molar fraction of water vapor
Xv are defined such as:
p p sat
pa
na
X a = --------- = ----- = --------------------p
n tot
p
(2-21)
pv
p sat
nv
X v = --------- = ----- = -----------n tot
p
p
(2-22)
where na and nv are respectively the amount of dry air and water vapor, ntot is the total
amount of moist air in mol, where pa and pv are the partial pressure of dry air and water
vapor, p is the pressure, is the relative humidity, and psat is the saturation pressure.
XaXv1
Relation Between Relative Humidity And Moisture Content Moisture content and
relative humidity can be linked with the following expression:
x vap p
= --------------------------------------M
v
p sat -------- + x vap
Ma
(2-23)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
43
Mixture Properties
The thermodynamical properties are built through a mixture formula. The expressions
depend on dry air properties and pure steam properties and are balanced by the mass
fraction.
Density: According to the ideal gas law, the density mixture m expression is defined
as follows:
p
m = -------- M a X a + M v X v
RT
(2-24)
where Ma and Mv are respectively the molar mass of dry air and water vapor,
respectively, and Xa and Xv are the molar fraction of dry air and water vapor,
respectively.
The ideal gas assumption sets the compressibility factor and the
enhancement factor to the unity. In fact, the accuracy lost by this
assumption is small as the pure steam represents a small fraction.
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure: According to Ref. 10, the heat capacity at
(2-25)
as follows:
m =
Xi i
-------------------------X j ij
i = a,v
j = a,v
where ij is given by
44 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
(2-26)
1
---
ij
1 2
---
i 2 Mj 4
1 + ----- -------
j M i
= ----------------------------------------------1
Mi
8 1 + -------
M j
--2
Here, a and v are the dynamic viscosity of dry air and steam, respectively.
Thermal conductivity: According to Ref. 9 and Ref. 10, the thermal conductivity of
Xi ki
-------------------------X j ij
i = a,v
(2-27)
j = a,v
where ka and kv are the thermal conductivity of dry air and steam, respectively.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
45
Functions
Three functions are defined and can be used as feature parameters as well as in post
processing.
ht.fluid1.fc(RH,T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 1 , T is the
temperature (SI unit: K) and pA is the pressure (SI unit: Pa). It returns the
corresponding water vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m^3).
46 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
d
dT
Here, 1 and 2 are equal to 1 and , respectively. The specific heat capacity is the
sum of an equivalent heat capacity Ceq:
C eq = 1 C p phase1 + 2 C p phase2
and the distribution of latent heat CL:
C L T = H phase2 H phase1
d
dT
In the ideal case, when is the Heaviside function (equal to 0 before Tpc
d
and to 1 after Tpc),
is the Dirac pulse.
dT
Therefore, CL is the enthalpy jump L at temperature Tpc that is added
when you have a pure substance.
The latent heat distribution CL is approximated by
CL T = L
d
dT
so that the total heat per unit mass released during the phase transformation coincides
with the latent heat:
T
T pc + -------2
C L T dT
T
T pc -------2
= L
T
T pc + -------2 d
dT
T
T pc -------- d T
2
= L
The latent heat L may depend on the absolute pressure. It should not
depend on the temperature.
Finally, the apparent heat capacity Cp, used in the heat equation, is given by:
C p = 1 C p phase1 + 2 C p phase2 + C L
The equivalent heat conductivity and volumetric heat capacity reduce to:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
47
k = 1 k phase1 + 2 k phase2
and
C p = 1 phase1 C p phase1 + 2 phase1 C p phase2
The density is thus given by:
1 phase1 C p phase1 + 2 phase1 C p phase2
= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 C p phase1 + 2 C p phase2
To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models, particular attention
should be paid to the density in time simulations. When the material density is not
constant over time, for example, dependent on the temperature, volume change is
expected.
Moving Mesh User Interface (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual) has the tools to deform the geometry accordingly.
However, if Moving Mesh is not used, it is recommended to set material
density to a constant value.
48 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
masp,u
asp,u
The microscopic surface asperities are characterized by the average height uasp and
dasp and the average slope muasp and mdasp. The RMS values asp and masp are
(4.16 in Ref. 11):
asp =
u2 asp + d2 asp
m asp =
m u2 asp + m d2 asp
CONSTRICTION CONDUCTANCE
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
49
----------------------------------
1 + 0.071c2
p
p
------- = --------------------------------------------------
c2
Hc
asp
- m asp
c 1 1.62 --------
Here 0 is equal to 1 m. For materials with Brinell hardness between 1.30 and
7.60 GPa, c1 and c2 are given by the correlations below (4.16.1 in Ref. 11):
c1
HB 3
HB
HB 2
------= 4.0 5.77 -------- + 4.0 -------- 0.61 --------
H 0
H0
H0
H0
HB
c 2 = 0.37 + 0.442 -------c1
The Brinell hardness is denoted by HB and H0 is equal to 3.178 GPa.
Here, Econtact is an effective Youngs modulus for the contact interface, satisfying
(4.16.3 in Ref. 11):
1 u2 1 d2
1 -----------------= --------------- + --------------Eu
Ed
E contact
where Eu and Ed are the Youngs moduli of the two contacting surfaces and u and d
are the Poissons ratios.
50 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
GAP CONDUCTANCE
The gap conductance due to interstitial fluid cannot be neglected for high fluid
thermal conductivity or high contact pressure. The parallel-plate gap gas correlation
assumes that the interstitial fluid is a gas and defines hg by:
kg
h g = -----------------Y + Mg
Here kg is the gas conductivity, Y denotes the mean separation thickness (see
Figure 2-2), and Mg is the gas parameter equal to:
M g =
kB Tg
= -----------------------2
2D p g
The friction heat, Qfric, is partitioned into rQfric and 1rQfric at the contact
interface. If the two bodies are identical, r and 1r would be 0.5 so that half of the
friction heat goes to each surface. However, in the general case where the two bodies
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
51
are made of different materials, the partition rate might not be 0.5. The Charrons
relation (Ref. 12) defines r as:
1
r = --------------1 + d
d =
u C p u k u
------------------------ d C p d k d
u =
d C p d k d
------------------------ u C p u k u
Thermal Contact
52 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S
53
Forced
External
Internal
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
54 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
Heat transfer handbooks generally contain a large set of empirical and theoretical
correlations for h coefficients. This module includes a subset of them. The expressions
are based on the following set of dimensionless numbers:
The Nusselt number, NuL(Re, Pr, Ra)hL/k
The Reynolds number, ReLU L/
The Prandtl number, PrCp/k
The Rayleigh number, RaGr Pr 2 gCp T L3/(k)
where
h is the heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m2K)).
L is the characteristic length (SI unit: m).
T is the temperature difference between surface and external fluid bulk (SI unit:
K).
g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2).
k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid (SI unit: W/(mK)).
is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3).
U is the bulk velocity (SI unit: m/s).
is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas).
Cp equals the heat capacity of the fluid (SI unit: J/(kgK)).
is the thermal expansivity (SI unit: 1/K)
Further, Gr refers to the Grashof number, which is defined as the ratio between the
buoyancy force and the viscous force.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S
55
g T s T 0 L
GrL = ------------------------------------2
where g is the acceleration of gravity, is the fluids coefficient of volumetric thermal
expansion, Ts denotes the temperature of the hot surface, T0 equals the temperature
of the surrounding air, L is the length scale, represents the fluids dynamic viscosity,
and is the density.
In general, the coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion is given by
1
= --- -------
T
0.67Ra L1 / 4
k-
----------------------------------------------------------0.68
+
Ra L 10 9
L
9 / 16 4 / 9
0.492k
1 + ------------------ C p
h =
2
k
0.387Ra L1 / 6
C p
(2-28)
56 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
(2-29)
where in turn g is the acceleration of gravity equal to 9.81 m/s2. All material
properties are evaluated at TText2.
INCLINED WALL
The correlations are equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 1 (same as for vertical wall):
0.67 cos Ra L 1 / 4
k-
--- Ra L 10 9
L 0.68 + --------------------------------------------------------9 / 16 4 / 9
1 + 0.492k
-------------------
C p
h =
2
k
0.387Ra L1 / 6
-------------------
C p
(2-30)
where L, the height of the wall, is a correlation input and is the tilt angle (angle
between the wall and the vertical direction, = 0 for vertical walls). These
correlations are valid for 60 60.
The definition of Raleigh number, RaL, is analog to these for vertical walls and is given
by the following:
g T p C p T T ext L 3
Ra L = --------------------------------------------------------------------------k
(2-31)
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S
57
g T p C p T T ext L 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 9
k
All material properties are evaluated at TText2.
HORIZONTAL PLATE, UPSIDE
The correlations are equations 9.309.32 in Ref. 1 but can also be found as
equations 7.77 and 7.78 in Ref. 3.
If TText, then
h =
k--0.54Ra L1 / 4 Ra L 10 7
L
k--0.15Ra L1 / 3 Ra L 10 7
L
(2-32)
k
h = ---- 0.27Ra L1 / 4
L
(2-33)
RaL is given by Equation 2-29, and L, the plate diameter (defined as area/perimeter,
see Ref. 3) is a correlation input. The material data are evaluated at TText2.
HORIZONTAL PLATE, DOWNSIDE
Equation 2-32 is used when T Text and Equation 2-33 is used when T Text.
Otherwise it is the same implementation as for Horizontal plate, upside.
(2-34)
where L, the plate distance, and H, the chimney height, are correlation inputs
(equation 7.96 in Ref. 3). RaL is given by Equation 2-29. The material data are
evaluated at TText2.
58 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
0.3387Pr 1 / 3 Re L1 / 2
k- -------------------------------------------------------------- 2 --Re L 5 10 5
h = L 1 + 0.0468 Pr 2 / 3 1 / 4
k 1/3
2 --4/5
5
L- Pr 0.037Re L 871 Re L 5 10
(2-35)
where Prcpk and ReLUextL. L, the plate length and Uext, the exterior
velocity are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at TText2.
P L A T E , L O C A L TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T
h =
k
--------------------------------- 0.332Pr 1 / 3 Re x1 / 2 Re x 5 10 5
max x eps
k
--------------------------------- 0.0296Pr 1 / 3 Re x4 / 5 Re x 5 10 5
max x eps
(2-36)
where Prcpk and RexUextx. x, the position along the plate, and Uext, the
exterior velocity are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at TText2.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S
59
k--3.66
Re D 2500
h =
k
0.14
4 / 5 Pr n ----------- ---- 0.027Re D
Re D 2500
T
D
(2-37)
60 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
The highly conductive layer feature is efficient for modeling heat transfer in thin layers
without the need to create a fine mesh for them. The material in the thin layer must
be a good thermal conductor. A good example is a copper trace on a printed circuit
board, where the traces are good thermal conductors compared to the boards
substrate material. More generally, the highly conductive layer feature can be applied
in a part of a geometry with the following properties:
The part is a thin layer compared to the thickness of the adjacent geometry
The part is a good thermal conductor compared to the adjacent geometry
Because the layer is very thin and has a high thermal conductivity, you can assume that
no variations in temperature and in-plane heat flux exist along the layers thickness.
Furthermore, think of the difference in heat flux in the layers normal direction
between its upper and lower face as a heat source or sink that is smeared out along the
layer thickness.
A significant benefit is that a layer can be represented as a boundary instead of a
domain, which simplifies the geometry and reduces the required number of mesh
elements. Figure 2-4 shows an example where a highly conductive layer reduces the
mesh density significantly.
61
Figure 2-4: Modeling a copper wire as a domain (top) requires a denser mesh compared to
modeling it as a boundary with a highly conductive layer (bottom).
To describe heat transfer in highly conductive layers, the Highly Conductive Layer
feature uses a variant of the heat equation that describes the in-plane heat flux in the
layer:
T
d s s C s ------- + t d s k s tT = q q + d s Q S = q s
t
(2-38)
Here the operator t denotes the del or nabla operator projected onto the plane of
the highly conductive layer. The properties in the equation are:
s is the layer density (kgm3)
Cs is the layer heat capacity (J(kgK))
ks is the layer thermal conductivity at constant pressure (W(mK))
ds is the layer thickness (m)
q is the heat flux from the surroundings into the layer (Wm2)
q is the heat flux from the layer into the domain (Wm2)
Qs represents internal heat sources within the conductive layer (Wm3)
qs is the net outflux of heat through the top and bottom faces of the layer (Wm2)
With the above boundary equation inserted, the general heat flux boundary condition
becomes
T
n q = d s s C p s ------- t d s k s tT on
t
62 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
When the object to model in COMSOL Multiphysics is thin or slender enough along
one of its geometry dimensions, there is usually only a small variation in temperature
along the objects thickness or cross section. For such objects, it is efficient to reduce
the model geometry to 2D or even 1D and use the out-of-plane heat transfer
mechanism. Figure 2-5 shows examples of likely situations where this type of geometry
reduction can be applied.
q
qup
qdown
Figure 2-5: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).
The reduced geometry does not include all the boundaries of the original 3D
geometry. For example, the reduced geometry does not represent the upside and
downside surfaces of the plate in Figure 2-5 as boundaries. Instead, heat transfer
through these boundaries appears as sources or sinks in the thickness-integrated
version of the heat equation used when out-of-plane heat transfer is active.
T H E O R Y O F O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T TR A N S F E R
63
Equation Formulation
When out-of-plane heat transfer is enabled, the equation for heat transfer in solids,
Equation 3-1 is replaced by
T
d z C p ------- d z kT = d z Q
t
(2-39)
where dz is the thickness of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The equation for
heat transfer in fluids, Equation 3-2, is replaced by
T
C p d z ------- + u T = d z kT + d z Q
t
(2-40)
The Pressure Work attribute on Solids and Fluids and the Viscous Heating attribute
on Fluids are not available when out-of-plane heat transfer is activated.
Heat Source nodes that are added to a model with out-of-plane heat
transfer enabled are multiplied by the thickness, dz. Boundary conditions
are also adjusted.
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C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
T
+ k T = b C b b T b T + Q met
t
(2-41)
The density , heat capacity Cp, and thermal conductivity k are the thermal properties
of the tissue. For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time
and the first term disappears.
To model Equation 2-41 add the Biological Tissue model equation, with a Bioheat
feature. The Biological Tissue model provides the left-hand side of Equation 2-41
while the Bioheat node provides the two source terms on the right-hand side of
Equation 2-41.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E
65
(2-42)
66 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time, and the first
term in the left-hand side of Equation 2-42 disappears.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A U S E R I N T E R F A C E
67
The following explains the different values listed in the definition frame column in
Table 2-3, Table 2-4, and Table 2-5:
Material: The inputs are entered by the user and defined on the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined on the spatial frame,
the inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame.
68 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
Spatial: The inputs are entered by the user are defined on the spatial frame. No
conversion is done.
Material/(Spatial): For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the
material frame.
(Material)/Spatial: For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the
spatial frame.
N/A: There is no definition frame for this physics node.
Domain Nodes
TABLE 2-3: DOMAIN PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Material
Translational Motion
Material
Spatial
Biological Tissue
Material
Spatial
Thermal Dispersion
Spatial
Immobile Fluids
Spatial
Geothermal Heating
Material
Infinite Elements
Spatial
Pressure Work
Spatial
Viscous Heating
Spatial
Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Bioheat
Material
Opaque
N/A
Spatial
Out-of-Plane Radiation
Spatial
Spatial
A B O U T H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R
69
70 |
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Spatial
Change Thickness
Spatial
Initial Values
Spatial
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
Boundary Nodes
TABLE 2-4: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Temperature
Spatial
Thermal Insulation
N/A
Outflow
N/A
Symmetry
N/A
Heat Flux
(Material)/Spatial
Spatial
Open Boundary
Spatial
Material
Thermal Contact
Material
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Spatial
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Spatial
Prescribed Radiosity
Spatial
Reradiating Surface
Spatial
Radiation Group
N/A
Spatial
Material/(Spatial)
Heat Continuity
Spatial
Material
Material
Material/(Spatial)
Spatial
Material
Material
Opaque Surface
Spatial
Spatial
DEFINITION FRAME
Material/(Spatial)
Material
A B O U T H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R
71
DEFINITION FRAME
(Material)/Spatial
Spatial
Temperature
Spatial
Point Temperature
Spatial
Edge Surface-to-Ambient
Spatial
Point Surface-to-Ambient
Spatial
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Material
Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Change Thickness
Spatial
Initial Values
Spatial
Spatial
Out-of-Plane Radiation
Spatial
Spatial
Heat Flux
Spatial/(Material)
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Spatial
Temperature
Spatial
Spatial
Material/(Spatial)
Scalar density variables do not have the same value in the material and in the spatial
frame.
In heat transfer physics, the following variables are relative scalars of weight one (also
called scalar densities): the mass density , the heat source Q, the heat flux q0, the heat
transfer coefficient h, and the production/absorption coefficient qs.
72 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
When a feature has its definition frame on the spatial frame, no transformation is done
because the user input is defined on the spatial frame. For example, if =500[kg/m^3]
is defined in the Heat Transfer in Fluids (definition frame = spatial frame) the variable
ht.rho is equal to 500[kg/m^3] (on the spatial frame).
When a feature has its definition frame on the material frame, the user input is defined
on the material frame so it has to be multiplied by spatial.detInvF to get the
corresponding value on the spatial frame. For example, if =500[kg/m^3] is defined
in the Heat Transfer in Solids (definition frame = material frame) the variable ht.rho
is equal to spatial.detInvF*500[kg/m^3] (on the spatial frame). As a
consequence, to evaluate or integrate the mass density on the material frame, the value
of ht.rho has to be multiplied by spatial.detF.
spatial.detF has different definitions based on the dimension of the geometric
u x y z = F u X Y Z
where F is the coordinate transform matrix from the material to the spatial frame:
xX yX zX
F = xY yY zY
xZ yZ zZ
with xX corresponding to the derivative of x with respect to X.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity is a tensor density. The relationship between the value on the
spatial frame and the material frame is
1
T
k x y z = ----------------- F k X Y Z F
det F
where k x y z is the thermal conductivity tensor in the spatial frame and k X Y Z is
the thermal conductivity tensor in the material frame. F is the coordinate transform
matrix from the material frame to the spatial frame defined in the paragraph above.
A B O U T H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R
73
The same transformations are applied to thermal conductivity but with different
transformation matrices. The transformation matrix uses tangential derivatives and is
defined as
xT X yT X zT X
Ftang = xT Y yT Y zT Y
xT Z yT Z zT Z
where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
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C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
R E F E R E N C E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
75
76 |
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R T H E O R Y
77
The benefit of the different versions of the standard Heat Transfer interface, all with ht
as the identifier (see Table 3-1), is that it is easy to add the default settings when
selecting the interface from the Model Wizard. At any time, right-click the parent node
to add a Heat Transfer in Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids nodethe functionality is
always available.
The interface options are also available from the Heat Transfer interface
by selecting a specific check box under the Physical Model section (for
surface-to-surface radiation, biological tissue, radiation in participating
media, or porous media). See Table 3-1 and Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER (HT) PHYSICS INTERFACE OPTIONS
ICON
78 |
NAME
not applicable
not applicable
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
NAME
Bioheat Transfer
NAME
ID
nitf
nitf
htsh
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (under the
Radiation branch)
rad
Radiation in Participating
Media (under the
Radiation branch)
rpm
not applicable
jh
branch)
Electromagnetic Heating
branch)
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
79
80 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
Depending on the version of the interface selected, the default nodes vary.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
81
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ht.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define heat transfer and a
temperature field. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the Selection list.
PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected for the standard version of the Heat Transfer
interface. Click to select any of the available check boxes to activate the other versions
of the ht interface as detailed in Table 3-1 and Table 3-2.
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
82 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
Select an element order (shape function order) for the TemperatureQuadratic (the
default), Linear, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.
The Compute boundary fluxes check box is selected by default so that COMSOL
computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables (with the suffix _acc such as
ht.ndflux_acc for the accurateas opposed to the standard extrapolated
normal conductive heat flux).
The Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is selected by default. The
smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to singularities.
In the table, specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal
(the default) or Complex.
DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES
The Heat Transfer user interfaces have a dependent variable for the Temperature T. The
dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a scalar dependent
variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable name. If a new field
name coincides with the name of another field of the same type, the fields will share
degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name must not coincide
with the name of a field of another type, or with a component name belonging to some
other field.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found under the
Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch in the Model Wizard) then click the Show
button (
) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.
When the model contains moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default.
This option has no effect when the model does not contain a moving frame since the
material and spatial frames are identical in this case. With moving mesh, and when this
option is active, the heat transfer features automatically account for deformation effects
on heat transfer properties. In particular the effects for volume changes on the density
are considered. Rotation effects on thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
83
and, more generally, deformation effects on arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also
covered. When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is
not selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source, Heat Flux, Boundary Heat
Source, and Line Heat Source) are not converted and all are defined on the Spatial
frame.
About Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
Show More Physics Options
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer
User Interfaces
Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods for the Heat
Transfer User Interfaces
Theory for the Heat Transfer User Interfaces
Show Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat
Transfer User Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
and subnodes available (listed in alphabetical order including out-of-plane and highly
conductive layer features).
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,
select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
84 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
Change Thickness
Out-of-Plane Radiation
Continuity
Heat Flux
Point Temperature
Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids
Point Surface-to-Ambient
Radiation
Pressure Work
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Symmetry
Initial Values
Temperature
Thermal Contact
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
85
Opaque Surface
Radiation in Participating Media
(3-1)
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears. The equation includes the following material properties: the density
, the heat capacity Cp, and the thermal conductivity k (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic), and a heat source (or sink) Qone or more heat
sources can be added separately.
When parts of the model are moving in the material frame, right-click the Heat Transfer
in Solids node to add a Translational Motion node to take this into account.
If you have the CFD Module, also right-click to add a Pressure Work node.
If you have the Heat Transfer Module, also right-click to add Pressure
Work or Opaque nodes. The Opaque subnode is automatically added to the
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
86 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes (except boundary
coordinate systems). The coordinate system is used for interpreting directions of
orthotropic and anisotropic thermal conductivity.
HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID
The default setting is to use the Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) From
material. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic
based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or
expression.
The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux
vector q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT, which is
Fouriers law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length
and temperature.
The components of a thermal conductivity k in the case that it is a tensor
(kxx, kyy, and so on, representing an anisotropic thermal conductivity) are
available as ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on (using the default interface
identifier ht). The single scalar mean effective thermal conductivity
ht.kmean is the mean value of the diagonal elements kxx, kyy, and kzz.
THERMODYNAMICS; SOLID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values
or expressions. The heat capacity at constant pressure describes the amount of heat
energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
Thermal Diffusivity
In addition, the thermal diffusivity is defined as k/(Cp) (SI unit: m2/s) is also a
predefined quantity. The thermal diffusivity can be interpreted as a measure of thermal
inertia (heat propagates slowly where the thermal diffusivity is low, for example). The
components of a thermal diffusivity in the case that it is a tensor (xx, yy, and so on,
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
87
Translational Motion
Right-click the Heat Transfer in Solids node to add the Translational Motion node,
which provides movement by translation to model heat transfer in solids. It adds the
following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 3-1, defined in the parent
node:
C p u T
The contribution describes the effect of a moving coordinate system that is required
to model, for example, a moving heat source.
Special care must be taken at boundaries where nu0. The Heat Flux
boundary condition does not, for example, work at boundaries where
nu0.
DOMAIN SELECTION
88 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
TR A N S L A T I O N A L M O T I O N
Enter component values for x, y, and z (in 3D) for the Velocity field utrans (SI unit: m/
s).
(3-2)
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears. This equation includes the following material properties, fields, and
sources:
Density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK))describes the amount of
heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK))a scalar or a tensor if the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic.
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s)either an analytic expression or a velocity field from
a fluid-flow interface.
The heat source (or sink) Qone or more heat sources can be added separately.
The Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) the ratio of heat capacity at constant
pressure, Cp, to heat capacity at constant volume, Cv.
When using the ideal gas law to describe a fluid, specifying is enough to
evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air, 1.4 is the
standard value. Most liquids have 1.1 while water has 1.0. is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total
energy fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics; Solid.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
89
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.
There are also two standard model inputsAbsolute pressure and Velocity field. The
absolute pressure is used in some predefined quantities that include the enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).
Absolute pressure is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics; Solid.
Absolute Pressure
This section controls both the variable as well as any property value (reference
pressures) used when solving for pressure. There are usually two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow and mass and heat transfer. Solve for the absolute
90 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
pressure or a pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates back to the absolute
pressure through a reference pressure.
Using one or the other option usually depends on the system and the
equations being solved for. For example, in a straight incompressible flow
problem, the pressure drop over the modeled domain is probably many
orders of magnitude less than atmospheric pressure, which, if included,
reduces the chances for stability and convergence during the solving
process for this variable. In other cases, the absolute pressure may be
required to be solved for, such as where pressure is a part of an expression
for gas volume or diffusion coefficients.
The default Absolute pressure pA (SI unit: Pa) is User defined and is 1 atm (101,325
Pa). When additional physics interfaces are added to the model, the pressure variables
solved can also be selected from the list. For example, if a fluid-flow interface is added
you can select Pressure (spf/fp) from the list.
When a Pressure variable is selected, the Reference pressure check box is selected by
default and the default value of pref is 1[atm] (1 atmosphere).
This makes it possible to use a system-based (gauge) pressure as the
pressure variable while automatically including the reference pressure in
places where it is required, such as for gas flow governed by the gas law.
While this check box maintains control over the pressure variable and
instances where absolute pressure is required within this respective physics
interface, it may not with physics interfaces that it is being coupled to. In
such models, check the coupling between any interfaces using the same
variable.
Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) is User defined. When User defined is selected,
enter values or expressions for the components based on space dimension. The defaults
are 0 m/s. Or select an existing velocity field in the model (for example, Velocity field
(spf/fp1) from a Laminar Flow interface).
COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes (except boundary
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
91
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. If User
defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression.
The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux
vector q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT which is
Fouriers law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length
and temperature.
THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)), and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) for a general gas or
liquid use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Select a Fluid typeGas/Liquid, Moist air, or Ideal gas.
Gas/Liquid
Select Gas/Liquid to specify the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the
Ratio of specific heats for a general gas or liquid. The default settings are to use data
From material. Select User defined to enter another value for the density, heat capacity,
or ratio of specific heats.
Ideal Gas
Select Ideal gas to use the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Then:
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). For both properties, the default setting is to use
the property value from the material. Select User defined to enter another value for
either of these material properties.
If Mean molar mass is selected, the software uses the universal gas constant
R 8.314 J/(molK), which is a built-in physical constant.
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From the list under Specify Cp or , select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless). For both properties,
the default setting is to use the property value From material. Select User defined to
define another value for either of these material properties.
For an ideal gas, specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, , but not
both since these, in that case, are dependent.
Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. Four different options are available from the Input
quantity list to define the amount of vapor in the moist air:
Select Vapor mass fraction (the default) to define the vapor mass fraction (SI unit:
kg/kg).
Select Concentration to define the concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3). Once
this option is selected a Concentration model input is automatically added in the
Models Inputs section.
Select Moisture content to define the moisture content of the moist air (SI unit: kg/
kg).
Select Relative humidity to define the quantity of vapor from a Reference relative
humidity (SI unit: 1), a Reference temperature (SI unit: K), and a Reference pressure
(SI unit: Pa). These three reference values are used to estimate the mass fraction of
vapor, which is used to define the thermodynamic properties of the moist air.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
Right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.
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DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The
default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 C).
Heat Source
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the domain. You express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
requiredall heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source. Specify
the heat source as the heat per volume in the domain, as a linear heat source, or as a
total heat source (power).
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to add the heat source to.
HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default), Linear source, or Total power button.
If General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source Q
(SI unit: W/m3) when the default option, User defined, is selected. The default is 0
W/m3(that is, no heat source). See also Additional General Source Options.
If Linear source (QqsT) is selected, enter the Production/absorption coefficient qs
(SI unit: W/(m3K)). The default is 0 W/(m3K).
If Total power is selected, enter the total heat source, Ptot, (SI unit: W). The default
is 0 W. In this case Q = Ptot/V, where V is the total volume of the selected domains.
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1 .
V = dz 1
where dz is the out-of-plane thickness. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz.
In 1D:
V = Ac 1
where Ac is the cross-sectional area. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define Ac.
The advantage of writing the source in this second form is that it can be
stabilized by the streamline diffusion. The theory covers qs that is
independent of the temperature, but some stability can be gained as long
as qs is only weakly dependent on the temperature.
The following options are also available from the General source list above
but require additional interfaces and/or licenses as indicated.
With the addition of an Electric Currents physics interface, the Total power
dissipation density (ec/cucn1) heat source is available from the General source list.
With the addition of any version of the Electromagnetic Waves user interface (which
requires the RF Module), the Total power dissipation density (emw/wee1) and
Electromagnetic power loss density (emw/wee1) heat sources are available from the
General source list.
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With the addition of a Magnetic Fields user interface (a 3D model requires the AC/
DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mf/al1) heat source is available from the
General source list.
With the addition of a Magnetic and Electric Fields user interface (which requires
the AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mef/alc1) heat source is available
from the General source list.
For the Heat Transfer in Porous Media user interface, with the addition of physics
interfaces from the Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, Corrosion Module, or
Electrodeposition Module, heat sources from the electrochemical current
distribution interfaces are available.
FRAME SELECTION
To display this section, add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and a Moving Mesh (ale) user
interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch in the Model Wizard).
Then click the Show button (
) and select Advanced Physics Options.
When the model contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default on the Heat Transfer interface, which in
turn enables this section. Use Frame Selection to select the frame where the input
variables are defined. If Spatial is selected, the variables take their values from the edit
fields. If Material (the default) is selected, a conversion from the material to the spatial
frame is applied to the edit field values.
About Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
The Heat Transfer Interface
Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
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DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define where heat transfer with phase
change occurs.
MODEL INPUTS
Enter a Phase change temperature between phase 1 and phase 2 Tpc,12 (SI unit: K).
The default is 273.15 K. Enter any additional phase change temperatures as per the
Number of phase transitions.
Enter a Transition interval between phase 1 and phase 2 T12 (SI unit: K). The default
is 10 K. Enter any additional transition intervals as per the Number of phase transitions.
The value of T12 must be strictly positive. A value near 0K corresponds to a
behavior close to a pure substance.
Enter a Latent heat from phase 1 and phase 2 L12 (SI unit: J/kg). The default is
333 kJ/kg. Enter any additional latent heat values as per the Number of phase
transitions.
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When more than one transition is modeled, the number of phases exceeds 2 and new
variables are created (for example, Tpc,23, T23 or L23). The phase change
temperatures Tpc,jj1 are increasing and satisfy
T pc 1 2 T pc 2 3
This defines distinct domains of temperature bounded by Tpc,j1j and Tpc,jj1
where the material properties of phase j only apply.
In addition, the values of Tjj1 are chosen so that the ranges between
Tpc,jj1Tjj12 and Tpc,jj1Tjj12 do not overlap. If this
condition is not satisfied, unexpected behaviors may occur because some phases would
never form completely. The values of Tjj1 must all be strictly positive.
PHASE
For each Phase section (based on the Number of phase transitions) select or enter the
following:
Select a Material, phase [1,2...], which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material.
The defaults for the following use values From material. Or select User defined to enter
a different value or expression for each:
The default Thermal conductivity kphase[1,2,...] (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses the material
values for phase i. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter
another value or expression. The default is 1 W/(mK).
Density phase[1,2,...] (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 1000 kg/m3.
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,phase[1,2,...] (SI unit: J/(kgK)). The default is
4200 J/(kgK).
Ratio of specific heats phase[1,2,...] (dimensionless). The default is 1.1
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Thermal Insulation
The Thermal Insulation node is the default boundary condition for all Heat Transfer
interfaces. This boundary condition means that there is no heat flux across the
boundary:
n kT = 0
This condition specifies where the domain is well insulated. Intuitively this equation
says that the temperature gradient across the boundary must be zero. For this to be
true, the temperature on one side of the boundary must equal the temperature on the
other side. Because there is no temperature difference across the boundary, heat
cannot transfer across it.
An interesting numerical check for convergence is the numerical
evaluation of the thermal insulation condition along the boundary.
Another check is to plot the temperature field as a contour plot. Ideally
the contour lines are perpendicular to any insulated boundary.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
Temperature
Use the Temperature node to specify the temperature somewhere in the geometry, for
example, on boundaries.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. For The Heat Transfer in Thin
Shells User Interface, this condition can also be applied to edges and pairs.
TE M P E R A T U R E
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CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Outflow
The Outflow node provides a suitable boundary condition for convection-dominated
heat transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective heat transfer, this
condition states that the only heat transfer over a boundary is by convection. The
temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no radiation. This is
usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary in a heat transfer
model with fluid flow.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
In most cases, the Outflow node does not require any user input. If
required, select the boundaries that are convection-dominated outlet
boundaries.
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Symmetry
The Symmetry node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This
boundary condition is similar to a Thermal Insulation condition, and it means that
there is no heat flux across the boundary.
The symmetry condition only applies to the temperature field. It has no
effect on the radiosity (surface-to-surface radiation) and on the radiative
intensity (radiation in participating media).
BOUNDARY SELECTION
In most cases, the node does not require any user input. If required,
define the symmetry boundaries.
Heat Flux
Use the Heat Flux node to add heat flux across boundaries and edges. A positive heat
flux adds heat to the domain. This feature is not applicable to inlet boundaries.
For inlet boundaries, use the Inflow Heat Flux condition instead.
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
HEAT FLUX
Click to select the General inward heat flux (the default), Inward heat flux, or Total heat
flux button.
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1 .
A = dz 1
where dz is the out-of-plane thickness. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz.
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In 1D:
A = Ac 1
where Ac is the cross-sectional area. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define Ac.
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node and described under the Frame
Selection section.
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Use the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation condition to add surface-to-ambient radiation to
boundaries. The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is
4
q = T amb T
where is the surface emissivity, is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined
physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION
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Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
When Pair Boundary Heat Source is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to
define. An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default) or Total boundary power button.
If General source is selected, enter a value for the boundary heat source Qb (SI unit:
W/m2) when the default option, User defined, is selected. A positive Qb is heating
and a negative Qb is cooling. The default is 0 W/m2. For the general boundary heat
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source Qb, there are predefined heat sources available when simulating heat transfer
together with electrical or electromagnetic physics user interfaces. Such sources
represent, for example, ohmic heating and induction heating.
If Total boundary power is selected, enter the total power (total heat source) Pb, tot
(SI unit: W). The default is 0 W. In this case Qb = Pb, tot/A, where A is the total area
of the selected boundaries.
1 .
A = dz 1
where dz is the out-of-plane thickness. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz.
In 1D:
A = Ac 1
where Ac is the cross-sectional area. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define Ac.
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node and described under the Frame
Selection section.
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Continuity
The Continuity node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the temperature field is
continuous across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries
match.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The selection list in this section shows the boundaries for the selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
When this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
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where the u and d subscripts refer to the upside and the downside of the slit,
respectively.
When using the Pair Thin Thermally Resistive Layer node, then the u and
d subscripts refer to the upside and the downside of the pair, respectively,
instead of the slit.
Like any pair feature, the Pair Thin Thermally Resistive Layer condition
contributes with any other pair feature. However, do not use two
conditions on the same pair. In order to model a thin resistive layer made
of several materials, use the Multiple layers option, which is available with
the Heat Transfer Module.
When the material has a multilayer structure ks and ds in the expressions above are
replaced by dtot and ktot, which are defined according to Equation 3-3 and
Equation 3-4:
nl
d tot =
dsj
(3-3)
j=1
d tot
k tot = ----------------nl
d sj
------k sj
(3-4)
j=1
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
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Thermal Contact
The Thermal Contact node defines correlations for the conductance h at the interface
of two bodies in contact. It can be added to pairs by selecting Pair Thermal Contact from
the Pairs menu.
The conductance h is involved in the heat flux across the surfaces in contact according
to:
n d k d T d = h T u T d + rQ fric
n u k u T u = h T d T u + 1 r Q fric
where u and d subscripts refer respectively to the upside and downside of the slit.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to add a thermal contact condition.
MODEL INPUTS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
PAIR SELECTION
When Pair Thermal Contact is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define.
An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
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CONTACT
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If Vickers hardness is selected, enter a value for the Vickers correlation coefficient c1
(SI unit: Pa) and Vickers size index c2 (dimensionless). The defaults are 5 GPa and
0.1, respectively.
If Brinell hardness is selected, enter a value for HB (SI unit: Pa). The default is 3 GPa.
HB should be between 1.30 and 7.60 GPa.
When Mikic elastic correlation is selected, choose the Contact interface Youngs modulus
definitionWeighted harmonic mean (the default) or User defined.
If Weighted harmonic mean is selected, enter values or expressions for the Youngs
modulus E (SI unit Pa) and Poissons ratio (dimensionless). The defaults are 0.
If User defined enter another value or expression for the Contact interface Youngs
modulus Econtact (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 GPa.
GAP PROPERTIES
This section is available when Parallel-plate gap gas conductance is selected as the Gap
conductance correlation under Contact.
The default Gas thermal conductivity kgap (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material.
If User defined is selected, also choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic
based on the characteristics of the gas thermal conductivity, and enter another value or
expression. The default is 0.025 W/(mK).
Also enter the following:
Gas pressure pgap (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1 atm.
Gas thermal accommodation parameter (dimensionless). The default is 1.7.
Gas fluid parameter and (dimensionless). The default is 1.7.
Gas particles diameter D (SI unit: m). The default value is 0.37 nm.
RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
This section is available when Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces is selected as the Radiative
conductance correlation under Contact.
By default the Surface emissivity (dimensionless) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter another value or expression. The default is 1.
THERMAL FRICTION
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Enter a Frictional heat source Qfric (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
The Line Heat Source node is only available in 3D. This is because in 2D it
is a boundary and in 1D it is a domain.
Click the General source (the default) or Total line power button.
When General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source, Ql
(SI unit: W/m) in unit power per unit length. Positive Ql is heating while a negative
Ql is cooling. The default is 0 W/m.
If Total line power is selected, enter the total power (total heat source) Pl,tot
(SI unit: W). The default is 0 W.
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111
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node and described under the Frame
Selection section.
Enter the Point heat source Qp (SI unit: W) in unit power. Positive Qp is heating while
a negative Qp is cooling. The default is 0 W.
Pressure Work
Right-click the Heat Transfer in Solidsor Heat Transfer in Fluids node to add the
Pressure Work subnode.
When added under Heat Transfer in Solidsnode, the Pressure Work node adds the
following term to the right-hand side of the Heat Transfer in Solids equation:
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T ----- S el
t
(3-5)
T p t
(3-6)
The software computes the pressure work using the absolute pressure.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. By default, the selection is the
same as for the parent node (Heat Transfer in Solidsor Heat Transfer in Fluids) it is
attached to.
P RE S S U RE WO R K
For the Heat Transfer in Solids model, enter a value or expression for the Elastic
contribution to entropy Ent (SI unit: Jm3K)). The default is 0 Jm3K).
For the Heat Transfer in Fluids model, select a Pressure work formulationFull
formulation (the default) or Low Mach number formulation. The low Mach number
formulation excludes the term u p from Equation 3-6, which is small for most flows
with a low Mach number.
Viscous Heating
Right-click the Heat Transfer in Fluids to add the Viscous Heating node, which adds the
following term to the right-hand side of the heat transfer in fluids equation:
:S
(3-7)
where is the viscous stress tensor and S is the strain-rate tensor. Equation 3-7
represents the heating caused by viscous friction within the fluid.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. By default, the selection is the
same as for the Heat Transfer in Fluids feature that it is attached to.
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113
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
The Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value of the viscosity From material.
Select User defined to enter another value or expression. The default is 0 Pas.
COMSOL uses the dynamic viscosity together with the velocity expressions to
compute the viscous stress tensor, .
1
n kT = q 0 u n ------------------- + h in h ext u n
un
(3-8)
where
h in h ext =
T in
ext
1
-
--- 1 + T
---- ----- dp
T
ext
p
pA
C p dT +
(3-9)
A positive heat flux adds heat to the domain. This feature is applicable to inlet
boundaries. The second integral in Equation 3-5 is neglected if the feature is applied
to the boundary of a solid domain.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the Inward heat flux (the default) or Total heat flux buttons.
When Inward heat flux is selected, define q0 (SI unit: W/m2) to add to the total flux
across the selected boundaries. The default value is 0 W/m2.
When Total heat flux is selected, define qtot. In this case q0qtot/A, where A is the
total area of the selected boundaries. The default is 0 W.
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For either selection, enter a value or expression for the External temperature Text (SI
unit: K) (the default is 273.15 K) and the External absolute pressure pext (SI unit: Pa)
(the default is 1 atm).
1 .
A = dz 1
where dz is the out-of-plane thickness. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz or Ac.
In 1D
A = Ac 1
where Ac is the cross-sectional area. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz or Ac.
Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node adds a boundary condition for modeling heat flux across an
open boundary; the heat can flow out of the domain or into the domain with a
specified exterior temperature. Use this node to limit a modeling domain that extends
in an open fashion.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
Enter the exterior Temperature T0 (SI unit: K) outside of the open boundary.
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The Convective Heat Flux node adds the following heat flux contribution to its
boundaries:
h T ext T
where the heat transfer coefficient, h, can be user defined or by using a library of
predefined coefficients described in About the Heat Transfer Coefficients.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select a Heat transfer coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)) to control the type of
convective heat flux to modelUser defined (the default), External natural convection,
Internal natural convection, External forced convection, or Internal forced convection.
For all options, enter an External temperature, Text (SI unit: K). The default is
293.15 K.
For all options (except User defined), follow the individual instructions below and
select an External fluidAir (the default), Transformer oil, or water. If Air is selected,
also enter an Absolute pressure, pA (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 atm.
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T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
117
Use the Highly Conductive Layer node to model heat transfer in thin highly
conductive layers on boundaries in 2D and 3D. This feature can also be
added to 2D axisymmetric models.
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Right-click the Highly Conductive Layer node to add these additional features:
Layer Heat Sourceto add a layer internal heat source, Qs, within the highly
conductive layer.
Edge (3D) or Point (2D and 2D axisymmetric) Heat Fluxadds a heat flux through a
specified set of boundaries of a highly conductive layer. See Edge Heat Flux and
Point Heat Flux.
If you also have the Microfluidics Module, the Edge Heat Flux and Point
Heat Flux nodes are not available with the Slip Flow interface.
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs
appear here. The Layer thickness ds, displays in this section. The default value is
0.01 m.
COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes (except boundary
coordinate systems). The coordinate system is used for interpreting directions of
orthotropic and anisotropic thermal conductivity.
119
HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Layer thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material
and describes the layers ability to conduct heat. If User defined is selected, choose
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression.
THERMODYNAMICS
The default Layer density s (SI unit: kg/m3) and Layer heat capacity Cs (SI unit: J/
(kgK)) are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions. The defaults are 0 kg/m3 and 0 J/ (kgK), respectively.
Enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is
0.01 m.
If the thickness is zero, the highly conductive layer does not take effect.
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. By default, the selection is the
same as for the Highly Conductive Layer node.
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Select the General source (the default) or Total power button to define Qs.
When the General source button is selected, enter a value or expression for Qs
(SI unit: W/m3) as a heat source per volume. The default is 0 W/m3.
If the Total power button is selected, define the total power Ps,tot (SI unit: W). In
this case Qs = Ps,tot/V where V=Ads with A equal to the area of the boundary
selection. The default is 0 W.
1 .
In 2D,
A = dz 1
where dz is the out-of-plane thickness. If the out-of-plane property is not
active, a text field is available to define dz.
If you also have the Microfluidics Module, the Edge Heat Flux node is
not available with the Slip Flow interface.
EDGE SELECTION
121
Select either the General inward heat flux (the default), Inward heat flux, or Total heat
flux buttons.
When General inward heat flux q0 (SI unit: W/m2) is selected, it adds to the total
flux across the selected edges. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters
the layer. For example, any electric heater is well represented by this condition, and
its geometry can be omitted. The default is 0 W/m2.
If Inward heat flux is selected (in the form q0hTextT, enter the Heat transfer
coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)). The default value is 0 W/(m2K). Enter an
External temperature Text (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15 K. The value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions.
If Total heat flux is selected, enter the total heat flux qtot (SI unit: W). In this case
q0 = qtot/A where A=Lds with L equal to the length of the edge selection. The
default is 0 W.
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node and described under the Frame
Selection section.
Use the Point Heat Flux node for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models to add
heat flux across boundaries of a highly conductive layer. A positive heat
flux adds heat to the layer. Right-click the Highly Conductive Layer node
to add this feature.
If you also have the Microfluidics Module, the Point Heat Flux node is
not available with the Slip Flow interface.
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POINT S EL EC TION
Select either the General inward heat flux (the default) or Inward heat flux buttons.
When General inward heat flux q0 (SI unit: W/m2) is selected, it adds to the total
flux across the selected points. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that
enters the layer. For example, any electric heater is well represented by this
condition, and its geometry can be omitted. The default is 0 W/m2.
If Inward heat flux is selected (in the form q0hTextT, enter the Heat transfer
coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)). The default value is 0 W/(m2K). Enter an
External temperature Text (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15 K. The value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions.
Temperature
Use the Temperature node to specify the temperature on a set of edges that
represent thin boundary surfaces of the highly conductive layer.
Right-click the Highly Conductive Layer node to add this feature.
Only edges adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the parent node.
EDGE SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
TE M P E R A T U R E
Enter the value or expression for the Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The equation for this
condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on the edges. The default
is 293.15 K.
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CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Point Temperature
Only points adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the parent node.
POINT SELECTION
Enter the value or expression for the Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The equation for this
condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on the points. The default
is 293.15 K.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
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q = T amb T
where is the surface emissivity, is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined
physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.
EDGE SELECTION
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
The default Surface emissivity (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. An emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no radiation at all and
125
SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
The default Surface emissivity (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. An emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no radiation at all and
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For the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface, these features are available
for 3D models.
O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T TR A N S F E R N O D E S
127
(3-10)
T
C p d z ------- + u T = d z kT + d z Q
t
(3-11)
Select the domains where you want to add an out-of-plane convective heart flux
contribution.
UPSIDE HEAT FLUX
Select a Heat transfer coefficient hu (SI unit: W/(m2K)) to control the type of
convective heat flux to modelUser defined (the default), External natural convection,
Internal natural convection, External forced convection, or Internal forced convection. If
only convective flux is required on the downside, use the default, which sets hu0.
For all of the options, enter an External temperature, Text,u (SI unit: K).
For all of the options (except User defined), follow the individual instructions in the
Heat Flux section described for the Convective Heat Flux feature, then select an
External fluidAir, Transformer oil, or water. If Air is selected, also enter an Absolute
pressure, pA (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 atm.
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The controls in the Downside Heat Flux section are the same as those in the Upside Heat
Flux section except that it is applied to the downside instead of the upside, for example,
the Heat transfer coefficient is hd.
Out-of-Plane Radiation
The Out-of-Plane Radiation node models surface-to-ambient radiation on the upside
and downside. The feature adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of
Equation 3-10 or Equation 3-11:
4
4
4
4
u T amb
u T + d T amb d T
Select the domains where you want to add an out-of-plane surface-to-ambient heat
transfer contribution.
UPSIDE PARAMETERS
Follow the instructions for the Upside Parameters section to define the downside
parameters d and Tamb,d.
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129
Select the domains where you want to add an out-of-plane heat flux.
UPSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX
Select between specifying the upside inward heat flux directly or as a convective term
using a heat transfer coefficient. The General inward heat flux button is selected by
default. Enter a value or expression for the inward (or outward, if the quantity is
negative) heat flux through the upside (SI unit: W/m2) in the q0,u field. The default
is 0 W/m2.
Click the Inward heat flux button to specify an inward (or outward, if the quantity is
negative) heat flux through the upside (SI unit: W/m2) as hu(Text,uT). Enter a value
or expression for the heat transfer coefficient in the hu field (SI unit: W/(m2K) and a
value or expression for the external temperature in the Text,u field (SI unit: K). The
default value for the external temperature is 293.15 K.
DOWNSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX
The controls in the Downside Inward Heat Flux section are identical to those in the
Upside Inward Heat Flux section except that they apply to the downside instead of the
upside.
Change Thickness
The Change Thickness node makes it possible model domains with another thickness
than the overall thickness that is specified in the Heat Transfer interface Physical Model
section.
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DOMAIN SELECTION
Specify a value for the Thickness dz (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m. This value
replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain Selection
section.
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T h e B i o h e a t T r a ns f e r I n t e r f a c e
When Bioheat Transfer is selected under the Heat Transfer branch (
) in the Model
Wizard, Biological tissue is automatically selected as the default physical model and a
Heat Transfer (ht) (
) interface is added to the Model Builder.
When this version of the interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
BuilderBiological Tissue (with a default Bioheat node), Thermal Insulation (the default
boundary condition), and Initial Values. All functionality to include both solid and fluid
domains is also available.
Right-click the Heat Transfer node to add other features that implement boundary
conditions and sources.
PHYSICAL MODEL
The rest of the settings as well as the interior and exterior boundary
conditions are the same as for The Heat Transfer Interface.
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Biological Tissue
The Biological Tissue node adds the bioheat equation as the mathematical model for
heat transfer in biological tissue. See Equation 2-41. Right-click the node to add a
Bioheat node.
When parts of the model (for example, a heat source) are moving, also
right-click to add a Translational Motion node, which includes the effect
of the movement by translation that requires a moving coordinate system.
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes (except boundary
coordinate systems). The coordinate system is used for interpreting directions of
orthotropic and anisotropic thermal conductivity.
HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression in
the field or matrix. The defaults are 0 W/(mK).
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133
THERMODYNAMICS
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) are taken From material. The heat capacity describes the amount of
heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass. If User
defined is selected, enter other values or expressions. The defaults are 0 kg/m3 and
0 J/(kgK), respectively.
Bioheat
A default Bioheat node is added to the Biological Tissue node. This feature provides
the source terms that represent blood perfusion and metabolism to model heat transfer
in biological tissue using the bioheat equation:
b Cb b (TbT)
Right-click the Biological Tissue node to add more Bioheat subnodes.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
BIOHEAT
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Density, blood b (SI unit: kg/m3), which is the mass per volume of blood. The
default is 0 kg/m3.
Metabolic heat source Qmet (SI unit: W/m3), which describes heat generation from
metabolism. Enter this quantity as the unit power per unit volume. The default is
0 W/m3.
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Figure 3-1: The ability to model porous media heat transfer is activated by selecting the
Heat transfer in porous media check box in any Heat Transfer (ht) settings window under
Physical Model.
The rest of the settings for this interface are the same as for the Heat
Transfer interface.
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Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat
Transfer in Porous Media User Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has these nodes described in this section:
Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Thermal Dispersion
These domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are described forThe Heat
Transfer Interface (listed in alphabetical order):
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,
select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
Continuity
Heat Flux
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Source
Symmetry
Temperature
Thermal Contact
Thermal Insulation
Outflow
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137
in Porous Media model uses the following version of the heat equation as the
mathematical model for heat transfer in fluids:
T
C p ------- + Cp u T = kT + Q
t
(3-12)
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears. It has these material properties:
Density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)): This describes the amount
of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)): A scalar or a tensor if the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic.
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s): Either an analytic expression or a velocity field from
a fluid-flow interface.
The heat source (or sink) Q: One or more heat sources can be added separately.
The Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless): The ratio of heat capacity at constant
pressure, Cp, to heat capacity at constant volume, Cv.
When using the ideal gas law to describe a fluid, specifying is enough to
evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air, 1.4 is the
standard value. Most liquids have 1.1 while water has 1.0. is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total
energy fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics, Porous Matrix.
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
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MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.
There are also two standard model inputsAbsolute pressure and Velocity field. The
absolute pressure is used in some predefined quantities that include the enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).
Absolute pressure is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics, Porous Matrix.
Absolute Pressure
This section controls both the variable as well as any property value (reference
pressures) used when solving for pressure. There are usually two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow and mass and heat transfer. Solve for the absolute
pressure or a pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates back to the absolute
pressure through a reference pressure.
Using one or the other option usually depends on the system and the
equations being solved for. For example, in a straight incompressible flow
problem, the pressure drop over the modeled domain is probably many
orders of magnitude less than atmospheric pressure, which, if included,
reduces the chances for stability and convergence during the solving
process for this variable. In other cases, the absolute pressure may be
required to be solved for, such as where pressure is a part of an expression
for gas volume or diffusion coefficients.
The default Absolute pressure pA (SI unit: Pa) is User defined and is 1 atm (101,325
Pa). When additional physics interfaces are added to the model, the pressure variables
solved can also be selected from the list. For example, if a fluid-flow interface is added
you can select Pressure (spf/fp) from the list.
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139
When a Pressure variable is selected, the Reference pressure check box is selected by
default and the default value of pref is 1[atm] (1 atmosphere).
This makes it possible to use a system-based (gauge) pressure as the
pressure variable while automatically including the reference pressure in
places where it is required, such as for gas flow governed by the gas law.
While this check box maintains control over the pressure variable and
instances where absolute pressure is required within this respective physics
interface, it may not with physics interfaces that it is being coupled to. In
such models, check the coupling between any interfaces using the same
variable.
Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) is User defined. When User defined is selected,
enter values or expressions for the components based on space dimension. The defaults
are 0 m/s. Or select an existing velocity field in the model (for example, Velocity field
(spf/fp1) from a Laminar Flow interface).
HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. If User
defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression.
The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux
vector q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT which is
Fouriers law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length
and temperature.
THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)), and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) for a general gas or
liquid use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Select a Fluid typeGas/Liquid, Moist air, or Ideal gas.
Gas/Liquid
Select Gas/Liquid to specify the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the
Ratio of specific heats for a general gas or liquid. The default settings are to use data
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From material. Select User defined to enter another value for the density, heat capacity,
Ideal Gas
Select Ideal gas to use the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Then:
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). For both properties, the default setting is to use
the property value from the material. Select User defined to enter another value for
either of these material properties.
If Mean molar mass is selected, the software uses the universal gas constant
R 8.314 J/(molK), which is a built-in physical constant.
From the list under Specify Cp or , select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless). For both properties,
the default setting is to use the property value From material. Select User defined to
define another value for either of these material properties.
For an ideal gas, specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, , but not
both since these, in that case, are dependent.
Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. Four different options are available from the Input
quantity list to define the amount of vapor in the moist air:
Select Vapor mass fraction (the default) to define the vapor mass fraction (SI unit:
kg/kg).
Select Concentration to define the concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3). Once
this option is selected a Concentration model input is automatically added in the
Models Inputs section.
Select Moisture content to define the moisture content of the moist air (SI unit: kg/
kg).
Select Relative humidity to define the quantity of vapor from a Reference relative
humidity (SI unit: 1), a Reference temperature (SI unit: K), and a Reference pressure
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141
(SI unit: Pa). These three reference values are used to estimate the mass fraction of
vapor, which is used to define the thermodynamic properties of the moist air.
IMMOBILE SOLIDS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. The Solid material list can point to any material in the model. Enter
a Volume fraction p (dimensionless) for the solid material.
HEAT CONDUCTION, POROUS MATRIX
The default Thermal conductivity kp (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression in
the field or matrix.
The thermal conductivity of the material describes the relationship
between the heat flux vector q and the temperature gradient T as in a
solid material and q = kpT, which is Fouriers law of heat conduction.
THERMODYNAMICS, POROUS MATRIX
3
The default Density p (SI unit: kg/m ) uses values From material. If User defined is
selected, enter another value or expression.
The default Specific heat capacity Cp,p (SI unit: J/(kgK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, enter another value or expression.
The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to
produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass of the solid material.
The equivalent volumetric heat capacity of the solid-liquid system is calculated from
C p eq = p p C p p + L C p
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Thermal Dispersion
Right-click the Heat Transfer in Porous Media node to add the Thermal Dispersion
node. This adds an extra term kdT to the right-hand side of
T
C p eq ------- + C p u T = k eq T + Q
t
and specifies the values of the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities.
DOMAIN SELECTION
Define the Longitudinal dispersivity lo (SI unit: m) and Transverse dispersivity tr (SI
unit: m).
For the Transverse vertical dispersivity the Thermal Dispersion node defines the tensor
of dispersive thermal conductivity
d = C
k ij
L p L D ij
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143
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In this chapter:
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells User Interface
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells User Interface
145
T he H e a t T r a nsfer i n Th i n Sh el l s U ser
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) user interface (
), found under the Heat
) in the Model Wizard, is suitable for solving thermal-conduction
problems in thin structures and has the equations, edge and point conditions, and heat
sources for modeling heat transfer in thin conductive shell, solving for the temperature.
It is available for 3D models
Transfer branch (
The Thin Conductive Layer is the main node. It adds the equation for the temperature
and provides a settings window for defining the thermal conductivity, the heat capacity
and the density (see Equation 4-1).
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Thin Conductive Layer, Insulation/Continuity (a default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Right-click the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells node to add other features that
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is htsh.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The default setting is to include All boundaries in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific boundaries, select Manual from the
Selection list.
SHELL THICKNESS
Define the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m) (see Equation 4-1). The default is 0.01 m.
SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to add a Radiation Settings section.
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RADIATION SETTINGS
See The Heat Transfer Interface for details about the Surface-to-surface
radiation method and Radiation resolution settings.
Modify the Transparent media refractive index it is different from 1 that corresponds to
vacuum refractive index and that is a good approximation for air refractive index.
Select the Number of wavelength intervals. Default is one which correspond to a diffuse
gray radiation model. It is possible to define up to 5 wavelength intervals. When the
Number of wavelength intervals is greater than one, a diffuse spectral model is used. It
is then possible to define the surface emissivity per spectral band.
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube or Direct area integration.
If Direct area integration is selected, select the Radiation integration order. Sharp
angles and small gaps between surfaces may require a higher integration order for
accuracy but also more time to evaluate the irradiation.
If Hemicube is selected, select the Radiation resolution. The default is 256.
Select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability of defining radiation
groups. This can speed up the radiation calculations in many cases.
Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
Discretization level used for the surface radiosity shape function.
DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Temperature T. The variable name can
be changed, but the names of dependent variables must be unique within a model.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found
under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch in the Model Wizard) then click the
Show button (
) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.
When the model contains moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default.
This option has no effect when the model does not contain a moving frame since the
material and spatial frames are identical in this case. With moving mesh, and when this
option is active, the heat transfer physics automatically account for deformation effects
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147
on heat transfer properties. In particular the effects for volume changes on the density
are considered. Rotation effects on thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material
and, more generally, deformation effects on arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also
covered. When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is
not selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source, Heat Flux, Boundary Heat
Source, and Line Heat Source) are not converted and all are defined on the Spatial
frame.
DISCRETIZATION
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin
Shells User Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells User Interface has the following boundary, edge,
point and pair nodes described (listed in alphabetical order):
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Heat Flux
Change Thickness
Heat Source
Initial Values
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Insulation/Continuity
Prescribed Radiosity
Opaque
Radiation Group
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
(Boundary Condition)
Out-of-Plane Radiation
Temperature
When nodes are described for other interfaces, the difference for this
interface is that Boundaries are selected instead of Domains.
Heat Flux
Use the Heat Flux node to add heat flux across boundaries. A positive heat flux adds
heat to the domain. The Heat Flux feature adds a heat source (or sink) to edges. It adds
a heat flux qdeq0.
BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION
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149
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
HEAT FLUX
See the Heat Flux node, Heat Flux settings section for The Heat Transfer Interface,
which are the same for this interface.
FRAME SELECTION
To display this section add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving
Mesh (ale) interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch in the Model
The rest of the settings are the same for the Heat Source node as described under the
Frame Selection section.
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
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HEAT CONDUCTION
By default, the Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter other values or expressions in
the field or matrix.
THERMODYNAMICS
Specify the Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) to describe the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass. The default settings use values From material for
both. If User defined is selected, enter other values or expressions.
Heat Source
The Heat Source node adds a thermal source Q. It adds the following contributions to
the right-hand side of Equation 4-1: d s Q .
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the shell. Express heating and cooling
with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as required; all
heat sources within a boundary contribute to the total heat source. Specify the heat
source as the heat per volume in the domain, as linear heat source, or as a total heat
source (power).
BOUNDARY SELECTION
See the Heat Source node, Heat Source settings section for The Heat Transfer
Interface, which are the same for this interface.
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151
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Flux node Frame Selection section
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
If more than one set of initial values is needed, right-click the Initial Values node.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T. The default is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 C). Also enter a Surface radiosity J
(SI unit: W/m2). The default is htsh.Jinit W/m2. This variable is defined under the
4 .
Surface-to-Surface Radiation boundary condition as r T 04 1 r T amb
Change Thickness
Use the Change Thickness node to give parts of the shell a different thickness than that
what is specified on the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface Shell Thickness section.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
Specify a value for the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default value is 0.01 m. This
value replaces the overall thickness for the boundaries that are selected.
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Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Use the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation condition to add surface-to-ambient radiation to
edges. The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is
4
n d s k T T = T amb T
where is the surface emissivity, is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined
physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.
EDGE SELECTION
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION
Insulation/Continuity
The Insulation/Continuity node is the default edge condition. On external edges, this
edge condition means that there is no heat flux across the edge:
n k g T = 0
On internal edges, this edge condition means that the temperature field and its flux is
continuous across the edge.
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EDGE SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific edges or select All edges as required.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CHANGE EFFECTIVE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Effective thickness de (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the edges selected in the Edges section.
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
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From the Edge heat source type list, select Heat source defined per unit of length (the
default) or Heat source defined per unit of area.
If Heat source defined per unit of length is selected, click the General source (the default)
or Total line power button.
When General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source, Ql
(SI unit: W/m) in unit power per unit length. Positive Ql is heating while a negative
Ql is cooling. The default is 0 W/m.
If Total line power is selected, enter the total power (total heat source) Pl,tot (SI
unit: W). The default is 0 W.
If Heat source defined per unit of area is selected, click the General source (the default)
or Total boundary power button.
If General source is selected, enter the boundary heat source Qb (SI unit: W/m2). A
positive Qb is heating and a negative Qb is cooling. The default is 0 W/m2.
If Total boundary power is selected, enter the total power (total heat source) Pb, tot
(SI unit: W). The default is 0 W.
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Flux node Frame Selection section
Enter a value or expression for the Point heat source Qp (SI unit: W). A positive Qp
means heating while a negative Qp means cooling. The added heat source is equal to
Qp. The default is 0 W.
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T
+ T d s k g T T = 0
t
(4-1)
T
+ T d s k g TT = d s Q + d s h u T ext, u T + d s h d T ext, d T
t
(4-2)
4
+ d s u T 4 amb, u T + d s d T 4 amb, d T + d s q u + d s q d
Where T is the tangential derivative along the shell and
is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
ds is the shell thickness (SI unit: m)
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t1
e yl =
e xl e zl
e zl =
= n t1
From this, a transformation matrix between the shells local coordinate system and the
global coordinate system can be constructed in the following way:
e xlx e ylx e zlx
A = e xly e yly e zly
e xlz e ylz e zlz
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R a d i a t i o n H eat Transfer
This chapter describes the interfaces for modeling radiative heat transfer. The
physics interface for modeling radiative heat transfer are available under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch (
) and described in the About the Heat Transfer
Interfaces section.
In this chapter:
The Radiation Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer User Interface
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation User Interface
Theory for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation User Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media User Interface
Theory for the Radiation in Participating Media User Interface
References for the Radiation User Interfaces
159
Except for the Radiation Settings section, the rest of the settings are the
same as for The Heat Transfer Interface.
RADIATION SETTINGS
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Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer User Interface
Both The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation User Interface and The
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media User Interface are versions of the
Heat Transfer interface. This means all the nodes are shared with, and described for,
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The Heat Transfer Interface, including nodes described for the Highly Conductive
Layer Nodes and Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer Nodes.
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) interface also
has the following nodes available and described for the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface:
External Radiation Source
Opaque
Prescribed Radiosity
Radiation Group
Diffuse Mirror
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (Boundary Condition)
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The following are links to the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes and
subnodes (listed in alphabetical order):
Boundary Heat Source
Outflow
Continuity
Temperature
Point Temperature
Heat Flux
Pressure Work
Heat Source
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Symmetry
Temperature
Thermal Contact
Thermal Insulation
Initial Values
Translational Motion
Viscous Heating
Open Boundary
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The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
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belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first user interface in the model) is rad.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The default setting is to include All boundaries in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific boundaries, select Manual from the
Selection list.
RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is alway visible in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. To display this
section for any version of the Heat Transfer interface, select the Surface-to-surface
radiation check box under Physical Model settings window.
Define the Wavelength dependence of emissivity.
Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface emissivity has the same definition for all wavelength. Still the
surface emissivity can depend on other quantities, in particular it can be temperature
dependent.
Select Solar and ambient to define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two
spectral bands, one for short wavelengths, [,1], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [1,[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the Intervals
endpoint (SI unit m), 1, to adjust the wavelength intervals corresponding to the
solar and ambient radiation. The surface properties can then be defined for each
spectral band. In particular it is possible to define the solar absorptivity for short
wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large wavelengths.
Choose Multiple Spectral Bands and set the Number of wavelength intervals value (2
to 5), to define a diffuse spectral radiation model. It is then possible to provide a
definition of the surface emissivity for each spectral band. Update Intervals endpoint
(SI unit m), 1, 2, ... to define the wavelength intervals [i-1,i[ for i from 1 to
Number of wavelength intervals. Note that the first and the last endpoints, 0 and N
(with N equal to the value selected to define of Number of wavelength intervals), are
predefined and equal to 0 and respectively.
Modify the Transparent media refractive index if it is different from 1 that corresponds
to vacuum refractive index and that is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.
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Also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability to define radiation
groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation calculations.
Select a Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube (the default) or Direct area
integration. See below for descriptions of each method.
Hemicube
Hemicube is the default method for the heat transfer interfaces. The more
sophisticated and general hemicube method uses a z-buffered projection on the sides
of a hemicube (with generalizations to 2D and 1D) to account for shadowing effects.
Think of it as rendering digital images of the geometry in five different directions (in
3D; in 2D only three directions are needed), and counting the pixels in each mesh
element to evaluate its view factor.
Its accuracy can be influenced by setting the Radiation resolution of the virtual
snapshots. The number of z-buffer pixels on each side of the 3D hemicube equals the
specified resolution squared. Thus the time required to evaluate the irradiation
increases quadratically with resolution. In 2D, the number of z-buffer pixels is
proportional to the resolution property, and thus the time is, as well.
For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding
3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries about the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.
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Direct area integration is fast and accurate for simple geometries with no shadowing,
or where the shadowing can be handled by manually assigning boundaries to different
groups.
If shadowing is ignored, global energy is not conserved. Control the
accuracy by specifying a Radiation integration order. Sharp angles and small
gaps between surfaces may require a higher integration order for accuracy
but also more time to evaluate the irradiation.
DISCRETIZATION
This section is empty for Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface which define the
shape functions discretization in Radiation Settings.
About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Interface
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer User Interface
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation User Interface
Theory for the Heat Transfer User Interfaces
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Prescribed Radiosity
Radiation Group
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (Boundary Condition)
contribution
q = G e b T
on the side of the boundary where the radiation is defined. Where the radiation is
defined on both sides the radiative heat source is defined on both sides too.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where the boundary condition is
applied.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. This model input is used in the expression for
the blackbody radiation intensity and, when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for
the fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine
the variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not
contain a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.
RADIATION SETTINGS
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controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, or Both
sides.
Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opaque boundary condition.
Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction.
Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction.
Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides.
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands in the interface settings, select a Radiation direction for each spectral
bandOpacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal
direction, or Both sides, or None. The Radiation direction defines the radiation direction
for each spectral band similarly as when Wavelength dependence of emissivity is
Constant. Defining a radiation direction for each spectral band make it possible to build
models where the transparency/opacity properties defer between spectral bands. This
is useful for example to represent that glass is opaque to radiation outside of the
0.3-2.5 m wavelength range.
The additional choice, None is used when adjacent domains are either both transparent
or both opaque for a given spectral band.
AMBIENT
Select Define ambient temperature on each side when the ambient temperature differs
between the sides of a boundary. This is needed to define ambient temperature for a
surface that radiates on both side and that is exposed to a hot temperature on one side
(for example, fire) and to a cold temperature on the other side (for example, external
temperature). By default Define ambient temperature on each side is not selected.
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K. When Define
ambient temperature on each side is selected, define the Ambient temperature Tamb, u
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169
and Tamb, d on the up and down side respectively. The geometric normal points from
the down side to the up side.
Set Tamb to the far-away temperature in directions where no other
boundaries obstruct the view. Inside a closed cavity, the ambient view
factor, Famb, is theoretically zero and the value of Tamb therefore should
not matter. It is, however, good practice to set Tamb to T or to a typical
temperature value for the cavity surfaces in such cases because that
minimizes errors introduced by the finite resolution of the view factor
evaluation.
SURF ACE FRA CTIONAL EMISS IVE POWER
When the Fractional emissive power is User defined, define the Fractional emissive power,
FEPBi for each spectral band. All fractional emissive powers are expected to be in [0,1]
and their sum is expected to be equal to 1.
SURFACE EMISSIVITY
In diffuse gray and diffuse spectral radiation models, the surface emissivity
and the absorptivity must be equal. For this reason it is equivalent to
define the surface emissivity or the absorptivity.
The surface emissivity settings are defined per spectral interval.
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When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band, by default, the Surface emissivity (dimensionless)
uses values From material. This is a property of the material surface that depends both
on the material itself and the structure of the surface. Make sure that a material is
defined at the boundary level (by default materials are defined at the domain level).
When the Radiation direction is set to Both sides for a spectral band, define the Material
on upside and Material on downside:
The default for both Material on upside and Material on downside use Boundary
material. The list contains other options based on the materials defined in the
model.
Define the Surface emissivity on the upside and downside, respectively. The
geometric normal points from the down side to the up side. Set the surface
emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents diffuse mirror and 1 is
appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical material lies
somewhere in-between and can be found from tables or measurements.
When the Radiation direction is set to None for a spectral band, no information is
needed for this spectral band in the Surface Emissivity section.
INIT IA L VA LUES
The surface radiosity initial values are defined per spectral interval.
When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band Bi, the default Surface radiosity, JBi,init (SI unit:
W/m2) is defined as
J Bi init = Bi e b T init + 1 Bi e b T amb
When Both sides is selected as the Radiation direction,
Enter initial values for the Surface radiosity JBi, init, u and JBi, init, d (SI unit: W/m2).
The default Surface radiosity is ht.JBiinitU and ht.JBiinitD (SI unit: W/m2).
J Bi init u = Bi u e b T init + 1 Bi u e b T amb u
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Opaque
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OPAQUE
Diffuse Mirror
The Diffuse Mirror node is a variant of the surface-to-surface radiation node with a
surface emissivity equal to zero. Diffuse mirror surfaces are common as approximations
of a surface that is well insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be
neglected on the opposite (radiating) side. It resembles a mirror that absorbs all
irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions. The node adds radiosity shape
function for each spectral band to its selection and uses it as surface radiosity.
The radiative heat flux on a diffuse mirror boundary is zero.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where this boundary condition is
applied.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is the
temperature variable in the heat transfer physic interface or 293.15 K in the
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The Radiation Settings, Ambient, and Initial Values sections are the same as
for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation (Boundary Condition).
Prescribed Radiosity
Use the Prescribed Radiosity node to specify radiosity on the boundary for each spectral
band. Radiosity can be defined as blackbody or graybody radiation. A user-defined
surface radiosity expression can also be defined.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where this boundary condition is
applied.
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface. It is used in the blackbody radiation intensity expression.
RADIATION DIRECTION
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Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction.
Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides.
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands in the interface settings, select a Radiation direction for each spectral
bandOpacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal
direction, or Both sides, or None. The Radiation direction defines the radiation direction
for each spectral band similarly as when Wavelength dependence of emissivity is
Constant.
RADIOSITY
Radiosity does not directly affect the boundary condition on the boundary
where it is specified, but rather how that boundary affects others through
radiation.
Select a Radiosity expressionGraybody radiation (the default), Blackbody radiation, or
User defined.
Blackbody Radiation
When Blackbody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a blackbody.
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the interface settings,
it defines J = eb(T) when radiation is defined on one side
or
Ju = eb(Tu) and Jd = eb(Td) when radiation is defined on both sides.
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, it defines for each spectral band
JBi = FEPBi(T)eb(T) when radiation is defined on one side
or
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Graybody Radiation
When Graybody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a graybody.
By default, the Surface emissivity (dimensionless) is defined From material. In this
case, make sure that a material is defined at the boundary level (materials are defined
by default at the domain level). If User defined is selected for the Surface emissivity, enter
another value for .
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the interface settings,
when radiation is defined on one side, define the Surface emissivity to set
J = eb(T), or
when radiation is defined on both sides, define the Material on upside, the Surface
emissivity u, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity d on the upside and
downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and downside is then defined
by Ju = ueb(Tu) and Jd = deb(Td) respectively.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, for all spectral bands,
when radiation is defined on one side for Bi spectral band, define the Surface
emissivity Bito set JBi = FEPBiBieb(T), or
when radiation is defined on both sides for Bi spectral band, define the Material on
upside, the Surface emissivity Bi,u, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity
Bi, d on the upside and downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and
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User Defined
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the interface settings and
Radiosity expression is set to User defined, it sets the surface radiosity expression to
J = J0, which specifies how the radiosity of a boundary is evaluated when that boundary
is visible in the calculation of the irradiation onto another boundary in the model.
Enter a Surface radiosity expression, J0 (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2. When
the Radiation direction is set to Both sides (under Radiation Settings) also define the
surface Radiosity expression J0,u and J0,d on the upside and downside, respectively.
The geometric normal points from the downside to the upside.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,
similar settings are available for each spectral band.
Radiation Group
Add a Radiation Group to a Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface or
any version of a Heat Transfer (ht) interface where the Surface-to-surface
radiation check box is selected.
Select the Use radiation groups check box under Radiation Settings. By
default the check box is not selected, which means that all radiative
boundaries belong to the same radiation group.
The Radiation Group node enables you to specify radiation groups to speed up the
radiation calculations and gather boundaries in a radiation problem that have a chance
to see one another.
When the Use radiation groups check box is selected, the node is automatically added
to the Model Builder and contains all boundaries selected in the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (Boundary Condition), or a Prescribed Radiosity feature.
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When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, the radiation groups are defined per spectral band.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries that belong to the same radiation group.
This selection should contain any boundary that is selected in a Surface-to-Surface
Radiation, a Diffuse Mirror, or a Prescribed Radiosity node and that has a chance to see
one of the boundary that is already selected in the Radiation Group.
RADIATION GROUP
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Constant, the radiation group is valid
for all wavelengths, this is empty.
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, the radiation group is define for all spectral bands by default. Clear
Radiation group defined on spectral band i check boxes to remove Bi spectral band from
this radiation group.
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the source by the source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a point,
Gext,Bi=Fext,Bi Ps,Bi. For directional radiative source Gext,Bi = Fext,Bi q0,s.
The number of spectral bands is defined in the interface settings, in the
Radiation Settings. When only one spectral band is defined, the Bi
subscript in variable names is removed.
in this case.
SOURCE
Select a Source positionPoint coordinate (the default) or Infinite distance. In 3D, Solar
position is also available as an option
Point Coordinate
If Point coordinate is selected, define the Source location xs (SI unit: m) and the Source
power Ps (SI unit: W, default is 0 W). The source radiates uniformly in all directions.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,
set the Source power definition to Blackbody or User defined. When Blackbody is selected,
enter the Source temperature, Ts (SI unit: K, default is 5780K), to define the source
power on the spectral band Bi as Ps,Bi= FEPBi(Ts)Ps where FEPBi(Ts) is the
fractional black body emissive power over Bi interval at Ts. When User defined is
selected, enter an expression to define the source power on each spectral band Bi, Ps,Bi
(SI unit: W, default is 0 W).
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Infinite Distance
If Infinite distance is selected, define the Incident radiation direction is (dimensionless)
and the Source heat flux q0,s (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,
set the Source heat flux definition to Blackbody or User defined. When Blackbody is
selected, enter the Source temperature, Ts (SI unit: K, default is 5780K), to define the
source heat flux on the spectral band Bi as q0,s,Bi= q0,sFEPBi(Ts) where FEPBi(Ts)
is the fractional black body emissive power over Bi interval at Ts. When User defined is
selected, enter an expression to define the source heat flux on each spectral band Bi,
q0,s,Bi (SI unit: W, default is 0 W).
Solar Position
Solar position is available for 3D models. When this option is selected use
it to estimate the external radiative heat source due to the sun. North,
West, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z directions,
respectively.
In the Location table define the:
Latitude, a decimal value, positive in the northern hemisphere; the default is
Greenwich UK latitude, 51.479; as the value is expected to represent degrees and
as the models unit for angles maybe different (SI unit for angle is radian), the value
should be enter without any unit to avoid double conversion;
Longitude, a decimal value, positive at the East of the Prime Meridian; the default is
Greenwich UK longitude, 0.01064; as the value is expected to represent degrees
and as the models unit for angles maybe different (SI unit for angle is radian), the
value should be enter without any unit to avoid double conversion; and
Time zone, the number of hours to add to UTC to get local time; the default is
Greenwich UK time zone, 0.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
T H E S U R F A C E - TO - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N U S E R I N T E R F A C E
181
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
(5-1)
were
is the wavelength in vacuum
2
C 1 = hc0
C 2 = hc0 k
h is the Planck's constant
k is the Boltzmann constant
c0 is the speed of the light in vacuum
The graphs below show the hemispherical spectral emissive power for a blackbody at
5780K (sun black body temperature) and for a black body at 300K. The dotted vertical
lines delimit the visible wavelength (0.4 to 0.7m).
183
eb T d = F T T 0 eb T d = F T T n2 T4
1
F 1 T 2 T =
e T d
--------------------------------------- b
0 b
1
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
0 eb T d =
n 2 T 4
185
When solar radiation is part of the model, it is possible to enhance diffuse-gray surface
model by considering two spectral bands: one for short wavelengths and one for large
wavelengths.
It is interesting to notice that about 97% of the radiated power
from a blackbody at 5800K is at wavelengths of 2.5m or shorter.
from a blackbody at 700K is at wavelengths of 2.5m or longer.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
Solar irradiation,
< 2.5 m
Re-radiation to
surroundings,
> 2.5 m
Wavelength
Figure 5-5: Solar and ambient spectral band approximation of the surface emissivity by a
constant per band emissivity
187
Wavelength
The multiple spectral bands approach is used in cases when the surface emissivity varies
significantly over the bands of interest.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
(5-2)
Gext is the irradiation from external radiation sources (SI unit: W/m2). Gext is the
sum of the products, for each external source, of the external heat sources view
factor by the corresponding source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a
point, Gext=Fext(xs) Ps. For directional radiative source Gext=Fext(is) q0,s.
G ext =
Gext Ps + Gext q0 s
G amb = n 2 F amb T amb is the ambient irradiation. Famb is an ambient view factor
whose value is equal to the fraction of the field of view that is not covered by other
boundaries. Therefore, by definition, 0Famb1 must hold at all points. Tamb is
the assumed far-away temperature in the directions included in Famb.
The radiosity, J, is the sum of the reflected irradiation and the emitted irradiation. For
diffuse-gray surface, J is defined by:
J = G + e b T
where
is the surface reflectivity which is equal to 1- for diffuse-gray surfaces.
is the surface emissivity, a dimensionless number in the range 01.
Diffuse-gray surface hypothesis corresponds to surfaces where is independent on
the radiation wavelength.
4
(5-3)
189
insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the
opposite (radiating) side (see Ref. 4). It resembles a mirror that absorbs all
irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions.
Prescribed radiosity makes it possible to specify graybody radiation. The radiosity
expressions is then eb(T). A user-defined surface radiosity expression can also be
defined.
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface treats the radiosity J as a shape function
unless J is prescribed.
=0 T eb T d
where
(,T) is the hemispherical spectral surface emissivity, a dimensionless number in
the range 01. Diffuse-spectral surface corresponds to a surface where is
dependent on the radiation wavelength and surface temperature.
T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K)
eb,(,T) is the black body hemispherical emissive power defined by Equation 5-1.
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation User Interface assumes that the surface emissivity
and opacity properties are constant per spectral band. It defines N spectral band (N=2
when solar and ambient radiation model is used),
B i = i 1 i i 1..N with 0 = 0 and N =
The surface properties can then be defined per spectral band:
Surface emissivity on Bi: i T = T i 1 i
Ambient irradiation on Bi, assuming that the ambient fractional emissive power
corresponds to these of a blackbody at Tamb:
G amb i =
i1
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
G ext i =
i1
G ext d = F ext i i s q 0 s i
or
G ext i =
i1
G ext d = F ext i i s P s i
191
cos 4r
where is the angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the direction of
the source, and r is the distance from the source. For a source at infinity, the view factor
is given by cos .
In 2D the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by
cos 2r
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
The sun is the most common example of an external radiation source. The position of
the sun is necessary to determine the direction of the corresponding external radiation
source. The direction of sunlight (zenith angle and the solar elevation) is automatically
computed from the latitude, longitude, time zone, date, and time using similar
method as described in Ref. 6. The estimated solar position is accurate for a date
between year 2000 and 2199, due to an approximation used in the Julian Day
calculation.
The zenith angle (zen) and the azimuth (azi) angles of the sun are converted into a
direction vector (isx, isy, isz) in Cartesian coordinates assuming that the North, the
West, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z directions, respectively, in the
model. The relation between azi, zen and (isx, isy, isz) is given by:
is x = cos azi sin zen
is y = sin azi sin zen
is z = cos zen
RADIATION IN AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
193
(5-5)
where
Gm is the mutual irradiation (SI unit: W/m2) arriving from other surfaces in the
modeled geometry,
Gext is irradiation from external sources (SI unit: W/m2).
G amb = F amb e b T amb is the ambient irradiation (SI unit: W/m2), Famb is the
ambient view factor and Tamb is the assumed far-away temperature in the directions
included in Famb. Famb describes the portion of the view from each point that is
covered by ambient conditions. n is the transparent media refractive index. Gm on
the other hand is determined from the geometry and the local temperatures of the
surrounding boundaries.
The following sections derive the equations for Gm, Gext and Gamb for a general 3D
case.
Consider a point x on a surface as in Figure 5-6. Point x can see points on other
surfaces as well as the ambient surrounding. Assume that the points on the other
surfaces have a local radiosity, J', while the ambient surrounding has a constant
temperature, Tamb.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
n' r n r
- J' dS
----------------------------------4
r
S'
The heat flux that arrives from x' depends on the local radiosity J' projected onto x .
The projection is computed using the normal vectors n and n' along with the vector
r , which points from x to x' .
The irradiation from external radiation sources is the sum of the ###
The ambient view factor, Famb, is determined from the integral of the surrounding
surfaces S', here denoted as F', determined from the integral below:
F amb = 1 F ' = 1
n' r n r
- dS
----------------------------------4
r
S'
The two last equations plug into Equation 5-5 to yield the final equation for irradiative
flux.
195
The equations used so far apply to the general 3D case. 2D geometries results in
simpler integrals. For 2D the resulting equations for the mutual irradiation and
ambient view factor are
Gm =
n' r n r
- J' dS
----------------------------------------3
2r
F amb = 1
(5-6)
S '
n' r n r
- dS
----------------------------------------3
2r
S '
where the integral over S ' denotes the line integral along the boundaries of the 2D
geometry.
In axisymmetric geometries, the irradiation and ambient view factor cannot be
computed directly from a closed-form expression. Instead, a virtual 3D geometry must
be constructed, and the view factors evaluated according to Equation 5-6.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
197
B
1
12
2
123
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
1
1
T he R a di a t i o n i n Part i ci p at i n g Med i a
U s e r Inte r f a c e
The Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) user interface (
), found under the Heat
) in the Model Wizard, enables the modeling of radiative
heat transfer inside a participating medium. This interface solves for radiative intensity
field. Solves only for radiation variables. In order to solve for radiation and
temperature, use a Heat Transfer interface.
Transfer>Radiation branch (
When the interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Radiation in Participating Media, Wall, Continuity on Interior Boundary, and Initial Values.
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is rpm.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
199
Refractive Index
Define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating media.
Performance Index
Select a Performance index Pindex from the list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that
modifies the strategy used to define automatic solver settings. The default is 0.4. With
small values, a robust setting for the solver is expected. With large values (up to 1), less
memory is needed to solve the model.
In 3D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions,
respectively. The default is S4.
In 2D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 4, 12, 24, and 40 directions,
respectively.
Discretization Level
Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic to define the
Discretization level.
DISCRETIZATION
200 |
C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
This section is empty for Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) interface which define
the shape functions discretization in Discretization Level..
About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Interface
About Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
Theory for the Heat Transfer User Interfaces
Theory for the Radiation in Participating Media User Interface
Show More Physics Options
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation in
Participating Media User Interface
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
in Participating Media User Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media User Interface has these domain, boundary,
edge, point, and pair nodes available and described here:
Radiation in Participating Media
Continuity on Interior Boundary
Incident Intensity
Opaque Surface
These nodes are described for other interfaces:
Opaque
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,
select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
201
I d
where
I) is the radiative intensity in the direction
T is the temperature
, s and s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients
Ib is the blackbody radiative intensity
is the scattering phase function
The following equation is the blackbody radiation intensity and n is the refractive
index:
2
n T
I b T = ----------------
It also adds the radiative heat source term in the heat transfer equation:
Q r = q r = G 4T 4
DOMAIN SELECTION
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is to
use the heat transfer dependent variable.
ABSORPTION
The default Absorption coefficient (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. The
absorption coefficient defines the amount of radiation, I, that is absorbed by the
medium. If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression.
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
SCATTERING
The default Scattering coefficient s (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. If User
defined is selected, enter another value or expression. The default is 0.
Select the Scattering typeIsotropic, Linear anisotropic, or Polynomial anisotropic. This
provides three options to define the scattering phase function using the cosine of the
scattering angle, 0:
Isotropic (the default) corresponds to the scattering phase function 0 = 1 .
If Linear anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function as
0 = 1 + a 1 0 . Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
If Polynomial anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function
12
0 = 1 +
am Pm 0
m=1
Opaque Surface
The Opaque Surface node is available for The Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Participating Media User Interface version of the Heat Transfer
interface. It is also available for The Radiation in Participating Media User
Interface.
The Opaque Surface node defines a boundary opaque to radiation. The Opaque Surface
node prescribes incident intensities on a boundary and accounts for the net radiative
heat flux, qw, that is absorbed by the surface.
203
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
MODELS INPUTS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is
293.15 K and is used in the black-body radiative intensity expression.
The boundary temperature definition can differ from the that of the
temperature in the adjacent domain.
WA LL SE TTIN GS
Select a Wall type to define the behavior of the wallGray wall or Black wall.
Gray Wall
If Gray wall is selected the default Surface emissivity e value is taken From material (a
material defined on the boundaries). Select User defined to enter another value or
expression. Enter a Diffusive reflectivity d.
Both are dimensionless numbers between 0 and 1 that satisfy the relation dw1.
By default d1w. In this case, an emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no
radiation at all and that all outgoing radiation is diffusely reflected by this boundary.
An emissivity of 1 means that the surface is a perfect black body, outgoing radiation is
fully absorbed on this boundary. If d1w, it means that the wall is not opaque
and that a part of the outgoing radiative intensity goes through the wall without being
reflected nor absorbed.
Radiative intensity (W/m2 in SI units) along incoming discrete directions on this
boundary is defined by
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
d
I i bnd = w I b T + ------ q out
Black Wall
If Black wall is selected, no user input is required and the radiative intensity along the
incoming discrete directions on this boundary is defined by
I i bnd = I b T
Values of radiative intensity along outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.
Incident Intensity
The Incident Intensity node is available for The Heat Transfer with
Radiation in Participating Media User Interface version of the Heat
Transfer interface. It is also available for The Radiation in Participating
Media User Interface.
Use an Incident Intensity node to specify the radiative intensity along incident
directions on a boundary.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
205
INCIDENT INTENSITY
Enter a Boundary radiation intensity Iwall (SI unit: W/m2). This represents the value
of radiative intensity along incoming discrete directions. Values of radiative intensity
on outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.
The components of each discrete ordinate vector can be used in this
expression. The syntax is interfaceIdentifier.sx,
interfaceIdentifier.sy, interfaceIdentifier.sz where
interfaceIdentifier is the physics interface identifier. By default, the
Heat Transfer interface identifier is ht so ht.sx, ht.sy, and ht.sz
correspond to the components of discrete ordinate vectors.
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface.
PAIR SELECTION
When this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
206 |
C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
207
1
-----4
i d i =
------s
4
I i i di
4
I d
where
I is the radiative intensity at a given position following the direction
T is the temperature
, s, s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively
2
n T
I b T = ----------------
(5-7)
Equation 5-7 is the blackbody radiation intensity, and n is the refractive index of the
media
' is the phase function that gives the probability that a ray from the
direction is scattered into the direction. The phase functions definition is material
dependent and its definition can be complicated. It is common to use approximate
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
scattering phase functions that are defined using the cosine of the scattering angle, 0.
The current implementation handles:
Isotropic phase function:
' = 0 = 1
Linear anisotropic phase function:
0 = 1 + a1 0
Polynomial anisotropic up to the 12th order:
12
0 = 1 +
an Pn 0
n=1
G =
where
2
n T
I b T = ----------------
(5-8)
Equation 5-8 is the blackbody radiation intensity and n is the refractive index
w is the surface emissivity, which is in the range [0, 1]
209
wj Ij n j
n j 0
I n
Heat flux divergence can be defined as a function of G and T (see Ref. 1):
Q r = q r = G 4nT 4
In order to couple radiation in participating media, radiative heat flux is taken into
account in addition to conductive heat flux: qqcqr. The heat transfer equation
reads
T p
T
C p ------- + u T = q c + q r + :S ---- ------- ------ + u p + Q
t
T p t
and is implemented using following form:
T p
T
C p ------- + u T = q c + G 4nT 4 + :S ---- ------- ------ + u p + Q
t
T p t
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
Radiative intensity is defined for any direction , because the angular space is
continuous. In order to treat radiative intensity equation numerically, the angular space
is discretized.
The SN approximation provides a discretization of angular space into nNN2 in
3D (or nNN22 in 2D) discrete directions. It consists of a set of directions and
quadrature weights. Several sets are available in the literature. A set should satisfy first,
second, and third moments (see Ref. 1); it is also recommended that the quadrature
fulfills the half moment for vectors of Cartesian basis. Since it is not possible to fulfill
exactly all these conditions, accuracy should be improved when N increases.
Following the conclusion of Ref. 3, the implementation uses LSE symmetric
quadrature for S2, S4, S6, and S8. LSE symmetric quadrature fulfills the half, first,
second, and third moments.
Thanks to angular space discretization, integrals over directions are replaced by
numerical quadratures of discrete directions:
4
I d
wj Ij
j=1
w j I j j i
j=1
211
d
I i bnd = w I b T + ------ q out
s
= I b T I i+ + -----4
wj Ij j i
+
j=1
s
i- I i- = I b T I i- + -----4
w j I j j i
-
j=1
By summing the two above equations and introducing Ii which is equal to I i- and
I i + (which are equal in 2D) we get:
n
s
2 i Ii = 2I b T 2Ii + -----4
w j I j j i + j i
+
j=1
w j I j j i + j i
+
j=1
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
s
i Ii = I b T Ii + -----4
wj Ii j i
(5-9)
j=1
with
1
i = i 1
0
since the z component of Ii is null in 2D.
One can also notice that
4
n2
I d
wj Ij
j=1
n2
wj Ij + wj Ij
-
j=1
wi Ii
(5-10)
j=1
with w i = 2w i .
Using results from Equation 5-9 and Equation 5-10 we can formulate DOM in 2D
using only radiative intensities, Ii , on half of the 3D DOM directions, i , except for
the scattering term. In other expressions than the scattering term, the z component of
the radiative intensities Ii and of the discrete directions i can by ignored (or set to
zero) and the weight wi, multiplied by 2.
213
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C H A P T E R 5 : R A D I A T I O N H E A T TR A N S F E R
Multiphysics by adding turbulence modeling and support for low Mach number
compressible flows. This enables modeling of forced or temperature
gradient-driven flows in both laminar and turbulent regimes. This chapter describes
) in the
the fluid flow groups under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch (
Model Wizard.
In this chapter:
The Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow User Interfaces
Theory for the Laminar Flow User Interface
Theory for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces
References for the Single-Phase Flow, User Interfaces
215
Right-click the Laminar Flow node to add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
216 |
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is spf.
PHYSICAL MODEL
By default the interface uses the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) formulation of the
Navier-Stokes equations. Select Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant
density) formulation.
These dependent variables (fields) are defined for this interfaceVelocity field u
(SI unit: m/s) and its components, and Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).
If required, edit the field, component, and dependent variable names. Editing the
name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the dependent
variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field of the same
type, the fields will share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A new
field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type, or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
T H E L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
217
you deactivate Streamline diffusion, make sure that your model uses P2+P1 elements or
higher.
INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and About Pseudo Time
Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
DISCRETIZATION
218 |
P2+P1 means second-order elements for the velocity components and linear
elements for the pressure field.
P3+P2 means third-order elements for the velocity components and second-order
elements for the pressure field. This can add additional accuracy but it also adds
additional degrees of freedom compared to P2+P1 elements.
Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal (the default) or
Complex for each of the variables in the table.
Show More Physics Options
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
Theory for the Laminar Flow User Interface
Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow User Interface for
all the other settings.
T H E L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
219
PHYSICAL MODEL
For this interface, the Turbulence model type defaults to RANS and the Turbulence model
defaults to k-. This enables the Turbulence Model Parameters section.
TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L P A R A M E T E R S
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.
For this interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, C, k, e, v, and B.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
220 |
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver
The Laminar Flow User Interface
About Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
Theory for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces
Show More Physics Options
For this interface, the Turbulence model type defaults to RANS and the Turbulence model
defaults to Low Reynolds number k-. This enables the Turbulence Model Parameters
section.
T H E L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
221
TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L P A R A M E T E R S
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.
For this interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, C, k, e, and v.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See The Laminar Flow User Interface and The Turbulent Flow, k- User
Interface for all the other settings.
222 |
Interior Wall
Fan
Open Boundary
Flow Continuity
Outlet
Fluid Properties
Grille
Initial Values
Symmetry
Inlet
Volume Force
Interior Fan
Wall
The theory about most boundary conditions is found in P.M. Gresho and
R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method, Volume
2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
T H E L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
223
Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum equations solved by the interface,
except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature. The node also
provides an interface for defining the material properties of the fluid.
For the Turbulent Flow interfaces, the Fluid Properties node also adds the
equations for the turbulence transport equations.
MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been applied.
Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as model input. The
absolute pressure input controls the pressure used to evaluate material properties, but
it also relates to the value of the pressure field. There are usually two ways to calculate
the pressure when describing fluid flow. Solve for the absolute pressure or a pressure
(often denoted gauge pressure) that relates back to the absolute pressure through a
reference pressure.
Using one or the other option usually depends on the system and the equations being
solved for. For example, in a straight incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop
over the modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude less than atmospheric
pressure, which, if included, reduces the chances for stability and convergence during
the solving process for this variable. In other cases, the absolute pressure may be
required to be solved for, such as where pressure is a part of an expression for gas
volume or diffusion coefficients.
The default Absolute pressure pA (SI unit: Pa) is ppref where p defaults to the pressure
variable from the Navier-Stokes equations and pref to 1[atm] (1 atmosphere
101,325 Pa). The default setting is hence consistent with solving for a gauge pressure.
If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, clear the Reference pressure
check box.
224 |
To model an incompressible fluid, set Absolute pressure pA is set to User defined and
enter the desired pressure level in the edit field. The default value is 1[atm].
This makes it possible to use a system-based (gauge) pressure as the
pressure variable while automatically including the reference pressure in
places where it is required, such as for gas flow governed by the gas law.
While this check box maintains control over the pressure variable and
instances where absolute pressure is required within this respective physics
interface, it may not with physics interfaces that it is being coupled to. In
such models, check the coupling between any interfaces using the same
variable.
To define the Absolute Pressure, see the settings for the Heat Transfer in
Fluids node.
FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.
The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick
(such as oil) have a higher viscosity. Select User defined to define a different value or
expression.
Using a built-in variable for the shear rate magnitude, spf.sr, makes it
possible to define arbitrary expressions of the dynamics viscosity as a
function of the shear rate.
MIXING LENGTH LIMIT
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Select how the Mixing length limit lmix,lim (SI unit: m) is definedAutomatic (default)
or Manual:
If Automatic is selected, the mixing length limit is automatically evaluated as the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for example, a
complicated system of slim entities, this measure can give too big a result. In this
case, it is recommended that it is defined manually.
Select Manual to define a different value or expression. The default is 1 (that is, one
unit length of the model unit system).
DISTANCE EQUATION
Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
incompressible flow equation. Use it, for example, to incorporate the effects of gravity
in a model.
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u
T
+ u u = pI + u + u + F
t
If several volume force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equations.
VO L U M E F O R C E
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3). The defaults for all
components are 0 N/m3.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.
COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and
the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.
In the Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence variables
are also specified. By default these are specified using the predefined
variables defined by the expressions in Initial Values.
For the k- and Low Reynolds number k- turbulence models, also define the Turbulent
kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/
s3). The default values are spf.kinit and spf.epinit.
For the Low Reynolds number k- turbulence model, define the Reciprocal wall distance
G (SI unit: 1/m). The default is spf.G0.
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Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid flow
condition at a wall.
No Slip (the default for laminar flow, and the Low Reynolds number k- turbulence
model)
Slip
Sliding Wall
Moving Wall
Leaking Wall
In addition to the Slip condition, the following are also available for a k- turbulence
model:
Wall Functions (the default for turbulent flow with a k- turbulence model)
Sliding Wall (Wall Functions)
Moving Wall (Wall Functions)
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Slip
Sliding Wall
Moving Mesh User Interface
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall (and for the Low
Reynolds number k-turbulence model). The condition prescribes u = 0, that is, that
the fluid at the wall is not moving.
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Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, un. It hence implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer
develops. From a modeling point of view, this may be a reasonable approximation if
the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.
Sliding Wall
The Sliding wall boundary condition is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor
belt; that is, the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to
actually move in the coordinate system.
For 3D models, enter the components of the Velocity of the sliding wall uw
(SI unit: m/s). If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall,
COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its
magnitude is adjusted to be the same as the magnitude of the vector
entered.
Moving Wall
If the wall moves, so must the fluid. Hence, this boundary condition prescribes
u = uw. Enter the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s).
Specifying this boundary condition does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to
be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference
frame.
Leaking Wall
Use this boundary condition to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or leaving
through a perforated wall u = ul. Enter the components of the Fluid velocity ul
(SI unit: m/s).
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Wall Functions
The Wall functions boundary condition applies wall functions to solid walls in a
turbulent flow. Wall functions are used to model the thin region near the wall with
high gradients in the flow variables.
The Moving wall (wall functions) boundary condition applies wall functions to a wall in
a turbulent flow with prescribed velocity uw. Enter the component values or
expressions for the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
For the No Slip, Moving Wall, and Leaking Wall boundary conditions, select an option
from the Apply reaction terms on: listAll physics (symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables. The other types of wall boundary conditions with constraints use Individual
dependent variables constraints only.
Select the Use weak constraints check box (not available for the Sliding Wall condition)
to use weak constraints and create dependent variables for the corresponding Lagrange
multipliers.
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Inlet
The Inlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid flow
condition at an inlet. The Velocity boundary condition is the default.
In most cases the inlet boundary conditions are available, some of them
slightly modified, in the Outlet type as well. This means that there is
nothing in the mathematical formulations to prevent a fluid from leaving
the domain through boundaries where the Inlet type is specified.
Select a Boundary condition for the inletVelocity (the default), Pressure, No Viscous
Stress, Laminar Inflow, or Normal Stress.
After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with the same
name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a Velocity
section displays where further settings are defined for the velocity.
For the Velocity, Pressure, no viscous stress, and Normal stress sections, also
enter the turbulent flow settings as described in More Boundary
Condition Settings for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces.
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VE L O C I T Y
The Velocity boundary condition is available for the Inlet and Outlet boundary nodes.
Select Normal inflow velocity (the default) to specify a normal inflow velocity
magnitude u = nU0 where n is the boundary normal pointing out of the domain.
Enter the velocity magnitude U0 (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
If Velocity field is selected, it sets the velocity equal to a given velocity vector u0 when
u = u0. Enter the velocity components u0 (SI unit: m/s) to set the velocity equal to
a given velocity vector.
Also enter the turbulent flow settings as described in More Boundary Condition
Settings for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces.
PRESSURE, NO VISCOUS STRESS
The Pressure, no viscous stress boundary condition is available for the Inlet and Outlet
boundary nodes. It specifies vanishing viscous stress along with a Dirichlet condition
on the pressure. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa.
Also enter the turbulent flow settings as described in More Boundary Condition
Settings for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces.
NORMAL STRESS
The Normal stress boundary condition is available for the Inlet, Outlet, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress nodes. Enter the magnitude of Normal stress f0 (SI
unit: N/m2). This implicitly specifies that p f 0 . The default is 0 N/m2.
Also enter the turbulent flow settings as described in More Boundary Condition
Settings for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces.
LAMINAR INFLOW
The Laminar inflow boundary condition is available for the Inlet node.
Select a flow quantity for the inletAverage velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Entrance pressure.
When Average velocity is selected, enter an Average velocity Uav (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.
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If Flow rate is selected, enter the Flow rate V0 (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
If Entrance pressure is selected, enter the Entrance pressure pentr (SI unit: Pa) at the
entrance of the fictitious channel outside of the model. The default is 0 Pa.
Then for any selection, specify the entrance length and constraints:
Enter the Entrance length Lentr (SI unit: m) to define the length of the inlet channel
outside the model domain.
The Entrance length value must be large enough so that the flow can reach
a laminar profile. For a laminar flow, Lentr should be significantly greater
than 0.06ReD, where Re is the Reynolds number and D is the inlet length
scale (this formula is exact if D is the diameter of a cylindrical pipe and
approximate for other geometries). For turbulent flow the equivalent
expression is 4.4Re1/6D. The default is 1 m.
Select the Constrain outer edges to zero (for 3D models) or Constrain endpoints to
zero (for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models) check box to force the laminar profile to
go to zero at the bounding points or edges of the inlet channel. Otherwise the
velocity is defined by the boundary condition of the adjacent boundary in the
model. For example, if one end of a boundary with a laminar inflow condition
connects to a slip boundary condition, then the laminar profile has a maximum at
that end.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Outlet
The Outlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid flow conditions
at an outlet. The Pressure, no viscous stress boundary condition is the default. Other
options are based on individual licenses. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the
Navier-Stokes equations is not a trivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting
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BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the outletPressure, No Viscous Stress (the default),
Velocity, No Viscous Stress, Pressure, Laminar Outflow, or Normal Stress.
Pressure
The Pressure boundary condition prescribes only a Dirichlet condition for the pressure
p = p0. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary.
While this boundary condition is flexible and seldom produces artifacts
on the boundary (compared to Pressure, no viscous stress), it can be
numerically unstable. Theoretically, the stability is guaranteed by using
streamline diffusion for a flow with a cell Reynolds number Recuh
21 (h is the local mesh element size). It does however work well in
most other situations as well.
No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the outlet. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the outlet
and must at least be combined with pressure constraints on adjacent points.
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3
u + u T n = 0
using the compressible and the incompressible formulation respectively.
This condition can be useful in some situations because it does not impose
any constraint on the pressure. A typical example is a model with volume
forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard to prescribe in
advance. To make the model numerically stable, combine this boundary
condition with a point constraint on the pressure.
Laminar Outflow
This section displays when Laminar outflow is selected as the Boundary condition. Select
a flow quantity to specify for the inlet:
If Average velocity is selected, enter an Average velocity Uav (SI unit: m/s).
If Flow rate is selected, enter the Flow rate V0 (SI unit: m3/s).
If Exit pressure is selected, enter the Exit pressure pexit (SI unit: Pa) at the end of the
fictitious channel following the outlet.
Then specify the Exit length and Constrain endpoints to zero parameters:
Enter the Exit length Lexit (SI unit: m) to define the length of the fictitious channel
after the model domain.
The Exit length value must be large enough so that the flow can reach a
laminar profile. For a laminar flow, Lexit should be significantly greater
than 0.06ReD, where Re is the Reynolds number and D is the outlet
length scale (this formula is exact if D is the diameter of a cylindrical pipe
and approximate for other geometries). For turbulent flow the equivalent
expression is 4.4Re1/6D. The default is 1 m.
Select the Constrain outer edges to zero (3D models) or Constrain endpoints to zero (2D
models) check box to force the laminar profile to go to zero at the bounding points or
edges of the inlet channel. Otherwise the velocity is defined by the boundary condition
of the adjacent boundary in the model. For example, if one end of a boundary with a
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Laminar inflow condition connects to a Slip boundary condition, then the laminar
profile has a maximum at that end.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
required.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds a boundary condition that describes symmetry boundaries in
a fluid flow simulation. The boundary condition for symmetry boundaries prescribes
no penetration and vanishing shear stresses. The boundary condition is a combination
of a Dirichlet condition and a Neumann condition:
u n = 0,
pI + u + u T 2
--- u I n = 0
u n = 0,
pI + u + u T n = 0
for the compressible and the incompressible formulation respectively. The Dirichlet
condition takes precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are
equivalent to the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible
formulation:
u n = 0,
K K n n = 0
K = u + u T n
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BOUNDARY SELECTION
Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node adds boundary conditions that describe boundaries that are
open to large volumes of fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on
boundaries with this type of condition.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Select a Boundary condition for the open boundariesNormal Stress (the default) or
No Viscous Stress. These options are described for the Inlet and Outlet nodes,
respectively
Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a very general
class of conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.
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BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the boundary stressGeneral stress (the default),
Normal Stress (described for the Inlet node), or Normal stress, normal flow.
General Stress
When General stress is selected, enter the components for the Stress F (SI unit: N/
m2).The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a given stress F:
pI + u + u T 2
--- u I n = F
3
pI + u + u T n = F
using the compressible and the incompressible formulation respectively.
This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is
u n
p = 2 ---------- n F
n
(6-1)
on the boundary:
pI + u + u T 2
--- u I n = f 0 n,
3
pI + u + u T n = f 0 n,
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tu = 0
tu = 0
(6-2)
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PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
When Incompressible flow is selected as the Compressibility under the Physical Model
section for the interface, this section is available.
Enter a value or expression for the pressure difference, psrcpdst (SI unit: Pa). This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the flow in a fully developed channel flow.
The default is 0 Pa.
To set up a periodic boundary condition select both boundaries in the
Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set
the destination selection, add a Destination Selection node to the Periodic
Flow Condition node. All destination sides must be connected.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Fan
Use the Fan node to define the flow direction (inlet or outlet) and the fan parameters
on exterior boundaries. Use the Interior Fan node for interior boundaries.
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FLOW DIRECTION
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, enter the Input pressure pinput (SI unit: Pa)
to define the pressure at the fan input. The default is 0 Pa.
When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, enter the Exit pressure pexit (SI unit: Pa)
to define the pressure at the fan outlet. The default is 0 Pa.
For either flow direction, select a Static pressure curve to specify a fan curveLinear
(the default), Static pressure curve data, or User defined.
Linear
For both Inlet and Outlet flow directions, if Linear is selected, enter values or
expressions for the Static pressure at no flow pnf (SI unit: Pa) (the default is 100 Pa)
and the Free delivery flow rate V0,fd (SI unit: m3/s) (the default is 0.01 m3/s).
The static pressure curve is equal to the static pressure at no flow rate
when V00 and equal to 0 when the flow rate is larger than the free
delivery flow rate.
User Defined
Select User defined to enter a different value or expression for the Static pressure curve.
The flow rate across the selection where this boundary condition is applied is defined
by phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the physics interface identifier (for example,
phys_id is spf by default for laminar single-phase flow). In order to avoid unexpected
behavior, the function used for the fan curve is the maximum between the user defined
function and 0.
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defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static Pressure Curve
Interpolation section.
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA
This section is available when Static pressure curve data is selected as the Static pressure
curve. In the table, enter values or expressions the Flow rate and Static pressure curve
This section is available when Static pressure curve data is selected as the Static pressure
curve. Select the Interpolation function typeLinear (the default), Piecewise cubic, or
Cubic spline.
The extrapolation method is always a constant value. In order to avoid problems with
an undefined function, the function used for the boundary condition is the maximum
between the interpolated function and 0. Then specify the Units for the Flow rate and
the Static pressure curve.
UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve data is selected as the Static pressure
curve. Select Units for the Flow rate (the default SI unit is m3/s) and Static pressure
curve (the default SI unit is Pa).
Interior Fan
The Interior Fan node represents interior boundaries where a fan condition is set using
the fan pressure curve to avoid an explicit representation of the fan. The Interior Fan
defines a boundary condition on the slit. That means that the pressure and the velocity
can be discontinuous across this boundary.
One side represents a flow inlet; the other side represents the fan outlet. The fan
boundary condition ensures that the mass flow rate is conserved between its inlet and
outlet:
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inlet
u n +
u n = 0
outlet
This boundary condition acts like a Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary condition
on each side of the fan. The pressure at the fan outlet is fixed so that the mass flow rate
is conserved. On the fan inlet the pressure is set to the pressure at the fan outlet minus
the pressure drop due to the fan. The pressure drop due to the fan is defined by the
static pressure curve, which is usually a function of the flow rate. To define a fan
boundary condition on an exterior boundary, use the Fan node instead.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
Define the Flow direction by selecting Along normal vector (the default) or Opposite to
normal vector. This defines which side of the boundary is considered the fans inlet and
outlet.
After a boundary is selected, an arrow displays in the Graphics window to
indicate the selected flow direction. To update the arrow if the selection
changes, click any node in the Model Builder and then click the Interior fan
node again to update the Graphics window.
The rest of the settings for this section are the same as for the Fan node.
See Linear, Static Pressure Curve Data, and User Defined for details.
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Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition includes a set of boundary conditions describing
the fluid flow condition at an interior wall.
It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except
that it applies on both sides of an internal boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure, or turbulence) across the boundary. Use the Interior Wall boundary condition
to avoid meshing thin structures by using no-slip conditions on interior curves and
surfaces instead. You can also prescribe slip conditions and conditions for a moving
wall.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. The interior wall condition
can only be applied to interior boundaries.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall. The condition
prescribes u = 0 on both sides of the boundary; that is, the fluid at the wall is not
moving.
Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, un0. It hence implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects at both sides of the slip wall and hence, no
boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain.
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Moving Wall
If the wall moves, so must the fluid on both sides of the wall. Hence, this boundary
condition prescribes u = uw. Enter the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw
(SI unit: m/s).
Specifying this boundary condition does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to
be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference
frame.
Grille
The Grille node models the pressure drop caused by having a grille that covers the inlet
or outlet.
This node is not available for the Turbulent Flow interfaces. See Fan for
all of the settings for the Laminar Flow interface, except for Quadratic loss,
which is described here.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
If Quadratic loss is selected as the Static pressure curve, enter the Quadratic loss
coefficient to define qlc (SI unit: kg/m7). The default value is 0 kg/m7. qlc defines the
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245
static pressure curve that is a piecewise quadratic function equal to 0 when flow rate is
< 0, equal to V02qlc when flow rate is > 0.
Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity node is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the flow field is continuous across the pair.
A Wall subnode is added by default and it applies to the parts of the pair boundaries
where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination boundary and vice versa.
The Wall feature can be overridden by any other boundary condition that applies to
exterior boundaries. Right-click the Flow Continuity node to add additional subnodes.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
Enter a point constraint for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
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2
3
Open Boundary k = --- I T U ref ,
2
3 4 k3 / 2
= C
----------LT
34
(6-3)
3
2 ---
C 3 I T U ref 2
= ------------ ----------------------------
LT
2
(6-4)
For the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress options, and with any turbulent flow
interface, inlet conditions for the turbulence variables also need to be specified. These
conditions are used on the parts of the boundary where un0, that is, where flow
enters the computational domain.
n = 0
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BOUNDARY CONDITION
248 |
VARIABLE
INLET
OPEN
BOUNDARY
BOUNDARY
STRESS
Turbulent intensity
(dimensionless)
IT
0.05
0.005
0.01
Turbulence length
scale (m)
LT
0.01
0.1
0.1
Reference velocity
scale (m/s)
Uref
VARIABLE
INLET
OPEN
BOUNDARY
BOUNDARY
STRESS
Turbulent kinetic
energy (m2/s2)
k0
0.005
2.5 x 10-3
1 x 10-2
Turbulent
dissipation rate
(m2/s3)
0.005
1.1 x 10-4
1 x 10-3
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In order to prescribe an inlet velocity profile, this boundary condition adds a weak
form contribution corresponding to one-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations
projected on the boundary. The applied condition corresponds to the situation shown
in Figure 6-1: a fictitious domain of length Lentr is assumed to be attached to the inlet
of the computational domain. This boundary condition uses the assumption that flow
in this fictitious domain is fully developed laminar flow. The wall boundary
conditions for the fictitious domain is inherited from the real domain, , unless the
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option to constrains outer edges or endpoints to zero is selected in which case the
fictitious walls will be no-slip walls.
pentr
Lentr
Figure 6-1: An example of the physical situation simulated when using the Laminar
inflow boundary condition. is the actual computational domain while the dashed
domain is a fictitious domain.
If an average inlet velocity or inlet volume flow is specified instead of the pressure,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an ODE that calculates a pressure, pentr, such that the
desired inlet velocity or volume flow is obtained.
Also see Inlet for the node settings.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
Theory for the Normal Stress Boundary Condition
In order to prescribe an outlet velocity profile, this boundary condition adds a weak
form contribution corresponding to one-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations
projected on the boundary. The applied condition corresponds to the situation shown
in Figure 6-2: assume that a fictitious domain of length Lexit is attached to the outlet
of the computational domain. This boundary condition uses the assumption that flow
in this fictitious domain is fully developed laminar flow. The wall boundary
conditions for the fictitious domain is inherited from the real domain, , unless the
251
option to constrains outer edges or endpoints to zero is selected in which case the
fictitious walls will be no-slip walls.
pexit
Lexit
Figure 6-2: An example of the physical situation simulated when using Laminar outflow
boundary condition. is the actual computational domain while the dashed domain is a
fictitious domain.
If the average outlet velocity or outlet volume flow is specified instead of the pressure,
the software adds an ODE that calculates pexit such that the desired outlet velocity or
volume flow is obtained.
NO VISCOUS STRESS
For this module, and in addition to the Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress
Boundary Condition (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual),
the Viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:
u + u T 2
--- u I n = 0
3
u + u T n = 0
using the compressible and the incompressible formulation, respectively.
The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with at pressure point constraints on one
or several points or lines surrounding the outlet.
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This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.
Also see Outlet for the node settings.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
Theory for the Normal Stress Boundary Condition
253
Figure 6-3: A device between two boundaries. The red arrows represent the flow direction,
the cylindrical part represents the device (that should be not be part of the model), and the
two cubes are the domain that are modeled with a particular inlet boundary condition to
account for the device.
In this case, the devices inlet is an external boundary, represented by the external
circular boundary of the green domain on Figure 6-4. The devices outlet is an interior
face situated between the green and blue domains in Figure 6-4. The lumped curve
gives the flow rate as a function of the pressure difference between the external
254 |
boundary and the interior face. This boundary condition implementation specifies
vanishing viscous stress along with a Dirichlet condition on the pressure.
The Fan boundary condition sets the following conditions:
u + u T 2
--- u I n = 0,
3
T
u + u n = 0,
p = p input + p fan V 0
p = p input + p fan V 0
(6-5)
(6-6)
3
T
u + u n = 0,
p = p input p grill V 0
p = p input p grill V 0
(6-7)
(6-8)
where V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pinput is the pressure at the devices
inlet, and pfanV0) and pgrille(V0) are the static pressure functions of flow rate for the
fan and the grille.
Equation 6-5 and Equation 6-7 correspond to the compressible formulation.
Equation 6-6 and Equation 6-8 correspond to the incompressible formulation.
In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define the flow
rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.
255
Figure 6-4: A device at the inlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the device (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an inlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached device.
DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET
In this case (see Figure 6-5), the fans inlet is the interior face situated between the blue
(cube) and green (circle) domain while its outlet is an external boundary, here the
circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a
function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation specifies vanishing viscous stress
along with a Dirichlet condition on the pressure.
The Fan boundary condition sets the following conditions:
u + u T 2
--- u I n = 0,
3
T
u + u n = 0,
p = p ext p fan V 0
p = p ext p fan V 0
(6-9)
(6-10)
3
T
u + u n = 0,
256 |
p = p input + p grill V 0
p = p input + p grill V 0
(6-11)
(6-12)
where V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pext is the pressure at the device outlet,
and pfan(V0), pvacuum pump(V0), and pgrille(V0) are the static pressure function of
flow rate for the fan, the vacuum pump, and the grille.
Equation 6-9, Equation 6-10, and Equation 6-11 correspond to the compressible
formulation.
Equation 6-10, Equation 6-11, and Equation 6-12 correspond to the incompressible
formulation.
In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define the flow
rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.
Figure 6-5: A fan at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the fan (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached fan.
257
= =
1
--- :
2
anm bnm
n m
=
The Laminar Flow interfaces have the following predefined models to prescribe a
non-Newtonian viscositythe power law and the Carreau model.
POWER LAW
= m n 1
(6-13)
where m and n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values. For n1, the power law
describes a shear thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n1, it describes a shear thinning
(pseudoplastic) fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian
fluid.
Equation 6-13 predicts infinite viscosity at zero shear rate. This is however never the
case physically. Instead, most fluids have constant viscosity for shear rates smaller than
10-2 s-1 (Ref. 1). Since infinite viscosity also makes models using Equation 6-13
difficult to solve, COMSOL implements the power law as
= mmax min n 1
(6-14)
where min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
value for min is 10-2 s-1, but it can be changed in the equation view.
258 |
CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau expression gives the viscosity by the following four-parameter equation
n 1
---------------- = + 0 inf 1 + 2 2
(6-15)
where is a parameter with units of time, 0 is the zero shear rate viscosity, inf is the
infinite shear rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is able
to describe viscosity for mostly stationary polymer flow.
259
Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence is a property of the flow field and it is mainly characterized by a wide range
of flow scales: the largest occurring scales, which depend on the geometry, the smallest
quickly fluctuating scales, and all the scales in between. The tendency for an isothermal
flow to become turbulent is measured by the Reynolds number
UL
Re = -----------
(6-16)
where is the dynamic viscosity, the density, and U and L are velocity and length
scales of the flow, respectively. Flows with high Reynolds numbers tend to become
turbulent and this is the case for most engineering applications.
The Navier-Stokes equations can be used for turbulent flow simulations, although this
would require a large number of elements to capture the wide range of scales in the
flow. An alternative approach is to divide the flow in large resolved scales and small
unresolved scales. The small scales are then modeled using a turbulence model with
260 |
the goal that the model is numerically less expensive than resolving all present scales.
Different turbulence models invoke different assumptions on the unresolved scales
resulting in different degree of accuracy for different flow cases.
This module includes Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models which is the
model type most commonly used for industrial flow applications.
REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES (RANS) EQUATIONS
The information below assumes that the flow fluid is incompressible and Newtonian
in which case the Navier-Stokes equations take the form:
T
u
+ u u = pI + u + u + F
t
u = 0
(6-17)
Once the flow has become turbulent, all quantities fluctuate in time and space. It is
seldom worth the extreme computational cost to obtain detailed information about
the fluctuations. An averaged representation often provides sufficient information
about the flow.
The Reynolds-averaged representation of turbulent flows divides the flow quantities
into an averaged value and a fluctuating part,
= +
where can represent any scalar quantity of the flow. In general, the mean value can
vary in space and time. This is exemplified in Figure 6-6, which shows time averaging
of one component of the velocity vector for nonstationary turbulence. The unfiltered
flow has a time scale t1. After a time filter with width t2 t1 has been applied,
there is a fluctuating part, ui, and an average part, Ui. Because the flow field also varies
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
261
on a time scale longer than t2, Ui is still time dependent but is much smoother than
the unfiltered velocity ui.
Figure 6-6: The unfiltered velocity component ui, with a time scale t1, and the averaged
velocity component, Ui, with time scale t2.
Decomposition of flow fields into an averaged part and a fluctuating part, followed by
insertion into the Navier-Stokes equation, then averaging, gives the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations:
U
T
+ U U + u' u' = P + U + U + F
t
U = 0
(6-18)
where U is the averaged velocity field and is the outer vector product. A comparison
with Equation 6-17 indicates that the only difference is the appearance of the last term
on the left-hand side of Equation 6-18. This term represents interaction between the
fluctuating velocities and is called the Reynolds stress tensor. This means that to obtain
the mean flow characteristics, information about the small-scale structure of the flow
is needed. In this case, that information is the correlation between fluctuations in
different directions.
EDDY VISCOSITY
The most common way to model turbulence is to assume that the turbulence is of a
purely diffusive nature. The deviating part of the Reynolds stress is then expressed by
T
u' u' --- trace u' u' I = T U + U
3
262 |
where T is the eddy viscosity, also known as the turbulent viscosity. The spherical part
can be written
If the Reynolds average is applied to the compressible form of the Navier-Stokes, terms
of the form
u
appear and need to be modeled. To avoid this, a density-based average, known as the
Favre average, is introduced:
t+T
1
1
ui = --- lim --- T T
(x,)u i (x,) d
(6-19)
(6-20)
(6-21)
Using Equation 6-20 and Equation 6-21 along with some modeling assumption for
compressible flows (Ref. 8), Equation 6-19 can be written in the form
------ + ------- u i = 0
t x i
u i
u i
u i u j 2 u k
p
-------- + u j -------- = ------- + ------- -------- + -------- --- --------- ij u j u i + F i
t
x j
x i x j x j x i 3 x k
(6-22)
The Favre-averaged Reynolds stress tensor is modeled using the same argument as for
incompressible flows:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
263
u i u j 2 u k
(6-23)
t
k
(6-24)
264 |
(6-25)
2
----- + u = + ------ + C 1 --- P C 2 ----
k
k k
t
(6-26)
The model constants in Equation 6-23, Equation 6-24, and Equation 6-26 are
determined from experimental data (Ref. 2) and the values are listed in Table 6-2.
TABLE 6-2: MODEL CONSTANTS
CONSTANT
VALUE
0.09
C1
1.44
C2
1.92
1.0
1.3
Equation 6-24 and Equation 6-26 cannot be implemented directly as written. There
is, for example, nothing that prevents division by zero. The equations are instead
implemented as suggested in Ref. 10. The implementation includes an upper limit on
lim :
the mixing length, l mix
3/2
k
lim
l mix = max C ----------- l mix
(6-27)
REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
265
k 2
T ----------------------3 S ij S ij
(6-28)
(6-29)
Combining equation Equation 6-28 with Equation 6-23 and the definition of the
mixing length gives a limit on the mixing length scale:
k
l mix 2
--- ------------------3 S ij S ij
(6-30)
Equivalently, combining Equation 6-29 with Equation 6-23 and Equation 6-27 gives:
1
k
l mix ------- ------------------6 S ij S ij
(6-31)
This means there are two limitations on lmix: the realizability constraint and the
imposed limit via Equation 6-27.
The effect of not applying a realizability constraint is typically excessive turbulence
production. The effect is most clearly visible in stagnation points. To avoid such
artifacts, the realizability constraint is always applied for the RANS models. More
details can be found in Ref. 5, Ref. 6, and Ref. 7.
MODEL LIMITATIONS
The k- turbulence model relies on several assumptions, the most important of which
is that the Reynolds number is high enough. It is also important that the turbulence is
in equilibrium in boundary layers, which means that production equal dissipation.
These assumptions limit the accuracy of the model because they are not always true. It
does not, for example, respond correctly to flows with adverse pressure gradients that
can result in under-predicting the spatial extension of recirculation zones (Ref. 2).
Furthermore, in the description of rotating flows, the model often shows poor
agreement with experimental data (Ref. 3). In most cases, the limited accuracy is a fair
266 |
The flow close to a solid wall is for a turbulent flow and is very different compared to
the free stream. This means that the assumptions used to derive the k- model are not
valid close to walls. While it is possible to modify the k- model so that it describes the
flow in wall regions (see The Low Reynolds Number k- Turbulence Model), this is
not always desirable because of the very high resolution requirements that follow.
Instead, analytical expressions are used to describe the flow at the walls. These
expressions are known as wall functions.
The wall functions in COMSOL Multiphysics are such that the computational domain
is assumed to start a distance w from the wall (see Figure 6-7).
Mesh cells
Solid wall
Figure 6-7: The computational domain starts a distance w from the wall for wall
functions.
The distance w is automatically computed so that
+ = u
w
w
where uC1/4k is the friction velocity, which becomes 11.06. This corresponds to
the distance from the wall where the logarithmic layer meets the viscous sublayer (or
to some extent would meet if there was not a buffer layer in between). w is limited
from below so that it never becomes smaller than half of the height of the boundary
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
267
The default initial values for a stationary simulation are (Ref. 10),
268 |
u=0
p=0
10 2
k = ------------------------------lim
0.1 l mix
3/2
C k init
= ---------------------lim
0.1 l mix
lim is the mixing length limit. For time dependent simulations, the initial value
where l mix
for k is instead
2
k = ------------------------------ 0.1 l lim
mix
SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
The k- equations are derived under the assumption that the flow has a high enough
Reynolds number. If this assumption is not fulfilled, both k and will have very small
magnitudes and chaotically in the manner that the relative values of k and can change
relatively much just because of small changes in the flow field.
A time-dependent simulation of a turbulent flow can include a period when the flow
is not fully turbulent. A typical example is the startup phase when for example an inlet
velocity or a pressure difference is gradually increased. To sort out numerical
fluctuations in k and during such periods, the default time-dependent solver for the
k- model employs unscaled absolute tolerances for k and . The tolerances are set to
k scale = 0.01U scale 2
3/2 L
scale = 0.09k sclae
fact l bb min
(6-32)
where Uscale and Lfact are input parameters available in the Advanced section of the
physics interface node. Their default values are 1 ms and 0.035 respectively. lbb,min is
the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. Equation 6-32 is closely related to
the expressions for k and on inlet boundaries (see Equation 6-37).
The practical implication of Equation 6-32 is that variations in k and smaller than
kscale and scale respectively, will be regarded will be regarded as numerical noise.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
269
k
t
T
(6-33)
where
2
2
P k = T u: u + u T --- u 2 --- k u
3
3
k2
T = f C -----
5 R t 200 2
*
2
-e
f = 1 e l 14 1 + ----------
R t3 / 4
f = 1 e l
3.1 2
(6-34)
1 0.3e Rt 6.5
2
l * = u l w R t = k 2 u = 1 / 4
and
C 1 = 1.5 C 2 = 1.9 C = 0.09 k = 1.4 = 1.4
(6-35)
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the low Reynolds number k- model. The solution to the
wall distance equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects
270 |
larger than lref is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref will effectively
be diminished by appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable
feature in turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on
the solution if the wall distance were measured exactly.
The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Transient study step.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
The Wall Distance User Interface
Stationary with Initialization
Transient with Initialization
Wall Distance Initialization
WAL L B O UN D A R Y C ON D I TIO N S
The damping terms in the equations for k and allows a no slip condition to be applied
to the velocity, that is u0.
Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k0 on the wall.
The correct wall boundary condition for is
2 k n 2
where n is the wall normal direction. That condition is however numerically very
unstable. Instead, is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and the
analytical relation
k
= 2 --- ----2
lw
(6-36)
is prescribed in those cells. Equation 6-36 can be derived as the first term in a series
expansion of
2 k n 2
For the expansion to be a valid, it is required that
l c* 0.5
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
271
l c* is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Dimensionless distance to cell center is available
to ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe though that it is unlikely that a
solution is obtained at all if
l c* 0.5
I N L E T VA L U E S F O R T H E TU R B U L E N C E L E N G T H S C A L E A N D I N T E N S I T Y
The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the low-Reynolds number k- model.
INITIAL VALUES
The low-Reynolds number k- model has the same default initial guess as the standard
lim replaced by l .
k- model (see Initial Values) but with l mix
ref
The default initial value for the wall distance equations (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2lref.
In some cases, specially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using an ordinary k- model and then use that solution as initial guess
for the low-Reynolds number k- model. The procedure is then as follows:
1 Solve the model using the k- model.
2 Switch to the low-Reynolds number k- model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
The low-Reynolds number k- model uses absolute scales of the same type as the k-
model (see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations).
S=
272 |
2S ij S ij =
2 ij ij
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
If inlet data for the turbulence variables are not available, crude approximations for k
and can be obtained from the following formulas:
2
3
k = --- U I T
2
(6-37)
3 4 k3 / 2
C ----------LT
lw = lw l*
TABLE 6-3: TURBULENT LENGTH SCALES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
FLOW CASE
LT
Mixing layer
0.07L
Layer width
Plane jet
0.09L
Wake
0.08L
Wake width
Axisymmetric jet
0.075L
l w 1 exp l w 26
Outer layer
0.09L
0.07L
Boundary layer
thickness
Pipe radius or
channel half width
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
273
2
3
k = --- I T U ref ,
2
34
3
2 ---
C 3 I T U ref 2
= ------------ ---------------------------- ,
LT
2
I T U ref
3
--- -------------------------2 0* 1 / 4 L T
For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.
Also see Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.
274 |
The default iterative solver for the turbulence transport equations is GMRES
accelerated by Geometric Multigrid. The default smoother is SOR Line.
Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Multigrid
Stationary Solver
Iterative
SOR Line
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
275
276 |
12. K. Abe, T. Kondoh, and Y. Nagano, A New Turbulence Model for Predicting
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Separating and Reattaching FlowsI. Flow Field
Calculations, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 37, no. 1, pp.
139151, 1994.
13. M. Vzquez, M. Ravachol, F. Chalot, and M. Mallet, The Robustness Issue on
Multigrid Schemes Applied to the Navier-Stokes Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent, Incompressible and Compressible Flows, International Journal for
Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol. 45, pp. 555579, 2004.
R E FE RE N C E S FO R T H E S I N G L E - P H A SE F L OW, U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
277
278 |
279
280 |
TURBULENCE
MODEL TYPE
TURBULENCE
MODEL
HEAT TRANSPORT
TURBULENCE MODEL
None
N/A
N/A
RANS
k-
Kays-Crawford
C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
TABLE 7-1: THE NON-ISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT
SETTINGS*
USER INTERFACE (NITF)
TURBULENCE
MODEL TYPE
TURBULENCE
MODEL
HEAT TRANSPORT
TURBULENCE MODEL
RANS
Low
Reynolds
number k-
Kays-Crawford
None
N/A
N/A
RANS
k-
Kays-Crawford
RANS
Low
Reynolds
number k-
Kays-Crawford
*For all the interfaces, the Neglect initial term (Stokes flow) check box is not selected
by default.
Figure 7-1: On the left is the settings window for the Non-Isothermal Flow, Turbulent Flow
interface. You can model laminar and turbulent flow, or Stokes flow, in combination with
A B O U T T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
281
heat transfer. On the right is the settings window for the Conjugate Heat Transfer,
Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds k- interface. Choose to model laminar and turbulent flow
in combination with heat transfer.
The next sections are a brief overview of each of the interfaces.
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W, TU R B U L E N T F L O W
A B O U T T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
283
There are different versions of the Conjugate Heat Transfer, Turbulent Flow
interfaces, and each use the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations,
solving for the mean velocity field and pressure, along with the k- model. The
Turbulent Flow, k- and Turbulent Flow Low Re k-User Interfaces (
) are used to
model flows that are relatively fast-moving and/or geometries that change significantly
to induce disorder, vortices, and eddies. The interfaces are set up assuming that
temperature and energy transport are also an important part of the system and
application, and must be coupled or connected to the fluid-flow in some way. Process
or component cooling are classic examples.
Each interface includes added functionality for calculating the added dispersion of heat
transfer due to turbulence. This is represented by one of the Kays-Crawford or
Extended Kays-Crawford Turbulence heat transport models, or by including your own
turbulent Prandtl number.
284 |
C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is nitf.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
PHYSICAL MODEL
286 |
C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
RADIATION SETTINGS
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values are 0
m/s for the velocity, 0 Pa for the pressure, and 293.15 K for the temperature. The
names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a model.
For turbulence modeling and heat radiation, there are additional dependent variables
for the turbulent dissipation rate, turbulent kinetic energy, reciprocal wall distance, and
surface radiosity.
DISCRETIZATION
Select a Discretization of fluidsP1+P1 (the default), P2+P1, or P3+P2. The first term
describes the element order for the velocity components, and the second term is the
order for the pressure. The element order for the temperature is set to follow the
velocity order, so the temperature order is 1 for P1+P1, 2 for P2+P1, and 3 for P3+P2.
Select a Surface radiosityLinear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic (2D
axisymmetric and 2D models only).
Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal (the default) or
Complex.
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
The consistent stabilization methods are applicable to the Heat and flow equations.
The Isotropic diffusion inconsistent stabilization method can be activated for both
the Heat equation and the Navier-Stokes equations.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
288 |
C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The default Turbulence model for the Turbulent flow, k- interface is k-. For the
Turbulent flow, Low Re k- interface it is Low Reynolds number k-.
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
For all the turbulent interfaces, the default Turbulence model type is RANS and the
default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford. Other Heat transport
turbulence model options are Extended Kays-Crawford or User-defined turbulent Prandtl
number.
The Extended Kays-Crawford model requires a Reynolds number at infinity. That input is
given in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid feature node.
It is always possible to specify a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl number.
Enter the user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number in the
Model Inputs section of the Fluid feature node.
TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L P A R A M E T E R S
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values are 0
m/s for the velocity, 0 Pa for the pressure, and 293.15 K for the temperature. The
names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a model.
For turbulence modeling and heat radiation, there are additional dependent variables
for the transported turbulence properties and also a dependent variable for Reciprocal
wall distance if the Low-Reynolds number k- model or Spalart-Allmaras model is
employed.
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The consistent stabilization methods are applicable to the Heat and flow equations
and the Turbulence Equations.
When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, enter a Tuning parameter Ck for
one or both of the Heat and flow equations and Turbulence Equations. The default for
the Heat and flow equations is 0.5, and 1 for the Turbulence equations.
The Isotropic diffusion inconsistent stabilization method can be activated for the Heat
equation, Navier-Stokes equations, and the Turbulence equations.
By default there is no isotropic diffusion selected. If required, select the Isotropic
diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter id for one or all of Heat equation,
Navier-Stokes equations, or Turbulence equations. The defaults are 0.25.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.
About Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
Show More Physics Options
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes Settings for the
NITF User Interfaces
Turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow Theory
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes Settings for the
NITF User Interfaces
All the versions of the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces have
shared domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair physics features based on the selections
made for the model.
Also because these are all multiphysics interfaces, almost every physics node is shared
with, and described for, other interfaces. Below are links to the domain, boundary,
edge, point, and pair physics as indicated.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,
select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
These features are described in this section:
Fluid
Symmetry, Flow
Initial Values
Symmetry, Heat
Interior Wall
Viscous Heating
Open Boundary
Wall
Pressure Work
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
These features are described for the Single Phase Flow interface (listed in alphabetical
order):
Boundary Stress
Outlet
Interior Fan
Flow Continuity
Inlet
Volume Force
Interior Wall
These physics are described for the Heat Transfer interface (listed in alphabetical
order):
Boundary Heat Source
Outflow
Continuity
Heat Flux
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Source
Temperature
Thermal Contact
Thermal Insulation
Fluid
The Fluid node adds both the momentum equations and the temperature equation but
without volume forces, heat sources, pressure work, or viscous heating. You can add
volume forces and heat sources as separate features, and Viscous Heating and Pressure
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section controls both the variable as well as any property value (reference
pressures) used when solving for pressure. There are usually two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow and mass and heat transfer. Solve for the absolute
pressure or a pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates back to the absolute
pressure through a reference pressure.
Using one or the other option usually depends on the system and the
equations being solved for. For example, in a straight incompressible flow
problem, the pressure drop over the modeled domain is probably many
orders of magnitude less than atmospheric pressure, which, if included,
reduces the chances for stability and convergence during the solving
process for this variable. In other cases, the absolute pressure may be
required to be solved for, such as where pressure is a part of an expression
for gas volume or diffusion coefficients.
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The default Absolute pressure p (SI unit: Pa) is Pressure (nitf/fluid). The Reference
pressure check box is selected by default and the default value of pref is 1[atm]
((101,325 Pa).
This makes it possible to use a system-based (gauge) pressure as the
pressure variable while automatically including the reference pressure in
places where it is required, such as for gas flow governed by the gas law.
While this check box maintains control over the pressure variable and
instances where absolute pressure is required within this respective physics
interface, it may not with physics interfaces that it is being coupled to. In
such models, check the coupling between any interfaces using the same
variable.
HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter other values or expressions in
the field or matrix.
The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q and
the temperature gradient T as in q = kT which is Fouriers law of heat conduction.
Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.
When the turbulence model type is set to RANS, the conductive heat flux includes the
turbulent contribution: q = k+TI)T where k is the thermal conductivity tensor, I
the identity matrix and T the thermal turbulent conductivity defined by
Cp T
T = -------------Pr T
THERMODYNAMICS
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
Gas/Liquid
If Gas/Liquid is selected as the Fluid type, properties of a non-ideal gas or liquid can be
used.
By default the Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)), and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) use values From
material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Ideal Gas
If Ideal gas is selected as the Fluid type, the ideal gas law is used to describe the fluid.
For an ideal gas the density is defined in the following equation where pA is the
absolute pressure, and T the temperature:
pA
Mn pA
= ---------------- = ----------RT
Rs T
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Mean molar
mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). In both cases, the default uses data From material. Select
User defined to enter other values or expressions. If Mean molar mass is selected, the
universal gas constant R 8.314 J/(molK), which is a built-in physical constant, is
also used.
Select an option from the Specify Cp or listHeat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless). For both options, the
default uses the value From material. Select User defined to enter another value or
expression.
For an ideal gas, you choose to specify either Cp or , but not both since
they are, in that case, dependent.
When using the ideal gas law to describe a fluid, specifying is enough to
evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air, 1.4 is the
standard value. Most liquids have 1.1 while water has 1.0. is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the results and analysis variables for
heat fluxes and total energy fluxes. It is also used in the ideal gas law.
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Moist Air
If Moist air is selected as the Fluid type, the thermodynamics properties are defined as
a function of the quantity of vapor in the moist air. Select an Input quantity:
Vapor mass fraction (the default) (SI unit: dimensionless, (kg of water vapor) /
(total mass in kg = kg of dry air + kg of water vapor))
Concentration (SI unit: mol/m3)
This section is not available if Moist air is selected as the Fluid type.
The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids have a
shear-rate dependent viscosity. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include yoghurt,
paper pulp, and polymer suspensions.
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses values From material. Or select User
defined to use a built-in variable for the shear rate magnitude, spf.sr, which makes it
This option is available with the CFD Module or the Heat Transfer
Module plus the Microfluidics Module.
If Non-Newtonian power law is selected, enter the Power law model parameter m and
Model parameter n (both dimensionless). This selection uses the power law as the
viscosity model for a non-Newtonian fluid where the following equation defines
dynamic viscosity:
= m max min n 1
where is the shear rate and min is a lower limit for the shear rate evaluation. min
is per default 110-2 1s.
This option is available with the CFD Module or the Heat Transfer
Module plus the Microfluidics Module.
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---------------- = + 0 inf 1 + 2 2
M I X I N G L E N G T H L I M I T ( TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L S O N L Y )
This section is available for the k- model, which needs an upper limit on
the mixing length.
Select a Mixing length limitAutomatic (the default) or Manual.
If Automatic is selected, the mixing length limit is automatically evaluated as:
lim = 0.5l
l mix
bb
(7-1)
where lbb is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is for
example a complicated system of very slender entities, Equation 7-1 tends to give a
lim manually.
result that is too large. Then define l mix
lim
If Manual is selected, enter a value or expression for the Mixing length limit l mix
(SI unit: m).
D I S T A N C E E Q U A T I O N ( TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L S O N L Y )
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
l ref = 0.1l bb
(7-2)
where lbb is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is for
example a complicated system of very slender entities, Equation 7-1 tends to give a
result that is too large. Then define l ref manually.
If Manual is selected, enter a value or expression for the Reference length scale l ref
(SI unit: m).
Wall
For laminar flow, the low Reynolds number k- turbulence model, the Wall node is
identical to the single-phase flow settings (the Boundary condition defaults to No slip).
In these cases, continuity of the temperature is enforced on internal walls separating a
fluid and solid domain.
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External wall
Outflow
Inflow
Internal wall
Fluid
Solid
Figure 7-2: A simple example that includes both an external wall and an internal wall.
If a temperature is prescribed to an external wall, the constraint is applied to the wall
temperature Tw.
Any other heat boundary condition applied to an external wall is wrong
in the sense that it acts on the fluid temperature, Ts, instead of the wall
temperature, Tw.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
When using the k- turbulence model, the Boundary condition defaults to Wall
functions. The other options available are Slip, Sliding wall (wall functions), and Moving
wall (wall functions).
If any one of these options are selectedWall functions, Sliding wall (wall functions), or
Moving wall (wall functions)the wall functions for the temperature field is also
prescribed, which is called a thermal wall functions.
If Sliding wall (wall functions) is selected, enter the coordinates for the Velocity of
sliding wall uw (SI unit: m/s).
If Moving wall (wall functions) is selected, enter the coordinates for the Velocity of
moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s).
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as
possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained
by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the turbulence
model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow User Interfaces.
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
Interior Wall
For laminar flow, the low Reynolds number k- turbulence model, the Interior Wall
node is identical to the single-phase flow settings (the Boundary condition defaults to
No slip). In these cases, continuity of the temperature is enforced across internal walls
separating two fluid domains.
When using the k- turbulence model, the Boundary condition defaults to Wall
functions. The other options available are Slip, and Moving wall (wall functions).
If any one of these options are selectedWall functions or Moving wall (wall functions)
the wall functions for the temperature field is also prescribed, which is called a thermal
wall functions.
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
If Moving wall (wall functions) is selected, enter the coordinates for the Velocity of
moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s).
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as
possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained
by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the turbulence
model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow User Interfaces.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field, the pressure, and
temperature that can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver. For turbulent flow there are also initial values for
the turbulence model variables.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s),
the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values are
0 m/s for the velocity, 0 Pa for the pressure, and 293.15 K for the temperature.
For turbulence models, default initial values for the turbulence variables, defined for
each turbulence model in Theory for the Turbulent Flow User Interfaces, are applied.
Open Boundary
Use the Open Boundary node to set up heat and momentum transport across
boundaries where both convective inflow and outflow can occur. The node specifies a
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
fluid flow condition, together with an exterior temperature to be applied on the parts
of the boundary where fluid flows into the domain.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Boundary Condition list, choose a fluid flow condition for the open boundary
the boundaries to apply the open boundary condition. Select
Select Normal stress (the default) and enter the normal stress f0 (SI unit: N/m2).
This implicitly specifies that p f0
Select No viscous stress to prescribe a vanishing normal viscous stress on the
boundary.
E X T E R I O R TE M P E R A T U RE
Enter a value or expression for the external temperature (SI unit: K).
Pressure Work
Right-click the Heat Transfer in Solidsor Fluid node to add this subnode.
When added under a Heat Transfer in Solids node, the Pressure Work node adds the
following term to the right-hand side of the Heat Transfer in Solids equation:
T ----- S el
t
(7-3)
T p t
The software computes the pressure work using the absolute pressure.
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
(7-4)
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. By default, the selection is the
same as for the parent node to which it is attached (Heat Transfer in Solidsor Fluid
node).
P RE S S U RE WO R K
For the Heat Transfer in Solids model, enter a value or expression for the Elastic
contribution to entropy Ent (SI unit: Jm3K)). The default is 0 Jm3K).
For the Fluid model, select a Pressure work formulationFull formulation (the default),
or Low Mach number formulation. The latter excludes the term u p from
Equation 7-4, which is small for most flows with a low Mach number.
Viscous Heating
The Viscous Heating subnode adds the following term to the right-hand side of the heat
transfer in fluids equation:
:S
(7-5)
Here is the viscous stress tensor and S is the strain rate tensor. Equation 7-5
represents the heating caused by viscous friction within the fluid.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. By default, the selection is the
same as for the Fluid node that it is attached to.
Symmetry, Heat
The Symmetry, Heat node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries.
This boundary condition is similar to a Thermal Insulation condition, and it means
that there is no heat flux across the boundary.
If you apply a Symmetry, Heat feature to a boundary adjacent to a fluid domain, you
should also consider adding a Symmetry, Flow node to that boundary since physically,
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
you cannot have symmetry in the temperature without having symmetry in the velocity
and pressure as well.
The symmetry condition only applies to the temperature field. It has no
effect on the radiosity (surface-to-surface radiation) and on the radiative
intensity (radiation in participating media).
BOUNDARY SELECTION
In most cases, the node does not require any user input. If required,
define the symmetry boundaries.
Symmetry, Flow
The Symmetry, Flow node adds a boundary condition that describes symmetry
boundaries in a fluid flow simulation. The boundary condition for symmetry
boundaries prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear stresses. The boundary
condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a Neumann condition:
u n = 0,
pI + u + u T 2
--- u I n = 0
u n = 0,
pI + u + u T n = 0
for the compressible and the incompressible formulation respectively. The Dirichlet
condition takes precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are
equivalent to the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible
formulation:
u n = 0,
K K n n = 0
K = u + u T n
If you apply a Symmetry, Flow feature to a boundary, the boundary should also be
supplemented with a Symmetry, Heat node because it is not possible to have symmetry
in the velocity and pressure without having symmetry in the temperature as well.
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BOUNDARY SELECTION
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W U S E R
------ + u = 0
t
2
u
------- + u u = p + u + u T --- u I + F
3
t
where
is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas)
F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is
T
T p
C p ------- + u T = q + :S ---- ------- ------ + u p + Q
t
T p t
where in addition to the quantities above
Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kgK))
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(7-6)
T p t
and the viscous heating term
:S
are not included by default because they are commonly negligible. These can, however,
be added as subnodes to the Fluid node. For a detailed discussion of the fundamentals
of heat transfer in fluids, see Ref. 3.
The interface also supports heat transfer in solids:
T
E
C p ------- = q T ------- + Q
t
t
where E is the elastic contribution to entropy (SI unit: J/(m3K)).
As in the case of fluids, the pressure work term
E
T ------t
is not included by default but must be added as a subfeature.
The Heat Equation
Turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow Theory
References for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
User Interfaces
T H E O R Y F O R T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
309
T
T = ------
where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as
T = T + T''
With these notations the equation for total internal energy, e, becomes
u i u i u i''u i'' u i u i u i''u i''
----- ---------- + ------------------- + ------- u j h + ----------- + u j ------------------- =
e+
t
2
2 x j
2
2
u j''u i''u i''
-
(7-7)
(7-8)
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
1 u k 2
u i''u'' j = T ij = 2 T S ij --- --------- ij --- k ij
3 x k 3
(7-9)
(7-10)
The correlation between u j'' and h'' in Equation 7-7 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is model analogous to the laminar conductive heat flux
T C p T
T
u j''h'' = q T j = T ------- = -------------- ------x j
Pr T x j
(7-11)
(7-12)
Inserting Equation 7-8, Equation 7-9, Equation 7-10, Equation 7-11 and
Equation 7-12 into Equation 7-7 gives
u i u i
----- u i u i
2
2
t
T k
-
----- q q T j + + ------ ------- + ------- u i ij + T ij
x j j
k x j
x j
(7-13)
The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 7-9, can be written
-----
p
u i + ------- u j u i = ------- + ------- ij + T ij
x j
t
x j x j
(7-14)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
311
Taking the inner product between u i and Equation 7-14 results in an equation for the
resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 7-13 with the
following result:
u j
----
e + k + ------- u j e + k = p -------- +
x j
t
x j
T k
-
x j
k x j x j
(7-15)
-----
(7-16)
u j
T
-----
Tot
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C H A P T E R 7 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
(7-17)
2 u k
Tot
ij
= + T 2S ij --- --------- ij
3 x k
Equation 7-17 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation and can be
expanded using the same theory (see for example Ref. 3):
T
p
T
T p
C p ------- + u j ------- = ------- + T ------- + ij S ij ---- ------- ------ + u j -------
t
x j
x j
x j
x j
T
t
p
which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.
TU R B U L E N T C O N D U C T I V I T Y
Kays-Crawford
This is a relatively exact model for PrT, still simple. In Ref. 4, it is compared to other
models for PrT and found to be good for most kind of turbulent wall bounded flows
except for liquid metals. The model is given by
Cp T 2
1
0.3 C p T
Pr T = ----------------- + ------------------ -------------- 0.3 -------------- 1 e 0.3C p T
2Pr
Pr T
1
(7-18)
Pr T
Extended Kays-Crawford
Weigand and others (Ref. 5) suggested an extension of Equation 7-18 to liquid metals
by introducing
100
Pr T = 0.85 + ------------------------------0.888
C p Re
where Re, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.
TE M P E R A T U R E WA L L F U N C T I O N S
Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions described for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain of the fluid also for the temperature field. This gap is often
ignored in so much that it is ignored when the computational geometry is drawn.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
313
The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:
C p C 1 / 4 k 1 / 2 T w T f
q wf = ---------------------------------------------------------T+
where is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, C is a turbulence modeling
constant, and k is the turbulent kinetic energy. T is the dimensionless temperature
and is given by (Ref. 6):
+ +
for w
w1
+
Pr w
2 / 3 500
----------
T + = 15Pr
+
+ + +
for w1
w
w2
w2
Pr
+ +
----- ln w
+ +
for w2
w
where in turn
w C 1 / 2 k
+ = -----------------------------w
+ = 10 10 ------- w2
Pr T
10 + = ----------- w1
Pr 1 / 3
Cp
Pr = ---------
Pr T
2
Pr T
where in turn is the thermal conductivity, and is the von Karman constant equal to
0.41.
The computational result should be checked so that the distance between the
computational fluid domain and the wall, w, is almost everywhere small compared to
any geometrical quantity of interest. The distance w is available as a variable on
boundaries.
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R E F E R E N C E S F O R T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R U S E R I N T E R F A C E S
315
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Glossary
This Glossary of Terms contains application-specific terms used in the Heat
Transfer Module software and documentation. For information about terms
relating to finite element modeling, mathematics, geometry, and CAD, see the
glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to more
information about a term, see the Index in this or other manuals.
317
Glossary of Terms
anisotropy The condition of exhibiting properties with different values when
of blood perfusion, metabolism, and external heating. The equation describes heat
transfer in tissue.
blackbody A blackbody is a surface that absorbs all incoming radiation; that is, it does
not reflect radiation. The blackbody also emits the maximum possible radiation.
conduction Heat conduction takes place through different mechanisms in different
translates the heat content in a fluid through the fluid's own velocity.
convection The term convection is used for the heat dissipation from a solid surface
to a fluid, where the heat transfer coefficient and the temperature difference across a
fictitious film describes the flux.
discrete ordinates method This order defines the discretization of the radiative
intensity direction.
emissivity A dimensionless factor between 0 and 1 that specifies the ability of a surface
to emit radiative energy. The value 1 corresponds to an ideal surface, which emits the
maximum possible radiative energy.
heat capacity See specific heat.
highly conductive layer A highly conductive layer is a thin layer on a boundary. It has
much higher thermal conductivity than the material in the adjacent domain. This
allows for the assumption that the temperature is constant across the layers thickness.
318 |
CHAPTER 8: GLOSSARY
The general Heat Transfer physics interface supports heat transfer in highly conductive
layers.
irradiation The total radiation that arrives at a surface.
Navier-Stokes equations The equations for the momentum balances coupled to the
which can be absorbed or reflected on solid surfaces. The Heat Transfer Module
includes surface-to-surface radiation, which accounts for effects of shading and
reflections between radiating surfaces. It also includes surface-to-ambient radiation
where the ambient radiation can be fixed or given by an arbitrary function.
participating media A media that can absorb, emit, and scatter thermal radiation.
radiosity The total radiation that leaves a surface, that is, both the emitted and the
reflected radiation.
specific heat Refers to the quantity that represents the amount of heat required to
change one unit of mass of a substance by one degree. It has units of energy per mass
per degree. This quantity is also called specific heat or specific heat capacity.
specific heat capacity See specific heat.
thin conductive shell Thin means that the shell is thin enough, or has high enough
thermal conductivity, to allow for the assumption that the temperature is constant
across the shells thickness. See also highly conductive layer.
transparent material A transparent body transmits radiative heat flux, that is, the
surface of a transparent body has a transmissivity greater than 0.
thermal conductivity The definition of thermal conductivity is given by Fouriers law,
which relates the heat flux to the temperature gradient. In this equation, the thermal
conductivity is the proportional constant.
G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S
319
320 |
CHAPTER 8: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
1D and 2D models
3D models
spf 223
Brinell hardness 50
advanced settings 9
bulk velocity 55
buoyancy force 55
CFL number
characteristic length 55
Charrons relation 52
Clausius-Clapeyron formulation 42
207
conservation of energy 19
boundary nodes
constraint settings 9
continuity (node)
heat transfer 106
continuity on interior boundary (node)
206
INDEX|
ble 28
domain selection 10
E
crosswind diffusion
definition 39
edge nodes
heat transfer 84
tion method 39
Daltons law 41
del operators 62
edge selection 10
(node) 125
edges
diffuse-spectral 190
temperature 123
iable 272
elevation 193
Dirac pulse 47
emailing COMSOL 12
equation view 9
165
discretization 9
expanding sections 9
documentation 11
domain heat source variable 33
domain nodes
heat transfer 84
heat transfer in porous media 137
ii | I N D E X
theory 54
fluid flow
face 161
Fouriers law 20
frames, moving 68
G
136
theory 66
gap conductance 51
theory 156
tion) 238
selecting 280
Grashof number 55
theory 18
gravity 55
96
Heaviside function 47
193
hide button 9
and 62
INDEX|
iii
Model Library 12
Internet resources 11
tion methods 40
K
radiation 167
232
tion) 235
thermal contact 52
Latitude 180
thermodynamics 88
latitude 193
translational motion 89
face 292
Longitude 180
moving frames 68
longitude 193
condition 230
229, 245
material frame
MPH-files 12
mutual irradiation 194
heat transfer 73
mean effective thermal conductivity 87
mean effective thermal diffusivity 87
iv | I N D E X
nabla operators 62
natural and forced convection 54
dition) 234
non-isothermal flow interface
theory 308
pair selection 10
model 298
normal conductive heat flux variable 29
normal convective heat flux variable 29
normal stress (boundary condition) 232
normal stress, normal flow (boundary
stress condition) 238
Nusselt number 55
phase transitions 97
INDEX|
temperature 124
RANS
Rayleigh number 55
234
Reynolds number 55
RANS.
radiation
axisymmetric geometries, and 166,
193, 197
settings windows 9
show button 9
single-phase flow
radiative conductance 51
radiative heat flux variable 30
radiative heat, theory 36
radiative out-of-plane heat flux variable
28
vi | I N D E X
radiosity 189
heat transfer 18
spatial frame
stabilization settings 9
stabilization techniques
crosswind diffusion 39
static pressure curves 241
strain-rate tensors 113
streamline diffusion, consistent stabilization methods 39
sun position 181
surface emissivity 189
surface-to-ambient radiation (node) 103,
153
260
thermal friction 51
164
theory 194
INDEX|
vii
theory 310
289
219
theory 260
230
terface 289
viii | I N D E X
zenith 193
zero shear rate viscosity 259