The Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century but it soon divided into a variety

of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet (-Tsang) was often at leas
t nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments in Lhasa, Shigatse, or
nearby locations; these governments were at various times under Mongol and Chin
ese overlordship. The eastern regions of Kham and Amdo often maintained a more d
ecentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of sma
ll principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling more directly unde
r Chinese rule; most of this area was eventually incorporated into the Chinese p
rovinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally est
ablished in the 18th century.[1]
Following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers
were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area (-Tsang). The region subsequently de
clared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the following Chinese Rep
ublican government.[2] Later Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, C
hina. The region maintained its autonomy until 1951 when, following the Battle o
f Chamdo, Tibet became incorporated into the People's Republic of China, and the
previous Tibetan government was abolished in 1959 after a failed uprising.[3] T
oday, China governs western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region whi
le the eastern areas are now mostly ethnic autonomous prefectures within Sichuan
, Qinghai and other neighbouring provinces. There are tensions regarding Tibet's
political status[4] and dissident groups which are active in exile.[5] It is al
so said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured.[6]
The economy of Tibet is dominated by subsistence agriculture, though tourism has
become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is
Tibetan Buddhism; in addition there is Bn, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism,[
7] though there are also Tibetan Muslims and Christian minorities. Tibetan Buddh
ism is a primary influence on the art, music, and festivals of the region. Tibet
an architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences. Staple foods in Tibet ar
e roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea.
Contents
1 Names
2 Language
3 History
3.1 Tibetan Empire
3.2 Yuan dynasty
3.3 Phagmodrupa, Rinpungpa and Tsangpa Dynasties
3.4 Rise of Ganden Phodrang
3.5 Qing dynasty
3.6 Post-Qing period
3.7 From 1950 to present
4 Geography
4.1 Cities, towns and villages
5 Government
5.1 The theocratic government
6 Economy
6.1 Development Zone
7 Demographics
8 Culture
8.1 Religion
8.1.1 Tibetan Buddhism
8.1.2 Islam
8.1.3 Christianity
8.2 Tibetan art
8.3 Architecture
8.4 Music
8.5 Festivals

8.6 Cuisine
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Names
Main article: Definitions of Tibet
The Tibetan name for their land, Bod
, means "Tibet" or "Tibetan Plateau", although
it originally meant the central region around Lhasa, now known in Tibetan as . Th
e Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, [p
], is transcribed Bh in Tournadre Phonetic
ranscription, B in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan p
inyin. Some scholars believe the first written reference to Bod "Tibet" was the
ancient Bautai people recorded in the Egyptian Greek works Periplus of the Eryth
raean Sea (1st century CE) and Geographia (Ptolemy, 2nd century CE),[8] itself f
rom the Sanskrit form Bhaua of the Indian geographical tradition.[9]
The modern Standard Chinese exonym for the ethnic Tibetan region is Zangqu (Chin
ese: ; pinyin: Zngq), which derives by metonymy from the Tsang region around Shigats
e plus the addition of a Chinese suffix, q, which means "area, district, region,
ward". Tibetan people, language, and culture regardless of where they are from a
re referred to as Zang (Chinese: ; pinyin: Zng), although the geographical term Xzng
is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xzng was coined during
the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor (17961820) through the addit
ion of a prefix meaning "west" ( x) to Zang.
The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo (Chinese: also written as o
r ; pinyin: Tb or Tfn). This name first appears in Chinese characters as in the
tury (Li Tai) and as in the 10th-century (Old Book of Tang describing 608609 emiss
aries from Tibetan King Namri Songtsen to Emperor Yang of Sui). In the Middle Ch
inese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, was prono
unced thux-phjon and was pronounced thux-pjon (with the x representing tone).[10]

Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo (Chinese: ; pinyin: Wsgu; c
Tibetan dbus, , [wy ]), Wusizang (Chinese: ; pinyin: wszng, cf. Tibetan dbus-gt
, Tubote (Chinese: ; pinyin: Tbt), and Tanggute (Chinese: ; pinyin: Tnggt,
ican Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has argued in favor of a recent tendency by so
me authors writing in Chinese to revive the term Tubote (simplified Chinese:
; trad
itional Chinese: ; pinyin: Tbt) for modern use in place of Xizang, on the grounds th
Tubote more clearly includes the entire Tibetan plateau rather than simply the
Tibet Autonomous Region.[citation needed]

The English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century.[11] Historical
linguists generally agree that "Tibet" names in European languages are loanwords
from Semitic bat orTbtt (
) (, ), itself deriving from Turkic Tbd;
.[12]
Language
Main article: Standard Tibetan
Linguists generally classify the Tibetan language as a Tibeto-Burman language of
the Sino-Tibetan language family although the boundaries between 'Tibetan' and
certain other Himalayan languages can be unclear. According to Matthew Kapstein:
From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembl
es Burmese among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with o
ther apparently related languages spoken in the Himalayan lands, as well as in t
he highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists
have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages.

More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of
a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and
Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.[13]
Tibetan family in Kham attending a horse festival.
The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually int
elligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and Bhutan and is also
spoken in parts of Nepal and northern India, such as Sikkim. In general, the dia
lects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby are
as are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimes
e, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political
reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type
languages are included in the calculation then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by ap
proximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken
by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to I
ndia and other countries.
Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, ba
sed on Classical Tibetan, is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the
long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended
at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from north
ern Pakistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in the east, and from north of Qi
nghai Lake south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has its own script which
it shares with Ladakhi and Dzongkha, and which is derived from the ancient Indi
an Brhm script.[14]
Starting in 2001, the local deaf sign languages of Tibet were standardized, and
Tibetan Sign Language is now being promoted across the country.
History
Main article: History of Tibet
Further information: History of European exploration in Tibet, Neolithic Tibet a
nd Foreign relations of Tibet
King Songtsn Gampo
Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago.[15] This populat
ion was largely replaced around 3,000 BP by Neolithic immigrants from northern C
hina. However, there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inh
abitants and the contemporary Tibetan populations.[15]
The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the Zhang Zhung culture as a peop
le who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of Guge in west
ern Tibet.[16] Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the Bn religi
on.[17] By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the Yarlung valle
y, and the Yarlung king, Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the
Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bn priests from Yarlung.[18] He was assassi
nated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed
by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to Songtsn Gampo, the kings of Tibet
were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of thei
r existence.[19]
Tibetan Empire
Main article: Tibetan Empire
Map of the Tibetan empire at its greatest extent between the 780s and the 790s C
E
The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule of Songtsn Gampo (604650 CE) w
ho united parts of the Yarlung River Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He a
lso brought in many reforms and Tibetan power spread rapidly creating a large an
d powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Pr
incess of Nepal, Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in establishment of

Buddhism in Tibet. In 640 he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the powerfu
l Chinese emperor Taizong of Tang China.[20]
Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state relig
ion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia, w
hile major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Tang's ca
pital Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in late 763.[21] However, the Tibetan occupation o
f Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang
and its ally, the Turkic Uyghur Khaganate.
The Kingdom of Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibet
an control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and help
ed the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.[22]
In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general Gao Xianzhi, w
ho tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir.
By 750 the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to th
e Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Arabs and Qarluqs at the B
attle of Talas (751) and the subsequent civil war (755), Chinese influence decre
ased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.
At its height in the 780's to 790's the Tibetan empire reached its highest glory
when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern day Afghanistan
, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzst
an, Tajikistan.
In 821/822 CE Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this
treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribe
d on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.[23] Tibet
continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century, when a civil war
over succession led to the collapse of imperial Tibet. The period that followed
is known traditionally as the Era of Fragmentation, when political control over
Tibet became divided between regional warlords and tribes with no dominant centr
alized authority.
Yuan dynasty
Main articles: Mongol conquest of Tibet and Tibet under Yuan administrative rule
The Mongolian Yuan dynasty, c. 1294 and its client state Goryeo in modern Korea.
Tibet in 1734. Royaume de Thibet ("Kingdom of Tibet") in la Chine, la Tartarie C
hinoise, et le Thibet ("China, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet") on a 1734 map by Jea
n Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.
Mitchells 1864 map of Tibet and China.
Tibet in 1892 during the Manchu Qing dynasty.
The Mongolian Yuan dynasty, through the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs,
or Xuanzheng Yuan, ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department. On
e of the department s purposes was to select a dpon-chen ( great administrator )
, usually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the Mongol emperor in Beijing.[
24] The Sakya lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political author
ity of the region, while the dpon-chen held administrative and military power. M
ongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the
region existed under the administration of the Yuan dynasty. If the Sakya lama e
ver came into conflict with the dpon-chen, the dpon-chen had the authority to se
nd Chinese troops into the region.[24]
Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, whil
e the Mongols managed a structural and administrative[25] rule over the region,
reinforced by the rare military intervention. This existed as a "diarchic struct
ure" under the Yuan emperor, with power primarily in favor of the Mongols.[24] M
ongolian prince Khuden gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsored
Sakya Pandita, whose seat became the capital of Tibet.

Yuan control over the region ended with the Ming overthrow of the Yuan and Tai S
itu Changchub Gyaltsen s revolt against the Mongols.[26] Following the uprising,
Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and sought to redu
ce Yuan influences over Tibetan culture and politics.[27]
Phagmodrupa, Rinpungpa and Tsangpa Dynasties
Main articles: Phagmodrupa Dynasty, Rinpungpa and Tsangpa
Further information: Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty
Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded
the Phagmodrupa Dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of the Gelug s
chool (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples of Je Tsongkhapa, and the fou
nding of the important Ganden, Drepung and Sera monasteries near Lhasa. However,
internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs
and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. Th
e minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated poli
tics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse
which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following deca
des and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect.
Rise of Ganden Phodrang
Main article: Ganden Phodrang
In 1578, Altan Khan of the Tmed Mongols gave Sonam Gyatso, a high lama of the Gel
ugpa school, the name Dalai Lama, Dalai being the Mongolian translation of the T
ibetan name Gyatso "Ocean".[28]
The 5th Dalai Lama is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control
of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rival Kagyu and Jo
nang sects and the secular ruler, the Tsangpa prince, in a prolonged civil war.
His efforts were successful in part because of aid from Gshi Khan, the Oirat lead
er of the Khoshut Khanate. With Gshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5
th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is refe
rred to by historians as the Lhasa state. This Tibetan regime or government is a
lso referred to as the Ganden Phodrang.
Qing dynasty
Main article: Tibet under Qing administrative rule
The Qing dynasty placed Amdo under their control in 1724, and incorporated easte
rn Kham into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.[29] Meanwhile, the Qing gov
ernment sent a resident commissioner, called an Amban, to Lhasa. In 1750 the Amb
ans and the majority of the Han Chinese and Manchus living in Lhasa were killed
in a riot, and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next
year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted
military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of
political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters
of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure
and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as
ruler, leading a government called Kashag,[30] but elevated the role of Amban t
o include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time
the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding off
icials recruited from the clergy to key posts.[31]
For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792 the Qing Qianlong Emper
or sent a large Chinese army into Tibet to push the invading Nepalese out. This
prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time th
rough a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government i
n Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also establi
shed near the Nepalese border.[32] Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various
stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regula
tions were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners authority; but there was

no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.[33]

In 1834 the Sikh Empire invaded and annexed Ladakh, a culturally Tibetan region
that was an independent kingdom at the time. Seven years later a Sikh army led b
y General Zorawar Singh invaded western Tibet from Ladakh, starting the Sino-Sik
h War. A Qing-Tibetan army repelled the invaders but was in turn defeated when i
t chased the Sikhs into Ladakh. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of
Chushul between the Chinese and Sikh empires.[34]
As the Qing dynasty weakened, its authority over Tibet also gradually declined a
nd by the mid 19th century its influence was minuscule. Qing authority over Tibe
t had become more symbolic than real by the late 19th century,[35][36][37][38] a
lthough in the 1860s the Tibetans still chose for reasons of their own to emphas
ize the empire s symbolic authority and make it seem substantial.[39]
This period also saw some contacts with Jesuits and Capuchins from Europe, and i
n 1774 a Scottish nobleman, George Bogle, came to Shigatse to investigate prospe
cts of trade for the British East India Company.[40] However, in the 19th centur
y the situation of foreigners in Tibet grew more tenuous. The British Empire was
encroaching from northern India into the Himalayas, the Emirate of Afghanistan
and the Russian Empire were expanding into Central Asia and each power became su
spicious of the others intentions in Tibet.
Ragyapas, an outcast group, early 20th century. Their hereditary occupation incl
uded disposal of corpses and leather work.
In 1904, a British expedition to Tibet, spurred in part by a fear that Russia wa
s extending its power into Tibet as part of The Great Game, invaded the country,
hoping that negotiations with the 13th Dalai Lama would be more effective than
with Chinese representatives.[41] When the British-led invasion reached Tibet, a
n armed confrontation with the ethnic Tibetans resulted in the Massacre of Chumi
k Shenko,[42] after which Francis Younghusband imposed a treaty in 1904 known as
the Treaty of Lhasa, which was subsequently repudiated and was succeeded by a 1
906 treaty[43] signed between Britain and China.
In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own under Zhao Er
feng to establish direct Manchu-Chinese rule, and in an imperial edict deposed t
he Dalai Lama, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan milit
ary conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama s forces from the province. However
, his actions were unpopular, and there was much animosity against him for his m
istreatment of civilians and disregard for local culture.
Post-Qing period
Main article: Tibet (19121951)
After the Xinhai Revolution (191112) toppled the Qing dynasty and the last Qing t
roops were escorted out of Tibet, the new Republic of China apologized for the a
ctions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama s title.[44] The Dalai
Lama refused any Chinese title, and declared himself ruler of an independent Tib
et.[45] In 1913, Tibet and Mongolia concluded a treaty of mutual recognition.[46
] For the next 36 years, the 13th Dalai Lama and the regents who succeeded him g
overned Tibet. During this time, Tibet fought Chinese warlords for control of th
e ethnically Tibetan areas in Xikang and Qinghai (parts of Kham and Amdo) along
the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.[29] In 1914 the Tibetan government signe
d the Simla Accord with Britain, ceding the South Tibet region to British India.
The Chinese government denounced the agreement as illegal.[47][48]
When the regents in the 1930s and 1940s displayed negligence in affairs, the Kuo
mintang Government of the Republic of China took advantage of this to expand its
reach into the territory.[49]
From 1950 to present
Main article: History of Tibet (1950present)

Thamzing of Tibetan woman circa 1958

Emerging with control over most of mainland China after the Chinese Civil War, t
he People s Republic of China incorporated Tibet in 1950 and negotiated the Seve
nteen Point Agreement with the newly enthroned 14th Dalai Lama s government, aff
irming the People s Republic of China s sovereignty but granting the area autono
my. Subsequently, on his journey into exile, the 14th Dalai Lama completely repu
diated the agreement, which repudiation he has repeated on many occasions.[50][5
1]
After the Dalai Lama s government fled to Dharamsala, India, during the 1959 Tib
etan Rebellion, it established a rival government-in-exile. Afterwards, the Cent
ral People s Government in Beijing renounced the agreement and began implementat
ion of the halted social and political reforms.[52] During the Great Leap Forwar
d between 200,000 and 1,000,000 Tibetans died,[53] and approximately 6,000 monas
teries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution.[54] In 1962 China and Indi
a fought a brief war over the disputed South Tibet and Aksai Chin regions. Altho
ugh China won the war, Chinese troops withdrew north of the McMahon Line, effect
ively ceding South Tibet to India.[48]
In 1980, General Secretary and reformist Hu Yaobang visited Tibet, and ushered i
n a period of social, political, and economic liberalization.[55] At the end of
the decade, however, analogously to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, monks
in the Drepung and Sera monasteries started protesting for independence, and so
the government halted reforms and started an anti-separatist campaign.[55] Huma
n rights organisations have been critical of the Beijing and Lhasa governments
approach to human rights in the region when cracking down on separatist convulsi
ons that have occurred around monasteries and cities, most recently in the 2008
Tibetan unrest.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Tibet
Tibet is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world s highest region.
Himalayas, on the southern rim of the Tibetan plateau
All of modern China, including Tibet, is considered a part of East Asia.[56] His
torically, some European sources also considered parts of Tibet to lie in Centra
l Asia. Tibet is west of the Central China plain, and within mainland China, Tib
et is regarded as part of (Xb), a term usually translated by Chinese media as "the
Western section", meaning "Western China".
Yarlung Tsangpo River
Tibet is often called the "roof of the world."
Tibet has some of the world's tallest mountains, with several of them making the
top ten list. Mount Everest, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft), is the highest mounta
in on earth, located on the border with Nepal. Several major rivers have their s
ource in the Tibetan Plateau (mostly in present-day Qinghai Province). These inc
lude Yangtze, Yellow River, Indus River, Mekong, Ganges, Salween and the Yarlung
Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra River).[57] The Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon, along
the Yarlung Tsangpo River, is among the deepest and longest canyons in the world
.
Tibet has been called the "Water Tower" of Asia, and China is investing heavily
in water projects in Tibet.[58][59]
The Indus and Brahmaputra rivers originate from a lake (Tib: Tso Mapham) in West
ern Tibet, near Mount Kailash. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage site for both H
indus and Tibetans. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of Lord Shi
va. The Tibetan name for Mt. Kailash is Khang Rinpoche. Tibet has numerous highaltitude lakes referred to in Tibetan as tso or co. These include Qinghai Lake,
Lake Manasarovar, Namtso, Pangong Tso, Yamdrok Lake, Siling Co, Lhamo La-tso, Lu

majangdong Co, Lake Puma Yumco, Lake Paiku, Lake Rakshastal, Dagze Co and Dong C
o. The Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor) is the largest lake in the People's Republic of C
hina.
The atmosphere is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowf
all is only 18 inches (46 cm), due to the rain shadow effect. Western passes rec
eive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversable all year round
. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak d
esolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where wind
sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian monsoon exerts
some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures
in the summer and intense cold in the winter.
Cultural Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo (A mdo) in the no
rtheast, which is administratively part of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and S
ichuan. Kham (Khams) in the southeast encompasses parts of western Sichuan, nort
hern Yunnan, southern Qinghai and the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Regio
n. -Tsang (dBus gTsang) ( in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (mNga
' ris) in the far west) covered the central and western portion of Tibet Autonom
ous Region.[60]
Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of Bhutan, Nepal, r
egions of India such as Sikkim, Ladakh, Lahaul, and Spiti, in addition to design
ated Tibetan autonomous areas in adjacent Chinese provinces.
Cities, towns and villages
Further information: List of populated places in the Tibet Autonomous Region
Looking across the square at Jokhang temple, Lhasa
There are over 800 settlements in Tibet. Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital an
d the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region. It contains two world heritage sites t
he Potala Palace and Norbulingka, which were the residences of the Dalai Lama. L
hasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries, including Jokhang
and Ramoche Temple.
Shigatse is the second largest city in the Tibet AR, west of Lhasa. Gyantse and
Qamdo are also amongst the largest.
Other cities and towns in cultural Tibet include Shiquanhe (Ali), Nagchu, Bamda,
Rutog, Nyingchi, Nedong, Coqn, Barkam, Sakya, Gartse, Pelbar, Lhatse, and Tingri
; in Sichuan, Kangding (Dartsedo); in Qinghai, Jyekundo (Yushu), Machen, and Gol
mud; in India, Tawang, Leh, and Gangtok.
Government
Main article: Tibet Autonomous Region Government
The central region of Tibet is an autonomous region within China, the Tibet Auto
nomous Region. The Tibet Autonomous Region is a province-level entity of the Peo
ple's Republic of China. It is governed by a People's Government, led by a Chair
man. In practice, however, the Chairman is subordinate to the branch secretary o
f the Communist Party of China. As a matter of convention, the Chairman has almo
st always been an ethnic Tibetan, while the party secretary has always been ethn
ically non-Tibetan.[61]
The theocratic government
Prior to assertion of Chinese control over Tibet it was a feudal theocracy heade
d by the Dalai Lama or a regency and administered by the Kashag, a council of fo
ur, and 400500 officials drawn from the traditional Tibetan aristocracy, Tibetan
monasteries, and middle-class families of Lhasa.[62]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Tibet
The Tibetan yak is an integral part of Tibetan life

The Tibetan economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture. Due to limited arab

le land, the primary occupation of the Tibetan Plateau is raising livestock, suc
h as sheep, cattle, goats, camels, yaks, dzo, and horses. The main crops grown a
re barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and assorted fruits and vegetables.
Tibet is ranked the lowest among Chinas 31 provinces[63] on the Human Development
Index according to UN Development Programme data.[64] In recent years, due to i
ncreased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly import
ant sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities.[65] Tourism brings in t
he most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry
(silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, Tibetan rugs and ca
rpets. The Central People s Government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provi
des 90% of Tibet s government expenditures.[66][67][68][69] However most of this
investment goes to pay migrant workers who do not settle in Tibet and send much
of their income home to other provinces.[70]
40% of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from the
harvesting of Cordyceps sinensis; contributing at least 1.8 billion yuan, (225 m
illion USD) to the regions GDP. [71]
Farmers market in Lhasa
The Qingzang railway linking the Tibet Autonomous Region to Qinghai Province was
opened in 2006, but not without controversy.[72][73][74]
In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery
of a large mineral deposit under the Tibetan Plateau.[75] The deposit has an est
imated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, an
d lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation s depe
ndence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worr
y that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet s fragile ecosystem and under
mine Tibetan culture.[75]
On January 15, 2009, China announced the construction of Tibets first expressway,
a 37.9-kilometre stretch of controlled-access highway in southwestern Lhasa. Th
e project will cost 1.55 billion yuan (US$227 million).[76]
From January 1820, 2010 a national conference on Tibet and areas inhabited by Tib
etans in Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai was held in China and a substantial
plan to improve development of the areas was announced. The conference was atten
ded by General secretary Hu Jintao, Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao, Jia Qinglin, Li Chan
gchun, Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang, He Guoqiang and Zhou Yongkang, all members of CPC
Politburo Standing Committee signaling the commitment of senior Chinese leaders
to development of Tibet and ethnic Tibetan areas. The plan calls for improvemen
t of rural Tibetan income to national standards by 2020 and free education for a
ll rural Tibetan children. China has invested 310 billion yuan (about 45.6 billi
on U.S. dollars) in Tibet since 2001. "Tibet s GDP was expected to reach 43.7 bi
llion yuan in 2009, up 170 percent from that in 2000 and posting an annual growt
h of 12.3 percent over the past nine years."[77]
Development Zone
The State Council approved Tibet Lhasa Economic and Technological Development Zo
ne as a state-level development zone in 2001. It is located in the western subur
bs of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It is 50 km away from t
he Gonggar Airport, and 2 km away from Lhasa Railway Station and 2 km away from
318 national highway.
The zone has a planned area of 5.46 square kilometers and is divided into two zo
nes. Zone A developed a land area of 2.51 square kilometers for construction pur
poses. It is a flat zone, and has the natural conditions for good drainage.[78]
Demographics

See also: History of Tibet (1950present) and Demographics of Tibet Autonomous Reg
ion
Tibetan Lamanis, c. 1905
An elderly Tibetan woman in Lhasa
Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic Tibetans and
some other ethnic groups. According to tradition the original ancestors of the
Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the Tibetan flag, are: th
e Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra. Other traditional ethnic groups with significa
nt population or with the majority of the ethnic group reside in Tibet (excludin
g disputed area with India) include Bai people, Blang, Bonan, Dongxiang, Han, Hu
i people, Lhoba, Lisu people, Miao, Mongols, Monguor (Tu people), Menba (Monpa),
Mosuo, Nakhi, Qiang, Nu people, Pumi, Salar, and Yi people.
The proportion of the non-Tibetan population in Tibet is disputed. On the one ha
nd, the Central Tibetan Administration of the Dalai Lama, accuses China of activ
ely swamping Tibet with migrants in order to alter Tibet s demographic makeup.[7
9] On the other hand, according to the 2010 Chinese census ethnic Tibetans compr
ise 90% of a total population of 3 million in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[80] E
xact population numbers probably depend on how temporary migrants are counted.[c
itation needed]
Culture
Main article: Tibetan culture
Religion
Main article: Religion in Tibet
Tibetan Buddhism
Main article: Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhist monks in Drepung Monastery
Religion is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over
all aspects of their lives. Bn is the ancient religion of Tibet, but has been alm
ost eclipsed by Tibetan Buddhism, a distinctive form of Mahayana and Vajrayana,
which was introduced into Tibet from the Sanskrit Buddhist tradition of northern
India.[81] Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also in Mongolia
, parts of northern India, the Buryat Republic, the Tuva Republic, and in the Re
public of Kalmykia and some other parts of China. During China s Cultural Revolu
tion, nearly all Tibet s monasteries were ransacked and destroyed by the Red Gua
rds.[82][83][84] A few monasteries have begun to rebuild since the 1980s (with l
imited support from the Chinese government) and greater religious freedom has be
en granted although it is still limited. Monks returned to monasteries across Ti
bet and monastic education resumed even though the number of monks imposed is st
rictly limited.[82][85][86] Before the 1950s, between 10 and 20% of males in Tib
et were monks.[87]
Tibetan Buddhism has four main traditions (the suffix pa is comparable to "er" i
n English):
Gelug(pa), Way of Virtue, also known casually as Yellow Hat, whose spiritual
head is the Ganden Tripa and whose temporal head is the Dalai Lama. Successive
Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was
founded in the 14th to 15th centuries by Je Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations
of the Kadampa tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism an
d his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as t
he embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.[88]
Kagyu(pa), Oral Lineage. This contains one major subsect and one minor subse
ct. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back
to Gampopa. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the Karma
Kagyu, headed by a Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu
. The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th-cen

tury teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma,
sister of Kagyu lineage holder Naropa. This is an oral tradition which is very
much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous ex
ponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic.
Nyingma(pa), The Ancient Ones. This is the oldest, the original order founde
d by Padmasambhava.
Sakya(pa), Grey Earth, headed by the Sakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog G
yalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. Sakya Pandita 11821251
CE was the great grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school emphasizes scholar
ship.
Islam
Main article: Islam in Tibet
Tibetan mosque in Lhasa
Muslims have been living in Tibet since as early as the 8th or 9th century. In T
ibetan cities, there are small communities of Muslims, known as Kachee (Kache),
who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: Kashmir (Kachee Yu
l in ancient Tibetan), Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic in
fluence in Tibet also came from Persia. After 1959 a group of Tibetan Muslims ma
de a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and th
e Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that y
ear.[89] Other Muslim ethnic groups who have long inhabited Tibet include Hui, S
alar, Dongxiang and Bonan. There is also a well established Chinese Muslim commu
nity (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the Hui ethnic group of Chi
na.
Christianity
The first Christians documented to have reached Tibet were the Nestorians, of wh
om various remains and inscriptions have been found in Tibet. They were also pre
sent at the imperial camp of Mngke Khan at Shira Ordo, where they debated in 1256
with Karma Pakshi (1204/6-83), head of the Karma Kagyu order.[90][91] Desideri,
who reached Lhasa in 1716, encountered Armenian and Russian merchants.[92]
Roman Catholic Jesuits and Capuchins arrived from Europe in the 17th and 18th ce
nturies. Portuguese missionaries Jesuit Father Antonio de Andrade and Brother Ma
nuel Marques first reached the kingdom of Gelu in western Tibet in 1624 and was
welcomed by the royal family who allowed them to build a church later on.[93][94
] By 1627, there were about a hundred local converts in the Guge kingdom.[95] La
ter on, Christianity was introduced to Rudok, Ladakh and Tsang and was welcomed
by the ruler of the Tsang kingdom, where Andrade and his fellows established a J
esuit outpost at Shigatse in 1626.[96]
In 1661 another Jesuit, Johann Grueber, crossed Tibet from Sining to Lhasa (wher
e he spent a month), before heading on to Nepal.[97] He was followed by others w
ho actually built a church in Lhasa. These included the Jesuit Father Ippolito D
esideri, 17161721, who gained a deep knowledge of Tibetan culture, language and B
uddhism, and various Capuchins in 17071711, 17161733 and 17411745,[98] Christianity
was used by some Tibetan monarchs and their courts and the Karmapa sect lamas t
o counterbalance the influence of the Gelugpa sect in the 17th century until in
1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama s insistence.[99][100][
101][102][103][104]
In 1877, the Protestant James Cameron from the China Inland Mission walked from
Chongqing to Batang in Garz Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan province, and
"brought the Gospel to the Tibetan people." Beginning in the 20th century, in Di
qing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan, a large number of Lisu people and
some Yi and Nu people converted to Christianity. Famous earlier missionaries inc

lude James O. Fraser, Alfred James Broomhall and Isobel Kuhn of the China Inland
Mission, among others who were active in this area.[105][106]
Proselytising has been illegal in China since 1949. But as of 2013, many Christi
an missionaries were reported to be active in Tibet with the tacit approval of C
hinese authorities, who view the missionaries as a counterforce to Tibetan Buddh
ism or as a boon to the local economy.[107]
Tibetan art
Main article: Tibetan art
A thangka painting in Sikkim
Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with Tibetan Buddhism and
commonly depict deities or variations of Buddha in various forms from bronze Bu
ddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful thangka paintings and mandalas.
Architecture
Main article: Tibetan culture Architecture
Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deep
ly Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, can be seen on
nearly every Gompa in Tibet. The design of the Tibetan Chrtens can vary, from ro
undish walls in Kham to squarish, four-sided walls in Ladakh.
The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses
and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are oft
en made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is availa
ble for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple
windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at
10 degrees as a precaution against the frequent earthquakes in this mountainous
area.
The Potala Palace
Standing at 117 meters in height and 360 meters in width, the Potala Palace is t
he most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the
Dalai Lama, it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and ho
uses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided
between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and
the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 1
0,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Palace is a
World Heritage Site, as is Norbulingka, the former summer residence of the Dala
i Lama.
Music
Main article: Music of Tibet
The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region,
centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic Tibetan groups are found in In
dia, Bhutan, Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is relig
ious music, reflecting the profound influence of Tibetan Buddhism on the culture
.
Tibetan music often involves chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit, as an integral par
t of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts o
r in celebration of various festivals. Yang chanting, performed without metrical
timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other st
yles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as th
e classical music of the popular Gelugpa school, and the romantic music of the N
yingmapa, Sakyapa and Kagyupa schools.[108]
Nangma dance music is especially popular in the karaoke bars of the urban center
of Tibet, Lhasa. Another form of popular music is the classical gar style, whic
h is performed at rituals and ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature gl

ottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of Gesar,
who is a hero to ethnic Tibetans.
Festivals
Main article: Tibetan festivals
The Monlam Prayer Festival
Tibet has various festivals which are commonly performed to worship the Buddha[c
itation needed] throughout the year. Losar is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Pre
parations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family sh
rine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs d
one to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat Guthuk (barley noodle soup with filli
ng) on New Year s Eve with their families. The Monlam Prayer Festival follows it
in the first month of the Tibetan calendar, falling between the fourth and the
eleventh days of the first Tibetan month. It involves dancing and participating
in sports events, as well as sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049
by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama s order.
Cuisine
Main article: Tibetan cuisine
The most important crop in Tibet is barley, and dough made from barley flourcalle
d tsampais the staple food of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made i
nto steamed dumplings called momos. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat, or m
utton, often dried, or cooked into a spicy stew with potatoes. Mustard seed is c
ultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yogurt, b
utter and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yogurt is considered so
mething of a prestige item. Butter tea is very popular to drink.
See also
Portal icon
Tibet portal
Portal icon
China portal
Index of Tibet-related articles
Major national historical and cultural sites in Tibet
Outline of Tibet
Human rights in Tibet
Tibet Area, Republic of China
Tibetan independence movement
Central Tibetan Administration
Notes
Goldstein, Melvyn, C.,Change, Conflict and Continuity among a Community of Nomad
ic Pastoralist: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 19501990, 1994, What is Tibet? F
act and Fancy, pp76-87
Clark, Gregory, "In fear of China", 1969, saying: Tibet, although enjoying ind
ependence at certain periods of its history, had never been recognised by any si
ngle foreign power as an independent state. The closest it has ever come to such
recognition was the British formula of 1943: suzerainty, combined with autonomy
and the right to enter into diplomatic relations.
"Q&A: China and Tibet". BBC News. 2008-06-19.
Lee, Peter (2011-05-07). "Tibet s only hope lies within". The Asia Times. Retrie
ved 2011-05-10. "Robin [alias of a young Tibetan in Qinghai] described the regio
n as a cauldron of tension. Tibetans still were infuriated by numerous arrests i
n the wake of the 2008 protests. But local Tibetans had not organized themselves
. They are very angry at the Chinese government and the Chinese people, Robin
said. But they have no idea what to do. There is no leader. When a leader appea
rs and somebody helps out they will all join. We ... heard tale after tale of c
ivil disobedience in outlying hamlets. In one village, Tibetans burned their Chi
nese flags and hoisted the banned Tibetan Snow Lion flag instead. Authorities ..
. detained nine villagers ... One nomad ... said After I die ... my sons and gr
andsons will remember. They will hate the government. "

"Regions and territories: Tibet". BBC News. 2010-12-11.

China Adds to Security Forces in Tibet Amid Calls for a Boycott
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Cornelius Wessels, Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 16031721 (The Hague:
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Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 349352; Filippo de Filippi ed., An
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Relao da Misso do Reino de Uangue Cabea dos do Potente, Escrita pello P. Joo Cabral da
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"Yunnan Province of China Government Web". Retrieved 2008-02-15.
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(2001) Clear Light Publishers. ISBN 1-57416-092-3
Powers, John. History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People s Repu
blic of China (2004) Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517426-7
Richardson, Hugh E. Tibet and its History Second Edition, Revised and Update
d (1984) Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-376-7
Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon In The Land Of Snows (1999) Columbia University
Press. ISBN 0-231-11814-7
Stein, R. Tibetan Civilization (1972) Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047
-0901-7
Teltscher, Kate. The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama and
the First British Expedition to Tibet (2006) Bloomsbury UK. ISBN 0-7475-8484-2
Further reading
Allen, Charles (2004). Duel in the Snows: The True Story of the Younghusband
Mission to Lhasa. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5427-6.
Bell, Charles (1924). Tibet: Past & Present. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Dowman, Keith (1988). The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim s Guide
. Routledge & Kegan Paul. London, ISBN 0-7102-1370-0. New York, ISBN 0-14-019118
-6.
Feigon, Lee. (1998). Demystifying Tibet: unlocking the secrets of the land o
f the snows. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-196-3. 1996 hardback, ISBN 1-566
63-089-4
Gyatso, Palden (1997). The Autobiography of a Tibetan Monk. Grove Press. NY,
NY. ISBN 0-8021-3574-9
Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising
Tensions, London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007
Le Sueur, Alec (2013). The Hotel on the Roof of the World Five Years in Tibe
t. Chichester: Summersdale. ISBN 978-1-84024-199-0. Oakland: RDR Books. ISBN 978
-1-57143-101-1
McKay, Alex (1997). Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 19041947. L
ondon: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-0627-5.
Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin (1968). Tibet: Its History, Religion a
nd People. Reprint: Penguin Books (1987).

Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide (2000). Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a Tib
etan Warrior Nun. Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN 1-56836-294-3.
Petech, Luciano (1997). China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: Histor
y of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet. T oung Pao Monographies
, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-03442-0.
Rabgey, Tashi; Sharlho, Tseten Wangchuk (2004). Sino-Tibetan Dialogue in the
Post-Mao Era: Lessons and Prospects (PDF). Washington: East-West Center. ISBN 1
-932728-22-8.
Samuel, Geoffrey (1993). Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. S
mithsonian ISBN 1-56098-231-4.
Schell, Orville (2000). Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Him
alayas to Hollywood. Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-4381-0.
Smith, Warren W. (1996). History of Tibet: Nationalism and Self-determinatio
n. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3155-2.
Smith, Warren W. (2004). China s Policy on Tibetan Autonomy EWC Working Pape
rs No. 2 (PDF). Washington: East-West Center.
Smith, Warren W. (2008). China s Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-3989-1.
Sperling, Elliot (2004). The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics (PDF
). Washington: East-West Center. ISBN 1-932728-13-9. ISSN 1547-1330. (online ver
sion)
Thurman, Robert (2002). Robert Thurman on Tibet. DVD. ASIN B00005Y722.
Van Walt van Praag, Michael C. (1987). The Status of Tibet: History, Rights,
and Prospects in International Law. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Wilby, Sorrel (1988). Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman s 1,900-mile (3,06
0 km) Trek Across the Rooftop of the World. Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-8092-4608
-2.
Wilson, Brandon (2004). Yak Butter Blues: A Tibetan Trek of Faith. Pilgrim s
Tales. ISBN 0-9770536-6-0, ISBN 0-9770536-7-9. (second edition 2005)
Wang Jiawei (2000). The Historical Status of China s Tibet. ISBN 7-80113-304
-8.
Tibet wasn t always ours, says Chinese scholar by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily Ne
ws & Analysis, February 22, 2007
Wylie, Turrell V. "The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted", Harvar
d Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 37, Number 1, June 1977)
Zenz, Adrian (2014). Tibetanness under Threat? Neo-Integrationism, Minority
Education and Career Strategies in Qinghai, P.R. China. Global Oriental. ISBN 97
89004257962.
External links
Tibetan Resources on the Web from Columbia University Libraries
British photographs of Tibet 19201950
The Language of Tibet
White Paper on Tibetan Culture released by the Information Office of the Sta
te Council of the People s Republic of China June 22
Historical maps and images of Tibet presented by University of Wisconsin-Mil
waukee Libraries Digital Collections
The Tibetan & Himalayan Library (THL)
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