Managing compost stability and amendment to soil to enhance soil heating

during soil solarization

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:

Soil solarization is a method of soil heating used to eradicate plant pathogens and weeds that in

Received 22 April 2012

Accepted 14 January 2013
Available online 17 February 2013

volves

Keywords:
Solarization
Heat generation
Compost
Soil amendment
Soil respiration
Phytotoxicity

1. Introduction

passive solar heating of moist soil mulched (covered) with clear plastic tarp. Various types of
organic
matter may be incorporated into soil prior to solarization to increase biocidal activity of the trea
tment
process. Microbial activity associated with the decomposition of soil organic matter may increase
temperatures during solarization, potentially enhancing solarization efcacy. However, the level of or
ganic
matter decomposition (stability) necessary for increasing soil temperature is not well charac
terized,
nor is it known if various amendments render the soil phytotoxic to crops following solarization. L
aboratory studies and a eld trial were performed to determine heat generation in soil amended with
compost during solarization. Respiration was measured in amended soil samples prior to and fol
lowing
solarization as a function of soil depth. Additionally, phytotoxicity was estimated through measure
ment
of germination and early growth of lettuce seedlings in greenhouse assays. Amendment of soi
l with
10% (g/g) compost containing 16.9 mg CO2 /g dry weight organic carbon resulted in soil temperatures
that
were 24 C higher than soil alone. Approximately 85% of total organic carbon within the amended
soil
wa s exhausted during 22 days of solarization. There was no signicant difference in residual respir
ation
with soil depth down to 17.4 cm. Although freshly amended soil proved highly inhibitory to lettuce
seed
germination and seedling growth, phytotoxicity wa s not detected in solarized amended soil after 22
days
of eld solarization.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

warm climate (Stapleton, 2000). However, this period often c

onicts with the growing season. Decreasing solarization durati
on
Solarization is a method for inactivating weed and pat
hogen
propagules in soil without chemical treatment. Solarizatio
n involves mulching (covering) of moist soil with clear plastic she
eting,
resulting in elevated soil temperatures through passive solar
heating that promote thermal inactivation of weeds and pathogens
(Katan et al., 1976). Biological and chemical changes in soil
during
solarization, including microbial community alterations, te
mporary production of biotoxic chemical compounds, and incr
eases
in available plant nutrients, can also be involved (St
apleton,
2000). Solarization is most effective when performed durin
g the

hottest months of the year (Horowitz et al., 1983) in areas

with
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 530 752 0989; fax: +1 530 752 2640.
E-mail addresses: cwsimmons@ucdavis.edu (C.W. Simmons), hyguo@ucdavis
.edu (H. Guo), jtclaypo@iastate.edu (J.T. Claypool), mnm11@psu.edu (M.N. Marshal
l),
kmperano@ucdavis.edu (K.M. Perano), jjstapleton@ucanr.edu (J.J. Stapleton), jsva
nder@ucdavis.edu (J.S. VanderGheynst).
1
Present address: Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Io
wa
State University, Ames, IA 50011-3150, United States.
0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.015

could avoid such infringement. Since relatively small increas ever, biological activity in soil due to microbes is inuenced b
es in
y a
temperature can have a drastic effect on the time necess range of factors, including organic matter stability, soil oxy
ary for
gen
inactivating microbial pathogens (Pullman et al., 1981) and availability, temperature and moisture (Aslam and VanderGheyn
weed
st,
propagules (Egley, 1990), increased soil heating during solariz 2008). Destabilizing soil with organic matter can increase soil te
ation
mmay lessen the time required. Additionally, elevating soil tem perature during solarization as a result of increased soil biologic
al
perature through non-solar means may make solarization viab activity (Komariah et al., 2011). However, various aspects of
le in
this
strategy are not well understood. The relationship between
areas with cooler climates.
Heat generation from biological activity in soil may co soil
mplestability level and elevated heating during solarization has
ment solar heating to raise temperatures during solarization. H not
been studied. Moreover, it is unknown how such soil destabiliz
owaC.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096

1091

tion treatments affect microbial activity in soil following

solarization.
The objectives of this study were to investigate how biolo
gical
activity in soil amended with compost at varying levels of sta
bility
affects heat generation during solarization and to measur
e the
amount of residual biological activity in solarized, amende
d soil
as a function of soil depth. Laboratory studies were conduc
ted in
temperature-controlled incubators to determine compost
stability
and amendment levels needed to achieve elevated soil te
mperature. These studies were followed by a eld experiment to eva
luate
the laboratory observations. Soil biological activity and co
mpost
stability were characterized by measuring respiration. Add
itionally, phytotoxicity of amended soil was measured prior to an
d following solarization via germination and seedling growth assa
ys in
greenhouses.

>6 months in windrows, and varying amounts of autoclave

d wheat
bran. This was done to maintain a consistent microbial in
oculum
associated with the compost while enabling control of
organic
matter (and the potential for biological activity) added to t
he soil.
Wheat bran was selected because its composition is similar
to agricultural residues and municipal solid waste. Green waste c
ompost
was collected on January 21, 2010 from Zamora Compost
in Yolo
County, CA. Compost was air dried under ambient conditio
ns to a
moisture content of 30.2% (dry weight basis), sealed in plas
tic bags,
and stored at room temperature (ca. 2128 C). Food grade
wheat
bran (Giustos Vita Grain, South San Francisco, CA) was aut
oclaved
dry at 121 C for 20 min. The sterile wheat bran (11.7%
moisture
content, dry basis) was then sealed in plastic bags and
stored at
room temperature.

2. Materials and methods

2.2. Soil mixture and microcosm preparation

2.1. Soil and compost preparation

For bioreactor experiments in the laboratory, soil mixture

s were
wetted to 80% of water holding capacity according to Table
1. Wetted soil mixtures were equilibrated overnight at 4 C prior
to bioreactor loading. To prepare soil for eld trial microcos
ms, soil
was wetted to 12% moisture content (wet weight basis) an
d compost and wheat bran were wetted separately to 50% moistu
re content (wet weight basis) the day prior to solarization. Wet
ted soil,

Dry topsoil (Hanford sandy loam) was collected on Ma

y 15,
2010 from the 015 cm depth range at UC Kearney
Agricultural Research and Extension Center (KARE) in Parlier, CA (
36.6N;
119.5W; elevation 97 m a.s.l.), sieved through a 3.18 mm
screen
and stored at room temperature. Varying levels of compost st
ability were achieved by preparing compost mixtures containing
stable green waste compost, produced in mixed and w
atered
windrows to achieve pathogen reduction followed by curin
g for

Table 1
Soil mixtures used for preliminary respiration experiments to determine the
effect of
organic matter amendment on soil biological activity and heat generation.

Treatment

Code

Soil only
100% S
Soil amended with 8% compost
92% S + 8% C

Moisture content
(% dry basis)
12
18

compost, and wheat bran were combined to achieve 90% so

il, 8%
compost, and 2% wheat bran (dry weight basis). Soil mixtures
were
allowed to equilibrate for approximately 12 h under ambient
conditions. Equilibrated soil mixtures were packed into 3.8 L
black
plastic Grow Bags with drainage holes to facilitate moisture
and
gas exchange (neHydro, Southampton, MA) to form microco
sms.
HOBO thermistors connected to HOBO U12 and H8 data log
gers
(Onset Computer, Bourne, MA) were embedded in the cent
er of
each microcosm at a depth 12.7 cm. The diameter and hei
ght of
lled microcosms were 17.8 cm and 17.4 cm, respectively.
2.3. Solarization
The KARE eld site used for soil collection in bioreactor ex
periments was used for conducting the eld experiment. The eld
site
was cropped with sunower in 2007, left fallow in 2008
, and
cropped with a winter forage mix (approximately 50% oats
, 25%
beardless barley, and 25% beardless wheat) in 2009 and
2010.
Cool-season weed covers were present during portions of
each
year. To prepare for the solarization experiment, the eld was
plowed in May 2011 to incorporate the remains of the forage mix.
The
eld was then irrigated, dried down, disced twice, then rotov
ated
to bring soil to seedbed texture. Finally, an orchard oa
t was
passed over the soil to smooth the soil surface sufciently for
plastic lm application. Solid-set sprinklers were placed aroun
d the
plot and the site was irrigated 5, 3, and 1 days prior, as
well as
immediately before the initiation of the experiment. Preexperiment water application totaled approximately 6.5 cm, which
was
sufcient to bring the soil to above eld capacity at depths
sampled in this study.
The eld site was arranged into ve plots. Each plot contai
ned
one microcosm with soil only (not amended) and one microco
sm
with soil amended with compost and wheat bran. Microc
osms
were buried within plots such that the top of the microcosm
was
ush with the soil line. Microcosms were buried 0.6 m apart f
rom
each other with a 0.9 m buffer between microcosms and plot
borders. Microcosms were arranged randomly within each plot. P
lots

were covered with 0.7 mil transparent plastic sheets (Huskey Fil2.4. Respiration measurement
m
Respiration measurements were performed on 100 g sa
Sheeting; Poly-America, Inc., Grand Prairie, TX) and sheet ed
mples
ges
were embedded in soil along plot borders to begin solarizati (dry weight basis) of each soil mixture (Table 1). Samples
were
on.
Temperature was logged every 10 min during solarization. Af placed into 250-mL bioreactors as previously described (May
and
ter
22 days of solarization, microcosms were exhumed from eld plo VanderGheynst, 2001) and wrapped with closed-cell foam
insulats
and stored at 1 C overnight. Microcosms were stored at ambietion. Four replicates were examined for each soil mixture.
HOBO
nt
dT
conditions for approximately 3 h during transport from the e pendant
qbcp temperature loggers (Onset Computer, Bourne, MA) w
ere
ld
site to the laboratory. Upon arrival, microcosms were cut i embedded within one bioreactor from each soil mixture treatm
ent.
nto
5.8 cm sections to isolate soil samples from various depths. Reactors were supplied with air at a rate of 20 mL/min and
subSoil
sections were sealed in plastic bags and stored at 20 C until an jected to a diurnal temperature cycle of 25 C for 8 h and
50 C
alfor 16 h via ambient heating to simulate solarization temperat
ysis of residual respiration and phytotoxicity.
ures.
Soil amended with 8% compo 91% S + 8% C + 1% WB
st
87% S + 8% C + 5% WB
and 1% wheat bran
Soil amended with 8% compo
st
and 5% wheat bran

1092

20
26

Selected to achieve 80% water holding capacity.

Distilled water was added to reactors weekly to maintain i

nitial
moisture contents. Carbon dioxide concentrations in reactor in
uents and efuents were measured using an infrared CO2 s
ensor
(Vaisala, Suffolk, UK) and mass ow rate through reactor
s was
measured using a mass ow meter (Aalborg, Orangeburg, NY).
Car-

C.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096

bon dioxide and mass ow measurements were taken ap cic heat capacity values for dry soil and compost were estimat
proxied
mately every 5 h for each bioreactor.
from standard values for soil and lignocellulosic material, respe
ctively (Irvine et al., 2010). The specic heat capacity of wheat b
2.5. Phytotoxicity assay
ran
Phytotoxicity of amended soil prior to and following sola was estimated from that of rice bran (Sreenarayanan, 1986).
The
rization was assessed using a leaf lettuce germination and s specic heat capacity of each mixture was calculated as the s
eedling
um
growth assay. Freshly wetted, non-amended eld soil and fr of products obtained from multiplying each components speci
eshly
c
heat capacity by the mass fraction (fresh weight basis) of the co
mponent in the mixture. Soil heating was calculated as
prepared eld soil mixed with just compost or with compost q Z t
dt
dt
and
3
0
wheat bran served as controls. Soil samples were mixed w
ith an
equal volume of coarse sand to permit drainage and distri
buted
to plastic seeding trays containing six 2.5 2.3 5.1 cm
wells
each. Leaf lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa var. Parris Island Cos)
(Sustainable Seed Co., Petaluma, CA) were sowed in wells at a de
pth of
1 cm, and with a density of four seeds spaced equidistant
ly per
well. Four trays were prepared for each soil sample. Trays
were
placed in a greenhouse and arranged randomly on germi
nation

mats heated to 37 C. Trays were watered via misters for 1

min
hourly spanning 9 h per day. After 10 days, germination rates w
ere
determined by counting the number of seedlings emerged from t
he
soil for each tray. Samples of seedlings were randomly chosen fr
om
each treatment, harvested, gently washed, weighed, and ph
otographed. Root and shoot length measurements of seedlings w
ere

obtained from photographs using ImageJ (National Institut

where q is the heat added to the soil mixture (J/mL), qb is the bu
es of
Health, Bethesda, MD) software. Seedlings were oven dr
lk
ied at
100 C for 4896 h and dry weight measurements were tak density of the wetted soil mixture (g/mL), cp is the specic h
eat
en on
capacity of the mixture (J/g/C), and T is the temperature of the s
desiccated seedlings.
oil
mixture (C). Temperature change with respect to time was calc
2.6. Data analysis
ulated using the central difference method. Constant specic h
CO2 evolution rate (CER) was calculated for each reactor eat
based
capacity and soil moisture content were assumed, given the te
on mass balances of CO2 at each time point:
mCER FCO2;out CO2;in
1
perature range of solarization, the excess of saturated soil surroun
dwhere F is the mass ow rate of gas through the reactor (mg/
ing the microcosms, and the plastic tarp preventing evaporation.
Statistical analyses were performed using JMP-IN software
day/
g dry weight), and CO2,out and CO2,in are the concentrations o (version 8.0, SAS, Cary, NC). Tukeys Honest Signicant Difference te
f CO2
(%) in the reactor efuent and inuent, respectively. Cum st
(a test for comparing multiple means that adjusts a for each pa
ulative
CO2 evolution (cCER) was determined by integrating CER over tirwise t-test such that a = 0.05 for the entire set of comparisons)
ime.
A saturation model was tted to cCER versus time data using was
used to compare mean values. Response means were compa
KaleidaGraph v. 4.1.0 (Synergy Software, Reading, PA) (Aslam and red
using plots as blocks.
VanderGheynst, 2008):
1

cCER CTtc t

3. Results

where CT is the theoretical maximum amount of CO2 that c 3.1. Respiration and soil temperature in laboratory incubations
an be
Respiration experiments performed on soil amended with com
evolved (mg CO2 /g dry weight), c is a constant describing the le
ngth
post and varying levels of wheat bran showed that soil respirati
of time needed to achieve half of CT (days), and t is time (day
on
s).
increased signicantly with the level of added wheat bran (Fig.
Temperature versus time data were integrated to obtai
1,
n degree-day values. The trapezoidal rule was used to appro Table 3). Total potential cumulative CO2 respiration, represent
ed
ximate
the denite integral between each time point. Cumulati by the estimated value of CT (Eq. (2)), increased proportionally w
ith
ve dethe amount of wheat bran added indicating wheat bran could in
gree-day versus time data were used as an indicator of soil
heating.
duce biological activity in the soil and that the majority of the bi
Specic heat capacity values for soil mixes were estimated
ofrom
logical activity was associated with the decomposition of wh
the specic heat capacities of mixture components (Table 2).
eat
Spebran. While addition of wheat bran signicantly decreased
the
Table 2
time needed for cumulative CO2 evolution to reach half the st
Soil properties used for determining heating during solarization.
eady-state value (as embodied by c in Eq. (2)) compared to
soil
amended with compost alone, amendment with 5% wheat b
ran
did not signicantly affect the estimated value of c compared
to
1% wheat bran.
Soil
mixture

Component

Mass
cp (J/g C)
Mixture Bulk
percentage
cp (J/g C) density
(wet basis) (%)
(g/mL)

Soil

Soil
Water
Soil
Compost
Wheat

88.0
12.0
73.6
6.5
1.6

0.80
4.18

bran
Water

18.2

4.18

Amended
soil

1.21

0.80
0.42
1.30

1.8
1.40

1.7
Fig. 1. Cumulative CO2 respiration in soil mixtures incubated under di
urnal
conditions. Treatments shown are 87% soil + 8% compost + 5% wheat bran
(h),

91% soil + 8% compost + 1% wheat bran (s), 92% soil + 8% compost (x), and 1 ( ). Four replicate bioreactors were examined for each mixture.
00% soil
C.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096
Table 3
Saturation model (Eq. (3)) parameter estimates for soil mixtures under
diurnal
incubation.
Soil mixture

CT (mg CO2 /g dry weight)

c (days)

100% S
92% S + 8% C
91% S + 8% C + 1% WB
87% S + 8% C + 5% WB

N/a
2.05 (0.569)a
9.36 (1.48)b
44.3 (2.19)c

N/a
26.8 (16.7)a
1.81 (0.0760)b
1.72 (0.376)b

Values are given as means with one standard deviation given in parentheses.
n = 4,
except for 100% S, where data did not exhibit sufcient saturation beha
vior for
parameter tting, and 92% S + 8% C, where only two reactors provided data s
uitable
for parameter tting. Within each column, values not connected by the same
letter
are signicantly different ( a = 0.05).

Temperature data indicated that increasing wheat bran am

endment also increased soil heat generation. Temperature differe
nces
among the soil mixture treatments were most pronounced
24 h
following the start of diurnal incubation (Fig. 2). Moreover,
temperature differences were most apparent during the 50 C
period
of incubation. During this period, soil amended with co
mpost
and 5% wheat bran exhibited a peak temperature over 7 C h
igher
than that achieved in soil alone and approximately 5 C higher
than
soil amended with compost and 1% wheat bran. Both treat
ments
with wheat bran amendment achieved temperatures abo
ve the
ambient temperature within the incubator (50 C). The tr
end in
temperature differences was also apparent during the 25 C p
eriod
of incubation, but the spread in temperatures among the
treatments was considerably smaller. After approximately 3 d
ays of
incubation, temperature differences among soil mixture
treatments began to decrease and temperatures in all treatments
converged thereafter. The trend in temperature differen
ces is
consistent with biological activity measured by respiration.
3.2. Respiration from eld solarization soil mixtures
Respiration measurements were performed on soil mix
tures
used in the eld trial (i.e., non-amended soil and soil am
ended
with 8% compost and 2% wheat bran) prior to solarizatio
n. This

1093

amendment level was selected based on laboratory r

esults to
achieve sufcient biological activity for soil heating. As in t
he laboratory respiration experiment, amended soil resulted in
signicantly higher respiration compared to soil alone (Table 4).
Respiration was also measured in amended soil mi
crocosm
depth slices following solarization. Data were used to esti
mate CT
values for soil sections (Table 5). The CT values did
not vary

Table 4
letter are signicantly different ( a = 0.05).
Cumulative respiration saturation model (Eq. (3)) parameter estimates for eld tri
al
soil mixtures prior to solarization.
Soil mixture
100% S
3)a
90% S + 8% C + 2% WB
814)b

CT (mg CO2 /g dry weight)

0.220 (0.0388)a
16.9 (1.78)b

c (days)
8.22 (6.3
1.43 (0.0

Values are given as means with one standard deviation given in parentheses. n
=3
for 100% S due to two reactors not yielding data suitable for parameter estimatio
n.
n = 5 for amended soil. Within each column, values not connected by the s
ame

Table 5
Estimated values for maximum cumulative CO2
evolution in amended soil samples as a function of
depth following solarization.
Depth (cm)

CT (mg CO2 /g dry weight)

05.8
5.911.6
11.717.4

1.93 (0.74)
2.02 (0.43)
2.42 (0.99)

Values are given as means with one standard

deviation given in parentheses. n = 5.

Fig. 3. Average temperature proles for amended soil and soil alone during the
rst
7 days of solarization. (A) Average temperatures of microcosms containin
Fig. 2. Temperature proles in soil mixtures during the rst 3 days of g soil
amended with 8% compost and 2% wheat bran (dry mass basis) (solid li
diurnal
incubation. Points represent the incubator temperature (.), 87% soil + 8 ne) and
microcosms containing only soil (dashed line). (B) Average temperature differ
% comence
post + 5% wheat bran temperature (h), 91% soil + 8% compost + 1% wh
between microcosms with amended soil and soil alone (Tamendedsoil Tsoilalone ).
eat bran
Upper
temperature (s), and 100% soil temperature ( ).
and lower dotted lines represent the average temperature difference plus or m
inus
one standard deviation, respectively. n = 4.
1094

C.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096

signicantly with soil depth ( a = 0.05). Comparing CT value

s estimated for freshly amended, non-solarized soil to the greatest
average CT value observed in solarized soil, at least 85% of respi
ration
potential was expended in the eld during 22 days of solariza
tion.

were signicantly higher in amended soil (p < 0.001 for both co

mparisons). Differences were most pronounced during late eveni
ng,
night, and early morning hours, with amended soil reaching te
mperatures over 2.5 C higher than soil alone within the rst 7 d
ays
of solarization. As the solarization process progressed, differenc
3.3. Heat generation in soil mixtures during eld solarization
es
in temperatures between the two soil treatments became less e
One thermistor failed in the eld and did not yield tempera viture
dent. After approximately 10 days, the maximum temperature e
data. For the remaining thermistors, temperature data ob letained
during solarization were used to calculate temperature differe
nces
between microcosms containing amended soil and microc
osms
containing soil alone within each plot. At the monitored dept
h of
12.7 cm, soil amended with compost and wheat bran ex
hibited
higher temperatures compared to soil alone during the rst 7
days
of solarization (Fig. 3). Both maximum and minimum tempera
tures

vation of amended soil compared to soil alone decreased to l

ess
than 1 C. The average maximum and minimum temperatures
in
microcosms containing amended soil during the rst 7 days
of
solarization were 44.7 and 30.6 C, respectively. Alternately,
the
average maximum and minimum temperatures in microcos
ms
containing non-amended soil were 43.9 and 28.7 C,
respectively.
Heating of soil mixtures during solarization was calculated
as
described in the methods section (Eq. (3), Fig. 4). The data s
how
that amended soil accumulated signicantly more heat t
han
non-amended soil. Likewise, amended soil exhibited signicant
ly
higher degree-day values compared to soil alone. However, the
difference in degree-days in amended soil versus soil alone (Table
6)
did not change signicantly between 7 and 22 days of solarizati
on
Fig. 4. Average heat addition for amended soil and soil alone during the rst
(p = 0.44), suggesting that although amended soil experien
7 days
of solarization. (A) Average heat addition of microcosms containing soil am ced
ended
greater heating compared to non-amended soil, elevated
with 8% compost and 2% wheat bran (dry mass basis) (solid line) and micro
temperacosms
containing only soil (dashed line). (B) Average heat addition difference b tures in amended soil occurred primarily during the rst week
etween
of
microcosms with amended soil and soil alone (qamendedsoil qsoilalone). Up solarization.
per and
lower dotted lines represent the average difference in addition plus or minu
s one
standard deviation, respectively. n = 4.

3.4. Phytotoxicity of soil mixtures prior to and following eld

solarization
Soil amended with stable compost and wheat bran was phyto
toxic immediately following amendment as indicated by signi
cantly reduced lettuce seed germination and seedling gro
wth
compared to non-amended soil or soil amended with just
compost
(Tables 7 and 8). Germination rates did not vary signicantly
by
depth in solarized amended soil samples. For germinated se
edlings, none of the seedling growth parameters measured varied si
gnicantly with soil depth in solarized, amended soil (Table
8).
Seedling shoot length, fresh weight, and dry weight for seedlin
gs
grown in solarized amended soil either exceeded or did not signif
icantly differ from positive controls containing non-amended
soil,
in all depth slices tested. Root lengths for seedlings grown in
the
top 11.6 cm of solarized amended soil did not signicantly di
ffer
from seedlings grown in non-amended soil. However, seedlin
gs
from the depth range of 11.717.4 cm had signicantly sho
rter
root lengths compared to those grown in non-amended soil.
Root

length, fresh weight, and dry weight values were signi ( a = 0.05). n = 4.
cantly
Table 6
Degree-day differences in microcosms during solarization.
Solarization time (days)

Soil treatment

Table 7
Lettuce seed germination rates in solarized amended soil samples and fre
shly
Degree-days (C prepared control soil mixtures.
Soil mixture

day)
7

Solarized

Germinatio

250.9 (0.9) n (%)

100% S

90% S + 8% C + 2% WB, 05.8 cm depth

+
94.0 (3.7)a
90% S + 8% C + 2% WB, 5.911.6 cm depth
+
94.0 (4.6)a
90% S + 8% C + 2% WB, 11.717.4 cm depth
+
95.6 (4.2)a
100% S

86.5 (18.
c
22
90% S + 8% C + 2% WB
835.7 (1.2)d 2)a
92% S + 8% C

87.9 (13.
Values are given as means with one standard error of the mean given in
1)a
90% S + 8% C + 2% WB

45.0 (39.
paren5)b
theses. Within columns, values not connected by the same letter are signi
cantly
Values are given as means with one standard deviation given in parentheses. Valu
different based on Students t-tests of the one-tailed hypothesis that microc
es
osms
a

7
22

90% S + 8% C + 2% WB
100% S

260.9 (0.4)b
821.0 (6.3)

with amended soil experienced greater heating than microcosms with onl not connected by the same letter are signicantly different ( a = 0.05). n = 20.
y soil
C.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096

1095

Table 8
Dimension and weight values for lettuce seedlings grown in solarized amended soil samples and control soil mixtures.
Soil mixture
90% S +
90% S +
90% S +
100% S
92% S +
90% S +

Solarized

8% C + 2% WB, 05.8 cm depth

+
8% C + 2% WB, 5.911.6 cm depth +
8% C + 2% WB, 11.717.4 cm depth+

8% C

8% C + 2% WB

Root length (cm)

Shoot length (cm)

Fresh weight (mg)

Dr y weight (mg)

6.20
6.04
5.65
6.63
7.08
2.68

2.36
2.35
2.33
2.08
1.96
1.64

47.6
46.6
46.3
44.0
53.7
35.4

2.3
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.9
2.1

(1.48)bc
(1.37)bc
(1.29)c
(1.74)ab
(1.46)a
(1.33)d

(0.31)a
(0.37)a
(0.40)a
(0.41)b
(0.41)b
(0.49)c

(8.1)b
(10.2)b
(9.9)b
(9.3)b
(12.5)a
(18.9)c

(1.1)bc
(0.7)bc
(0.7)bc
(0.7)ab
(0.8)a
(1.0)c

Values are given as means with one standard deviation given in parentheses. Values not connected by the same letter are signicantly different ( a = 0.05).
n = 75, except for
the 90% S + 8% C + 2% WB control mixture, where sample size was limited by some trays containing less than 15 seedlings.

greater in the control mixture containing soil amended with c

ompost alone (no wheat bran) compared to solarized, amended
soil.

4. Discussions
Respiration and temperature data obtained from biorea
ctors
showed that biological activity and heat generation in am
ended
soil can be controlled through addition of organic matter. Con
trol
reactors containing non-amended soil, or soil amended with
green
waste compost alone (no wheat bran), exhibited minimal res
piration, indicating that eld soil and green waste compost were h
ighly
stable. On the other hand, the destabilizing addition of wheat
bran
increased respiration potential in compost-amended soil.
Since the
wheat bran was sterilized prior to use, increased respiration
was a
result of bran providing nutrients to soil and compost micr
obial
communities and not from microorganisms present on the bra
n it-

self. Heat generation associated with biological ac

tivity in
amended soil was sufcient to raise temperatures by as
much as
5 C over non-amended soil during simulated solarization in
bioreactors. Temperature increases of this magnitude are agricu
lturally
relevant. For instance, increasing temperature from 46 C t
o 50 C
is sufcient for reducing the time needed for thermal inact
ivation
of seeds from several weed species by 4475%
(Dahlquist et al.,
2007).
Respiration measurements performed on amended so
il mixtures prior to and following eld solarization revealed t
hat the
majority of potential respiration was exhausted du
ring the
22-day solarization treatment. Differences in soil tem
perature
between non-amended and amended treatments were
greatest
during the rst week of solarization, suggesting that most r
espiration occurred during this period. This time scale is compar
able to
that observed in initial bioreactor experiments. In addition,
earlier

work on evolution of biotoxic volatile compounds over ti tion of soil microorganisms. For instance, a 2.5 C incre
ase in
me in
temperature reduced the time required to achieve 99% th
solarized, cabbage residue-amended soil (Gamliel and Stap
ermal
leton,
death in spores of the fungal soil pathogen Plasmodiophora bra
1993) gave similar results.
ssiFollowing the eld experiment, residual respiration in soi
cae by over 75% (Myers et al., 1983). Interestingly, the g
l did
reatest
not vary signicantly from the surface layer down to 1
temperature differences between microcosms with amended
7.4 cm
soil
depth, suggesting that neither oxygen availability nor temper
and those with soil alone were observed during the late
ature
night
limited cumulative respiration over this depth range. As a dec
and early morning hours when ambient temperatures were
rease
coolin respiration might be expected deeper in soil, where oxygen
est. This is in contrast to preliminary bioreactor temperature
condata,
centrations and temperature may be lower, it is possible th
where maximum temperature differences occurred during
at the
the
22-day length of solarization treatment was sufcient for
warmest period of the diurnal incubation cycle. This result
meamay
sured depths to reach equal cumulative respiration. Howe
stem from differences in oxygen availability between the two
ver, it
sysis possible that amended soil at greater depths took longer to r
tems. Bioreactors received continuous ow of ambient air, whe
each
reas
steady-state cumulative respiration compared to soil ne
buried soil gained oxygen only by diffusion from the surface. I
ar the
t is
surface.
likely that when temperatures in the solarized soil were war
Soil amended with compost achieved higher temperatures
mer,
durmicroorganisms consumed oxygen more quickly resulting in o
ing solarization compared to non-amended soil. Temperature
xydifgen limitations and decreased levels of heat generation d
ferences between amended and non-amended soil r
uring
eached
the hottest times of the day. Oxygen may not have been li
approximately 2.5 C daily, at 12.7 cm depth, for the rst
miting
5 days
at cooler temperatures because of lower levels of microbial a
of solarization. Depending upon temperatures reached, such
ctivtemity. This might explain why temperature differences bet
perature differences can have a drastic effect on thermal ina
ween
ctivaamended and non-amended soil were greatest during the
late
night and early morning hours. Moreover, prior work has sh
own
that soil oxygen concentrations can fall to low levels when ex
cess
water at the surface inhibits diffusion (Drew, 1990), a con
dition
similar to that produced by mulching of moist soil with plastic
tarp
during solarization. In an earlier solarization study (Stapleton
and
DeVay, 1984), moist soil that was tarped, but shaded to preve
nt solar heating, exhibited a signicantly increased presence of p
ectolytic enteric bacteria not found in heated soil sugg
esting
development of microaerobic or anaerobic conditions. The sha
ded
treatment provided partial control of targeted soilborne pests,
but
considerably less so than solarization. Whereas bioreactors
may
have had adequate oxygen to support increased respirati
on at
higher temperatures, limited oxygen in microcosms underg
oing
eld solarization may have inhibited aerobic respiration as
temperature increased. Prior research has shown that amend
ment

with organic matter leads to anaerobic conditions during solarizashown that phytotoxic, volatile organic acids (VOAs) are ev
olved
tion as a result of increased microbial activity and that such con during composting and that VOA levels increase with co
dimpost
tions are desirable for control of certain fungal pathogens (Bl instability (Manios et al., 1989) and with soil anaer
obiosis
ok
et al., 2000). Data presented here suggest that elevated soil heat (Poggi-Varaldo et al., 1999). As a result, soil amended with
ing
compost and wheat bran may accumulate more VOA after solariza
may provide an additional mode of inactivation.
Soil was found to be initially phytotoxic to lettuce followi tion
ng
begins due to the plastic tarp inhibiting oxygen diffusion into
amendment with both stable compost and wheat bran. The add the
soil (Klein et al., 2007). A period of volatile compound evol
ition of organic matter rendered the soil mixtures unstable, as ind ution
ican be desirable, as such compounds are often toxic t
cated by respiration data following amendment. Previous work h o soil
pathogens (Gamliel and Stapleton, 1993; Ramirez-Villapudua
as
and
1096

C.W. Simmons et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 10901096

Munnecke, 1988), provided these compounds dissipate fro

m the
soil prior to planting a subsequent crop. In this study, the l
ack of
signicant phytotoxicity in solarized amended soil samples
suggested that phytotoxic compounds, such as VOA, had dissi
pated
from the soil by the end of the 22-day solarization trea
tment.
Although approximately 15% of total respiration potenti
al remained in amended soil following solarization, this level of bi
ological activity did not signicantly decrease seedling germi
nation
and growth compared to plants grown in soil alone. Re
sidual
VOA levels vary with the composition of the materials us
ed for
compost, degree of instability, and other factors. These prope
rties
need to be considered when combining compost amendment
with
soil solarization. However, this study suggested that soil o
rganic
matter levels can be managed to optimize soil heating
during
solarization while minimizing undesirable phytotoxicity follo
wing
treatment.

4.1. Conclusion
Amendment of soil with mature green waste compost dest
abilized with wheat bran increased both soil respiration and soil
temperature during solarization beyond that generated by
solar
heating alone. Under the conditions presented in this study, r
espiration and temperature elevation could be controlled through
the
amount of organic matter in soil and its stability. Foll
owing
22 days of eld solarization, less than 15% of total potential
respi-

ration remained in amended soil samples. Residual respiration d

id
not vary signicantly with soil depth down to 17.4 cm. Altho
ugh
freshly amended soil was inhibitory to leaf lettuce germinat
ion
and seedling growth, factors resulting in subsequent phytotoxici
ty
were eliminated during the solarization process at all soil dep
ths
examined. Amendments containing green waste compost may
be
of value in agricultural soil disinfestations operations.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr. Ruth Dahlquist and Fresno Pacic Univer
sity students Stacy Betts, Katie Hernandez, and Naomi Bogonko,
for
assistance with the solarization eld experiments and Dr. Mich
ael
Raviv at Newe Yaar Research Center at the Agricultural Rese
arch
Organization of Israel, for discussions related to eld experimen
ts.
This work was funded by the United StatesIsrael Binational
Agricultural Research and Development Fund #US-4266-09 R.

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