TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

TeacherEfficacyinSecondaryMathematics:FosteringConfidenceandFluency

KellyLynWilson

HighTechHighGraduateSchoolofEducation

AuthorNote
KellyLynWilsonisnowtheDirectorofInnovativeandEntrepreneurialProgramsatSevern
HighSchoolinAnnapolis,Maryland.Thisresearchwassupportedinpartbyafellowshipfrom
theWaltonFoundation.CorrespondenceconcerningthispapershouldbeaddressedtoKellyLyn
Wilson,SevernSchool,201WaterStreet,SevernaPark,MD,21146.
Contact:k.wilson@severnschool.com

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

Abstract

This research focused on understanding what factors affected the perception of efficacy in the
teaching and learning of mathematics in several progressive secondary schools. Efficacy is the
belief in ones ability to produce the desired or intended results. For teachers, this is the belief
the practices and structures they use and workincontributetostudentsuccess.Forstudents,this
is the belief they can use mathematicsandarepreparedforcollegelevelwork.Throughsurveys,
interviews, focus groups, observations and test score analyses, several themes emerged that
influenced teachers and students sense of efficacy including unclear expectations or vision of
the mathematics program. For teachers this also included the need for more effectivestrategies
for reaching all learners in a classroom. This research highlights the importance of defining an
institutions goals for secondary mathematics, and aligning teacher preparedness and support
aroundthosegoals.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

TeacherEfficacyinSecondaryMathematics:FosteringConfidenceandFluency

In these days ofbetter,faster,more,itisallaboutthenumbers.Wherearewerankedasa

nation inmathematicsprowessinregardstoothereconomicallydevelopedcountries?Howmany
studentsarepreparingtostudyscienceandothertechnicalfields?What measuresarebeingtaken
to focus teachers on these goals? The setting of this research was in progressive secondary
mathematics classrooms focused on projectbased learning with an emphasis on openended
problems. The hypothesis was there would be higher than average state test scores because the
methods used in these schools were focused on deeper learning. Deeper learning, as defined by
the Hewlett Foundation (2013), states student learning should contain the following aspects:
mastering content, thinking critically, collaborating, communicating effectively, and developing
a growth mindset. Hence the anticipated results of using deeper learning techniques would
equate withadeepergraspoftheconceptsandprocedures,whichwouldtranslateintohighertest
scores. However,
Figure 1 shows the percentage of students and their proficiency in Algebra II
topics on the 2013 California STAR test (
California Department ofEducation
).Thecomparison
between the setting school and the state averages was concerning due to the high percentage
(74%) of students falling into the Below Basic and Far Below Basic categories. Though the
setting school follows an integrated math approach, students in traditional or integrated series
shouldbereachingequivalencyinknowledgeuponthecompletionofMath3orAlgebraII.
Other areas of concern existed
about mathematics instruction at the
setting. There were parent meetings with
the setting school director which focused
onthemathematicsprogramanditsability
to prepare students for both college
entrance exams and college mathematics
courses. Students wishing to pursue a
higher level of mathematics were
supplementing their school learning with

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

community college classes. Additionally, initial conversations with several math instructors
revealed a lack of understanding of the vision of the mathematics program and feeling
unprepared to provide curriculum to the wide breadth of learners in their classroom. The above
factors led to an inquiry process surrounding the teaching and learning of mathematics in the
settingofaprogressivesecondaryschool.
Many questions surround the challenges and goals of learning mathematics. There are
pedagogical questions surrounding teacher and classroom practices. Do students need to be
drilled in the basics before being able to apply them tohigherlevelconcepts?How canstudents
discover mathematical formulas without knowing thelanguageofmathematics?Mathematical
fluency, or the state of being able to understand and transfer knowledge, may also be impacted
by institutional practices or the ways in which schools define structures likestudentandteacher
schedules, inclusion decisions, daily schedules and other factors. It is also important to identify
and understand the goals and design principles of a school in relation to the structures it has
developed.
In an attempt to influence the content of what high school graduates should know, state
leaders in government and education united tocreatestandards oralistingofacademicgoalsfor
students. However, these standards do not addresstheinstitutionalstructuresorpedagogywhich
should be in place to ensure their successful attainment. These new standards are also linked to
student outcomes (yes, back to numbers) in the form of new standardized tests created by the
Smarter BalancedAssessmentConsortium(SBAC)andPartnershipforAssessmentofReadiness
for College and Careers (PARCC), along with upcoming changestothecurrentcollege entrance
exams created by the College Board(SAT)andACTorganizations.Whetherindividualteachers
or schools view these assessments as a valid predictor of college success or preparedness, they
both will be judged by student performance on these exams from rating boards,
colleges/universities and probably their harshest critics, parents. This paper will not discuss the
merits or inferiority of the standards and related tests, but it does hold the belief learning
outcomesneedtobemeasurableandattainable.
This research reviewedcurrenttheoriesinthepedagogy andthelearningofmathematical
knowledge. From there it examined teacher preparedness and analyzed reasons why teachers

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

may have a gap in their sense of efficacy in the classroom. As per long term selfefficacy
researcher Albert Bandura, Peoples beliefs about their capabilities affect what they choose to
do, how much effort they mobilize, how long they will persevere in the face of difficulties
(Bandura, 1994, p.1). The research investigated the practices and data of a progressive,
constructivist school who incorporate a projectbasedlearning(PBL)pedagogy.Thegoalwasto
determine whether the practices being employed contributed to a sense of efficacy in teachers
based on the current strategies provided by past and present experts. Examples of effective
practices and recommendations for possible areas of improvementwereprovidedwiththeintent
of boosting the numbers: the numbers of students prepared for college and careers, along with
thenumberteacherswhofeelpreparedtoteachthem.

Research Question
:
What practices andschoolstructurescreate asenseofefficacyinsecondary
mathematicsteachersinordertodevelopmathematicalfluencyinstudents?

LiteratureReview
There is a call to arms in this nation surrounding the scores of secondary students in
mathematics. According to the Programme for International Student Assessments (PISA)latest
test results in 2012, the United States is 27th among the 34 OECD (Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development) countries, and performed below average in mathematics
(Gurria, 2014, p.1). President Obama stated in his address at the Third Annual White House
Science Fair he is focused on creating an allhandsondeck approach in areas like math and
we needtomakethisaprioritytotrainanarmyofnewteachersinthesesubjectareas(Educate
to Innovate, 2013). However, before we begin to analyze the statistics and train teachers in the
latest methods to achieve student and national success, let us first definehowandwhatstudents
need to learn in order to know mathematics, or be mathematically fluent. This will then be
followedbythoughtsonteacherpreparednesstofacilitatesuchlearning.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

DefinitionofMathematicalFluency
Stanford University professor George Polya defines mathematical knowledge as a
combination of demonstrative reasoning and plausible reasoning. Demonstrative reasoning
is safe, beyond controversy, and finaloramasteryofskillsplausiblereasoningishazardous,
controversial, and provisional (Polya, 1954, p. vvi). Plausible reasoning is howmathconnects
to disciplines like business, science, etc. or making connections to real world experiences. The
formulas and processes which students use to present their solutions to an algebra problem are
demonstrative in nature but in order to know what theorems or steps to take was the result of
plausible reasoning, or guessing. Polya further goes on to reflect, a serious student of
mathematics...must learn demonstrative reasoning yet for real success, he must also learn
plausible reasoning this is the kindofreasoningonwhichhis creativeworkwilldepend(1954,
p.vi).
Though Polyas thoughts were written in the 1950s, his research is echoed by leading
mathematics education researchers today (there is still a course Math 193: Polya Problem
Solving Seminar at Stanford). Guershon Harel
, mathematics professor andresearcherfromthe
University of California San Diego (UCSD), has respectively, very similar definitions of
demonstrative and plausible reasoning but uses the terms Ways of Understanding
(WoU) and
Ways of Thinking
(WoT)
(2008, p.8). He defines knowledge of mathematics as a union of
thesetwosets.
Harel has also written many papers regardingthepedagogyofmathematics includinghis
theory of
DNR or
DNRbased instruction for mathematics
. The D, N
, and
R respectively stand
for
duality
,
necessity, and
repeated reasoning (2008, p. 3).
Duality posits students onlydevelop
ways of thinking when constructing waysof understanding,andthesewaysofunderstandingare
determined by the ways of thinking they possess. In otherwords, studentsgaininsightsintothe
purpose of mathematics by investigating the formulas and procedures of mathematics. The
necessity principle refers to the idea students must have an intellectual need to learn. The last
principle,
repeated reasoning
, states students need to have repeated experience or practice to
gather and retain the ways of understanding and thinking. (Harel,2008,pp.1921).Again,Harel

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

contends providing intellectual need, or utilizing humans remarkable capacity to be puzzled

(2008a,p.488)mustbeofutmostimportance.
These researchers and many others have outlined the components needed for deeper
learning in mathematics as ways of doing and knowing mathematics, combined with an
intellectual need or purpose for the mathbeingstudied.Again,adeeperlearning emphasisisnot
solely on mastering the content, but also ongainingtheskills neededtobeabletouseit,shareit
and extrapolate the learning to new situations. Now we have a basic grasp of how students
shouldlearn,theconversationmovesontowhattheyshouldlearn.

WhatistheImpactofStandards
In 2009, state leaders in government and education came together to promote the
development of standards to
ensure all students, regardless of where they live, are graduating
high school prepared for college, career, and life (
Common Core
). These standards are
promoted as providing demonstrative and plausible reasoning, or the combination of acquiring
skills with realworld connections. The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) were developed
by consulting leading experts, teachers and other standard communities, such as the National
Council for Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). In August of 2010, the state of California
adoptedthesestandardsforallpubliceducationinstitutionsingradesK12.
However, there is swirling controversy surrounding these standards and their potential
effects on learning mathematics. Opponents of the CCSS object the standards are animposition
of federal rights over a states rights and lack of evidence the standards will meet the desired
goals of improvement (McDonnell & Weatherford, 2013, p.494). Outcomes oftheeffectsofthe
CCSS are currently unknown as inaugural testing is commencing in the 20142015schoolyear.
Teacher support for the initiative is also waning due to perceived ties to teacher evaluation
systems and restriction of their freedom in the classroom. A report from U.S. News & World
Reportprovidedsomestatisticsregardingteachersupport:
SupportershavetoutedasurveyconductedbyEducationNext,aneducationjournal,thatlast
yearfound76percentofteachersweresupportiveofthestandards.Butinits2014poll,
EducationNextfoundoppositionhadmorethantripled,from12percentin2013to40percent
in2014.Now,just46percentofteacherssaytheysupportthestandards.(
Bidwell,2014)

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

Progressive school educators may translate the idea of following standards as an

encroachment to their ability to define curriculum.
In attending a recent conference with one of
the authors of the CCSS for Mathematics, Phil Darostatedthestandardswerewrittenasaguide
to what mathematical knowledge students should be able to perform, demonstrate an
understanding of and transform. However, Daro clearly indicated they were not a guide for
howtoteachtheseskillsandpracticesofthemind(MFASD,2014).
Other areas of concern exist surrounding the CCSS and students with learning
disabilities, especiallythosediagnosedwithmathematicslearningdifficulties(MD).Powelletal.
researched students with MD and cites the research over the last thirty years has indicatedthat
students with MD require explicit, systematic instruction (2013, p.41). Explicit instruction
generally involves teacher demonstration of detailed stepbystep instructions along with
independent practice.InfurtheraddressingtheneedsofMDstudents,concernexistssurrounding
the assessment programs which have been developed to coincidewiththeCCSS,liketheSBAC
and PARCC. Powell et al. concluded, schools may find it necessary to use tracks or for
students with MD, the supplementary instruction required inRTI(ResponsetoIntervention)to
prepare students for Common Core assessments (2013, p. 46). The idea of tracking is in
contradiction to some of the latest theories in the epistemology of learning though this topic is
beyondthescopeofthisresearch.

StandardsandAssessments
Regardless of the controversy surrounding the standards, they are the expected learning
outcomes for US students in fortyfour states. (Six states have either not adopted or withdrawn
support of the standards,
Academic Benchmarks
). The standards represent a shift from a more
traditional view of education
as teachercentered delivery of instruction to a more progressive
studentcentered approach to education. The SBAC and PARCC hav
e been developed as
comprehensive, technologybased assessment systems to measure students' attainment of the
CCSS. Testing will commence in the 20142015 school year
. The National CenterforResearch
for Evaluation, Standards and Student Testing (CRESST) based at UCLA asserts these
assessments, are likely to represent goals for deeper learning, particularly those related to

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

mastering and being able to apply core academic content and cognitive strategies for complex
thinking,communication,andproblemsolving(Herman&Linn,2013,p.4).
It is the contention of this research the CCSS and its associated testing measures are
shifting towards a focus in deeper learning. Proceeding from this basic understanding of how
students should learn and what they will be learning, what are the current theories of how
educatorsshouldbefacilitatinglearning?

CurrentResearchonMathematicsPedagogy
Referring back to researcher Harel, he questioned whether guidelines for instructors
shouldhavebeenwrittenalongsidethestandardstoassisteducatorswiththetransition(MFASD,
2014). Harel suggested educators arecurrentlymorefocusedonwaysofunderstandingandhave
lacked providing means for obtaining ways of thinking, ... without targeting ways of thinking,
students are unlikely to become independent thinkers when doing mathematics (2008, p.13).
Progressive schools are leading the shift in educating students in the ways of thinking about
mathematics but there may be some confusion or angst in educators about the balance between
the more traditional methods of tell, show, practice and the deeper learning model of
discover, explore, use. This unrest may also be heightened due to a lack of professional
development in shifting to the CCSS. Educators are unclear about where to focus their
instructional efforts, and many school leadersareoverwhelmedbytryingtoleadmultiple,major
reform efforts and uncertain about where to direct professional development (ASCD, 2012, p.
12).
During research to create an assessment of mathematics teachers pedagogical content
knowledge, Hauk et al. (2010) defined the four componentsofaprofessionalunderstandingofa
discipline ashavingcontent,discourse,anticipatoryandactionknowledge.Contentknowledgeis
the knowledge of topics, procedures and concepts and substantiates the idea of teachers
possessing demonstrative reasoning (Hauk et al., 2010 Polya, 1954). Possessing discourse
knowledge allows one to inquire and communicate in mathematics. The researchers defined
anticipatory knowledge as an awareness of, and responsiveness to, the diverse ways in which
learners may engage with content, processes, and concepts (Hauk et al., 2010, p.3). Action

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

10

knowledge is the ability to differentiate instruction based on students needs and the ability to
enact the previous three components while teaching. It appears whether one is a teacher or a
student, the possession of plausible reasoning or ways of thinking about mathematics (Polya,
1954, Harel, 2008) is essential. An interesting result of their research was that professional
development (their subjects participated in 80100 hours of PD over the course of a year)
provided asignificant improvementinknowledge,particularlydiscourseknowledge(Hauketal.,
2010, p. 14). So given this model for what teachers should know and be able to do, what
practiceshelpfosterasenseofbeingabletoenactthemodel?

TeacherEfficacy
Anita Woolfolk Hoy, a preeminent researcher in teacher efficacy, stated
,
Teachers who
set high goals, who persist, who try another strategy when one approach is found wantingin
other words, teachers who have a high sense of efficacy and act on itare more likely to have
students who learn (Shaughnessy, 2004). A teachers sense of efficacy, or the perception of
having aneffectonstudentlearning,hasbeenresearchedforthelastfortyyears.Hoy,andfellow
researcher Rhonda Spero, also suggests some of the most powerful influences on the
development of teacher efficacy are mastery experiences during student teaching and the
induction year (2005, p. 343). Thus, the first years of teaching could be critical to the
longterm development of teacher efficacy. Not only couldtheybe critical,butitcouldbetheir
last formative experience unless meaningful professional development is provided. Dylan
William, Emeritus Professor of Educational Assessment at the University of Londons Institute
of Education, discusses this phenomenon,
People make claims about having 20 years
experience,buttheyreallyjusthaveoneyearsexperiencerepeated20times
(Leslie,2015).
Teacher and education researcher Doug Lemov wrote a book,
Teach Like a Champion
,
about effective teaching techniques. He spent years observing teachers and capturingtheirbest
moves. Lemovs claim is good teaching doesnt just happen, it needs to be coached and
practiced. He equates it with witnessing seemingly effortless excellence inasport,butthemade
free throw or golf shot is in facttheproductofcountlesshoursofpracticeandanalysis(Lesle,
2015). While some teachers may be natural educators, the majority of us need to work at it.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

11

Figure 7
shows the top experience of novice teachers for developing their effectiveness as a
teacher was having access to a mentor. This study comes from the National Network of State
Teachers of the Year (NNSTOY) and the
Center on Great Teachers and Leaders
(GTL Center) at American Institutes for
Research, which conducted surveys on
exemplary teachers on increasing teacher
effectiveness

across

their

careers

(BehrstockSherrattetal.,2014).
The implications of teacher efficacy go
beyond individual student concerns. Eric Hanushek, a Stanford educator and member of the
Hoover Institute, along with fellow researcher Steven Riskin, have reviewed and conducted
studies on the impact of teacher effectiveness on the economy and other policy matters. While
the statistics and calculations are above the scope of this paper, their findings clearly state
teacher effectiveness has an impactonindividualstudentsfuture earningsandcumulativelythe
effect of replacing only 5% to 8% of the U.S.s most ineffective teachers could quadruple our
gross domestic product (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2012). However, they alsoconcludeddetermining
thecharacteristicsofeffectiveteachersisanareaforcontinuedstudy.

EfficacyandInclusion
Teacher efficacy can also be impacted by the wide range of student learning styles and
needs, includingthoseofspecialeducationneeds(SEN)students.Specialeducationneeds(SEN)
students are generally supported jointly by teachers and other SEN or inclusion personnel.
However, support of SEN students is primarily attributed to the classroom teacher.
Research
conducted on teachers attitudes towards inclusion, perceived adequacy of support, and the
classroom learning environment found, Teachers attitudes towards inclusion increased with
greaterperceivedadequacyofinternalandexternalsupport(Monsenetal.,2013,p.1).
Researchers Hobbs & Westling wrote about their experiences in conducting a course
instructing both general and special educatorsinbestpracticesininclusiveeducation.Oneofthe

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

12

main components of their course focused on building an emphasis on cooperativelearningand

team decision making (2002, p. 188). This idea of collaborative effort between general and
special educators was found to be imperative for successful inclusion to incur as found by
researchers Broderick and Vakil et al. as reported by Monsen et al. (2013, p. 124). Hobbs &
Westling also discuss the need for general and special educators to be trained as partners and
collaborators as a cooperative venture in theeducationofSEN students(2002,p.188).Oneof
the strategies Hobbs & Westling used to improve collaboration was the use of in vivo or
reallife cases both types of educators brought to the class to investigate.Theparticipantsofthe
class stated the cases were an irreplaceable component to the class (Hobbs&Westling,2002,
p. 192). This area of learning for teachers around the needs of SEN students is another
componenttoconsiderwhenevaluatingateacherssenseofindividualefficacy.

BacktoDeeperLearning
From early progressive educational theorist John DeweytocurrentresearchersGuershon
Harel and others, the answer to how deeper learning occurs has not changed. Students and
teachers need to be engaged in lessons and assessments which challenge them to suchactivities
as thinking critically, justifying their reasoning, and communicating their findings. Deeper
learning organizations have shown improvement in students learning of mathematics (at least
according to standardized tests). One of these organizations is the Silicon Valley Mathematics
Initiative (SVMI). SVMIs work is in providing professional development, establishing
contentfocused coaching in schools, and collaboratively examining student work to inform
teachers of pupils understandings to foster teacher efficacy and students deeper learning of
mathematics. Aftertheirfirstdecadeofworkwithteacherstheyfound,...whenteachersteachto
the big ideas, participate in ongoing contentbased professional development, receive supportin
the classroom from welltrained coaches, and use specific assessment information to inform
instruction, their students will learn and achieve more (Foster & Noyce, 2004, p. 11). The
questions remain as to why there is an ongoing necessity of instructional coaches for
mathematics teachers? As the literature and my research has uncovered, the following factors
havebeenshowntoaffecttheteachingandlearningofmathematics:

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

13

Degrees earned or the years of teaching experience do not necessarily matter

whenformingteacherefficacy.
Teacherefficacydoeshaveanimpactonstudentlearning.
Teacher efficacy is best fostered by employing a community approach in both
defining common mathematical practices, the use of mentors and/or other
instructionalcoaches,andpeerlearning.
It is also important to consider the impact the school leader has on teacher efficacy.
Teachers
level of confidence about their ability to promote learning can dependonpastexperiencesoron
the school culture. Principals can help developasenseofefficacyforindividualteachersandfor
the entire school (Protheroe, 2008, p. 42). School leaders can foster efficacy by providing
professional development, time for preparation, supporting teachers in difficult student/parent
situationsandvaluingthemascurriculumdesigners.
Based on the review of literature spanning almost a century it is the claim of this paper
for students to gain mathematical fluency they need to develop both habits of thinking and
understanding. Students also need to practice those habits immersed in environments which
provide realworld context and a need to learn. Teachers need a sense of efficacy to be able to
foster this type of learning and facilitate thedesiredresultsofstudents,parents,universities,and
futureemployers,regardlessofthesubjectarea.

Setting
The research in this paper was conducted at a group of progressive charter secondary
schools in southern California utilizing a projectbased learning approach. The schools are
grounded in the philosophies studentslearndeeplybybeinginafullyinclusiveenvironmentand
byparticipatinginauthenticrealworldexperiences.Studentsarenottrackedbyperceivedability
and teachers arerespectedasthedesignersoftheircurriculum.Admissionintotheschoolisviaa
lottery system based on zip codes in an attempt to model the surrounding demographics and to
ensureequityofaccess.
The research was conducted around mathematics classrooms across four of the five
secondary schools. There are no honors distinction of classes in the 9th and 10th grade years.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

14

There are student selfselected honors options in the 11th and 12th grade levels, but the honors
and nonhonors classes are still contained in one classroom. As the schools are a part of
Californias public school network, they have adopted the CCSS of Mathematics (CCSSM) as
the framework for their math content and skills requirements. Teachingpracticeswereobserved
and catalogued along the spectrum from traditionalbased or didactic instruction to openended,
experientialmethodologies.
Teachers are required to be state credentialed or be enrolled in a valid credentialing
program withcredentialattainmentwithintwoyearsofemployment.Teacherbackgroundsrange
from those with degrees in education to experts or doctorates in specific fields of business or
study. New teachers to the charter, regardlessoftheirpreviousexperience,arerequiredtoattend
a ten day training program prior totheschoolyear.Allteachersattendaweeklongpreserviceat
their given school campuses. Professional development occurs throughout the year, primarily
three mornings a week,duringthetimeperiodfrom7:30amto8:15am(thoughthisandthetypes
ofmeetingsoractivitiesvarybycampus).
Specific demographics of the student
community consist of a student population
who are 37.6% Caucasian, 34.1% Latino,
13.7% Asian, 9.5% African American, 3%
American Indian, and 1.6% Pacific
Islanders(see
Figure2
).

Figure 3 presents the percentage of the

student population who has special educational
needs (SEN) as 12.8%, free or reduced lunch
(FRL) as 38.2%, and only 3.8%aredesignated as
Englishlanguagelearners(ELL).

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

15

Methods
My original research question was to determine what school structures and teaching
practices led students to obtain mathematical fluency, or learning the language of math and to
use it effectively and transformatively. This question was formed through preliminary
conversations with parents, teachers, students and looking at numerical data, such as SAT and
state test scores. There seemed to be questions regarding the college preparedness of some
students, specifically inmathematics. Afterinitialroundsofdatagathering,theresearchquestion
evolved to one focused on school practices and structures which promote a sense of teacher
efficacy in the teaching of secondary mathematics. Efficacy in teachingistheabilityofteachers
to produce the desired results they wish to see in their students. Practices and structures are the
methods schools use to develop and support their teachers examples include professional
developmentopportunities,instructionalcoaching,dailyschedules,andprepperiods,etc.
Data collection tools included: surveys, interviews, focus groups, exit cards, journal
entries/field notes and math discipline meeting notes. Though some quantitative data was
extracted from the teacher survey results, the remainder was gathered by analyzing theschools
student survey data (YouthTruth), and standardized test scores, including both state and college
entranceexams.
In order to provide context and uncover areas of strengths and challenges, I surveyed
secondary math teachers across the organization. The questions began with information on
professional background/history and current teaching assignments. There were perception
questions on various mathematical teaching beliefs and practices via a scaled ranking system.
Finally, there were openended questions ranging from thedefinitionofmathprojectstohowan
allinclusivemodelaffectstheirteaching(seeAppendixA).
Next, I interviewed school directors (principals). The interviews gathered background
and context information as to what roles and how long they had been associated with the
community. From there, the interview transitioned to how and why they created the structures
andsupportsforthemathematicsprogramattheirsite.Iusedasemistructuredinterviewprocess
with the school directors to understand their vision and allow for unknown developments to
evolve (Appendix B). Thegoal wastounderstandwhatpracticesschooldirectorsemployedwith

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16

the aim of being able to corroborate certain areas where teachers were feeling supported and/or
areastofurtherexamineconcerns.
Meanwhile, I sent college advisors a short survey (AppendixC)togaintheirperceptions
of college preparedness, successes or challenges in the application process, and the rigor
regarding course offerings, all in respect to mathematics. As college advisors, they areawareof
challenges surrounding students in applying to and choosing colleges. The advisors also work
with students and colleges through the Early Assessment Programs (EAP) which determines
college placement for many students. My focus was on college mathematics course placement
and percentages of students requiring remedial courses. As teacher efficacy and student success
has been found to have a correlation (Hoy & Spero, 2005 Bandura, 1997), this data helps
providecontexttotheproblem.
The remainder of my qualitative data collection was focused on the work done with a
math discipline (department) group. Data gathering techniques included: meeting notes, journal
entries, exit cards and individual interviews of team members. The interviews focused on their
background andpreparation forteaching,challengesandrewardssurroundingtheircurrentwork,
andidentifiedneedsforsupport/growthasaneducator.
The quantitative data collected included an analysis of YouthTruth (student surveydata)
to analyze student perception of the mathematics instruction and structures, andtheirfeelingsof
college preparedness. Test scores, with a focus on the collegeentranceexamsofSATandACT,
were gathered and compared to state and nationalaverages.Thegoalofgatheringandanalyzing
all of this data is to provide school communities with a picture of what structures and practices
helpfacilitateasenseofefficacyforsecondarymathematicsteachers.

DataCollection
Surveys
(December,January)
The surveys provided a means for capturing teacher and college advisor perceptions of
the work surrounding the instruction and preparedness of students in mathematics. They
provided both qualitative and quantitative data with the hope of developing key concepts and
themes around the highlights and areas for improvement. The respective surveys were sent to

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

17

thirty teachers and five college advisors across five campuses.The dataforperceptionquestions
was quantifiedintables andgraphstodeterminetrends.Theopenendedquestionswerecodedto
capturekeywordsandtrendssupplementingbaselineinterviewquestions.
YouthTruth, a service which collects student perceptions on schools and their learning,
surveyed the students of the setting schools. The results were analyzed for trends in student
satisfactionsurroundingthemathematicsprogramandtheirperceptionsofteacherefficacy.
Interviews
(January,March)
The interviews provided more in depth reporting and analysis of director, instructional
coach and teacher thoughts regarding mathematics instruction. Four director interviews were
focused on the reasoning for certain school structures, like daily schedule, coursedefinitionand
support personnel. Two instructional coach interviews were focused on what practices they felt
supported teachers and areas for continued teacher/instructional growth. Five individual teacher
interviews were focused on their preparation for teaching mathematics, perceptions and
reasoning for issues surrounding mathematics instruction and student learning, and areas for
support. Partial transcripts of the interviews were coded and triangulated with results from the
surveysandtheorytocreatefindings.
InquiryJournal,FieldNotes
(OngoingDecemberMarch)
These notes were a compilation of my observations and participation in meetings,
conversations and teacher and student interactions. They provided insights into the methods
employed and other perceptions of the work of teaching and learning mathematics. These notes
werereviewedandcodedwithkeywordstosupplementearlierresearch.
MathDisciplineMeetingNotes
(BiWeeklyDecemberMarch)
These notes were a collection of participant activities and discussions surrounding the
investigation and defining of mathematical practices at one of theschoolsites.Teachersworked
together to brainstorm, rank and further define and reflect on these practices. These notes were
analyzed for trends and real life examples of teachers creating both individual and collective
sensesofefficacy.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

18

Timeline
November2014

IRBsubmission

December2014

IRBapproval
Teachersurveysent(withonlineconsentquestion)
Ongoingjournal/fieldnotes

January2015

Mathdisciplinemeetingnotescommence(withparticipants
providingconsentviaonlineform)
Collegeadvisorsurveysent(withonlineconsentquestion)
Directorinterviews(withsignedconsentforms)
Instructionalcoachinterview(withsignedconsentforms)
Ongoingjournal/fieldnotes

February2015

Ongoingmathdisciplinemeetingnotes
Exitcardfollowingmathdisciplinemeeting
Ongoingjournal/fieldnotes

March&April2015

Ongoingmathdisciplinemeetingnotes
Ongoingjournal/fieldnotes
GatheredtestscoreandYouthTruthdata
Individualteacherinterviews

Findings

Over the course of six months, I observed, participated, and recorded events in math
classrooms and schools across the setting. I began my research by surveying math teachers to
gauge their background and experiences withprogressivematheducationin aninclusivesetting.
All students in a given grade level are placed into the math course for their gradelevelwiththe
vision the teacher will provide access and challenge to all students in theroom. Only secondary
math instructors were polled with a response rate of 33% of the population across five sites. In
combination with this activity, results from a student perception survey, YouthTruth, was
analyzed to help determine students view of the mathematics program. The results used were
from one of the five secondary schools with 87% of the students responding. Theseresultsthen
assisted in the collectingofinformationfromschooldirectors,teachersandinstructionalcoaches
viainterviews.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

19

VisionandEfficacyTeachers
In trying to understand the mindsets of teachers, questions surrounding the purpose of
mathematics were posed. As per the indicated research (Harel, 2008 Polya, 1954), teachers
understood the importance of thinking critically and providing a foundation of math skills.
However the teacher responses to the purpose of these skills varied with eight of the ten
responses focused more on college and exam preparation, ...because of the traditional exams
and courses in their near future...it is to prepare them for those things. However, a few
responsesfocusedmoreontheexplorationofmathasdemonstratedbythisresponse:
I think math education should be allowing students to find their identity, empoweringthem,
allowing them to be autonomous with each other, free from some (mathematical) authority
through an inquiry based system wherethey arecollaborating,criticallythinkingandmaking
sense out of math (reality) with each other. I also feel like they can meet standards and
developprocessesthroughthissystem.

While teacher passion and commitment to their students was evident in their responses,
there was confusion, and sometimes disagreement, as to what the purpose of mathematics
education is across the respondents. This sentiment was echoed in interview responses gathered
from a teacher support specialist or instructional coach at one oftheschoolsites. Whenasked
what the coach interpreted as challenges math teachers faced, one response focused on the lack
of vision or clarity. Questions such as What are the expectations of us as math educators in a
PBL school? and How does it look? were two themes which emerged. This was echoed by
another

instructional

coachs

reflection on the question of vision.

Peopleinmatheducationarehaving
trouble progressing as quickly as the
other disciplinesarefor somereason,
because we all learned math this
way, and we like math this way, and
math worked for us this waybut
people arent walking around loving
math.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

20

In correlation to the vision andpurpose ofmathematicsquestions,theideaofefficacy,or

the belief one is effective, is a factor in the success of teaching and learning in anysubjectarea
(Hoy & Spero, 2005 Shaughnessy, 2004)
. One of the survey questions posed to teachers was
whether they believed the schools structure for math was adequately challenging all math
students.
Figure 4
shows the results 72.7% of the respondents either disagreed or were neutral
withthestatementindicatingahighlevelofdissatisfactionwiththecurrentstructure.

VisionandEfficacyStudents
This variety of expectations and dissatisfaction with the mathematics program was also
evident in the student YouthTruth openended responses. Students were asked to comment on
areas of strengths and improvements about their schools. Students selected areas where they
interpreted the school needed improvement from various categories, including the option of
Nothing. Of the 479 responses, 32% of the responses indicated there were no areas for
improvement. Ofthe68%,or325respondents,indicatinganareaforimprovement, 20%ofthose
comments included the keyword of math.
Figure 5
displays the comparison to other
discipline specific comments using the
keywords humanities and science
showing of the three disciplines, math
received87%oftheresponses.
There

were

many

responses

regarding the math program not adequately

preparing students for exams and future math courses, but some students appreciated the
emphasis on thinking about math. An 11th grade student shared, For example, in math class, I
learn and practice learning HOW tothinklikeamathematicianandHOWtothinkoutofthebox
to solve problems by myself rather than being told how to solve a problem and memorizingthe
steps. However,
the majority of comments focused on a desire for more foundational work
which is reflected bythis10thgradestudentresponse,Myschool'smathcurriculumworkswith
conceptual math, which is important, but learning can be very confusing when a teacher starts

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

21

with the conceptual math and teaches solely with it. One really needs procedural mathaswell.
This comment iscorroboratedbystudentswhohavesupplementedtheirlearningthroughoutside
resources, As a result of our inept math program, I've had to work very hard at Community
College to make up for lost ground just to be prepared for a four year college.

Student

perceptionoftheprogramaffectsallthestakeholders,includingparents,teachersanddirectors.
Though the majority of comments focused on students feeling unprepared or wanting
additional challenges, it could also be perceived as a misunderstanding regarding what the
institution values. Students (and parents) may be unclear of the design principles of deeper
learning and/or projectbased learning, specifically in terms of math as evidenced by the
following student comment and others like it I want to learn high school math from public
schools where they give you a lecture on how to do this math and giving examples with the
class. This shared lack of clarity by teachers and students as to the purpose and methods to
teachandlearnmathematicsisacontributingfactorintheefficacyoftheprogram.

InclusionandEfficacy
Another question posed to teachers dealt with the subject of whether an allinclusive
model affected their teaching, and if so, how. Of the eleven respondents, ten of them, or 91%,
said the model affected their teaching eight respondents felt it was a difficult challenge while
three of them were either neutral or felt it challenged them to be better teachers.
Figure 6
providessomesampleresponses.
Figure 6: Responses from teacher survey question "Doeshavinganallinclusivemodelaffectyour teaching,andif so,
how?"

Ifinditincrediblychallengingtoassistallstudentsattheircurrentlevelofmathematics.
Yes,Ihavetomake suretoplan bothinterventions andextensionsformyunits.Itcanbe
Commentson verydifficulttobalanceandmakesureallneedsarebeingmetallthetime.
Absolutely. Theoretically it is a great idea. In practice, I amnotequippedwithenough
Challenges
timeormanpowertoserviceallstudentsaswellastheydeserve.
IdonotfeelthatIhave enoughtimetomodify,scaffoldandaccommodatealllearnersin
thissetting.
Yes,youhavetobeanevenbetterteacher.Youhavetofindtherightproblemsand

Commentson strategiestoprovidearigorousclassforallconstituents.
Benefits
Yes,itmakes theclassroom richerandpushesme/ustoamoreopen endedapproachand

valuesalltypesofthinkingandapproachestoproblems.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

22

While a few teachers expressed optimism with the current school structures and the
allinclusive nature of the classrooms, the majority of teachers did not. The teacherscomments
regarding challengeswerealsosubstantiatedbyinterviewresponsesfromoneoftheinstructional
coaches. Responses to the question of teacher challenges included having mixed classrooms
and meeting the needs of all of our learners. If a teacher doesnt feel they are helping all the
students in their classroom, combined with the student perception of dissatisfaction with the
math program and individual teacher performance, than their degree of confidenceintheability
todotheirjobhasbeencompromised.
The research conducted found these two main factors, misunderstanding the goalsofthe
program and the ability to reach all learners in a classroom, contribute to the perceived and
documented challenges of teachers and students. These problems, though notofficiallystatedas
such, are not new to the organization and there have been attempts to lessen the effect on
teaching and learning bythevariousschoolsites.Thefollowingsectionwillattempttoprovidea
samplingofthestrategiesemployed.

StrategiesWhichLeadtotheFormationofVision
During the course of my research I also embedded myself within the mathematics
discipline group at one of the school sites. The group consisted of seven teachers with three of
them being first year hires. Discipline meetings occurred approximately every other week for
fortyfive minutes before classes began. Facilitation of the meetings was on arotationalbasisto
follow the design principle of teacherasdesigner without imposed hierarchical structures.
However, this structure was not initially conducive to teacher learning as there was no defined
vision or arc to the meetings. It was perceived no one teacher wanted to step forward to define
thisvisionlestitbeperceivedtheyweresomehowsuperiortotheirpeers.
After dealing with parent complaints on the effectiveness of teachers and the math
program, the school director and I brainstormed with the group on what practices they believed
should be evident in all classrooms (see Appendix D for a listing of thosepractices).Thisevent
was followed by several meetings where the group individually defined and defended the
meanings of these practices to reach a common definition for each of them. This was then

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

23

followed by threemeeting arcs covering the various practices. This processes of collectively
agreeing on what was important was a unifying factor for the group. In an exit card response
after one of the meetings to What worked well for you today? the response was
I think the
structureandpositivedialoguewithapurpose(ExitCard).
Other school sites are taking advantage of additional professional development meeting
times to selfselect into action groups tocontinuetheirdiscussionsandsupportofmathlearning.
This creates a weekly checkin with discipline members, as opposed to a two to three week
cycle, which allows them to gain traction in advancing their vision and improved practices.
Some practices, including the use of improvement science or rapid cycles ofmeasurablechange
initiatives, have focused on improving lessons and classroom management.
I did not directly
observethesepracticesbutlearnedofthemthroughinterviews.

UsingInstructionalCoaches
Other school sites are employing the use of the aforementioned teacher support
specialists or instructional coaches. These positions tend to be temporary from year to year
depending upon available funding. Of the five secondary sites, two of them haveeitherafullor
parttime math instructional coaches with another site utilizingagraduatestudentintherole. As
per one of the instructional coachs reflection, having a dedicated resource to assist in planning
has been very helpful to teachers. Staff meetings are more bigpicture,thecoachrelationshipis
like having a mentor that is readily available. On a related note, during followup interviews
with three teachers, all three mentioned mentors during their first year was one of the most
helpfulsupportstructurestheyexperienced
.
In delving deeper to understand how and why the school settings are structured the way
they are, I interviewed the directors of four out of the five secondary schools. Their leadership
experiences with the setting schools ranged from first year to eight plus years, and in addition
theywereallexperiencededucators.Allthedirectorsstated mathematicsinstructionandlearning
was an area for growth. Insupportofhavinginstructionalcoaches,onedirectorstatedTeachers
are really excited to have that consistent, ongoing support and it is An amazing luxury
having a structure for dialogue astowhatwewantourmathtolooklike.Anotherdirector, who

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

24

uses two parttime teacher/coaches as management designees for math does so in response to
not having a background in math and having a larger staff thanothersites.Whendirectorswere
asked whether other discipline groups have had a similar structure of coaches, the answer was
no. Thisrevelationseems seminalinunderstandingteacherefficacyandwillbediscussed further
in the conclusion. Also, one director tied in the need for students to develop a growth mindset
and overcome alackofselfefficacy.Finally,multipledirectorsspokeabouttheneedtoprepare
teachers for the transition from traditional teaching methodstoamoreprogressive approachand
the Common Core standards. A major source of funding for the instructional coaches are paid
from Common Core transition grants. A further area for research may to be to examine the
perceived effectiveness of the coaching based on their qualifications and/or training in
implementingcommoncoremethodsandstandards.
There were many practices occurring across the school sites to improve the instruction
and learningofmathematics.It isanareaofongoingcontemplationandresearchsurroundingthe
practices, methods and support structures to increase efficacy. Whether it is student orteachers,
the idea of efficacy and having a mindset which allows for growth and a positive experience
appearstobeanimportantfactorinaffectingmathinstructionandlearning.

Conclusions
This research focused on understanding what factors affected the perception of efficacy
in the teachingandlearningofmathematicsinseveralprogressivesecondaryschools.Efficacyis
the belief in ones ability to produce the desired or intended results. For teachers, this is the
belief the practices and structures they use and work in contribute to student success. For
students, this is the belief theycanusemathematicsandarepreparedforcollegelevelwork.The
conclusion of thisstudytoimproveperceivedefficacycanbespecificallyattributedtotwoareas:
1) Unclear expectations or vision of the mathematics program, and 2)Aneed formoreeffective
strategies for reaching all learners in a classroom. Vision in this context is defined as having a
plan to define clear goals and the methods to reach those goals. I believe there are two main
areas which may develop this vision: 1) Defining the institutions goals for secondary
mathematics,and2)Teacherpreparednessandsupport.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

25

DeweyandDefiningVision
Literature (Harel, 2008, Hauk et al., 2010, Polya, 1954)stressesinordertolearnanduse
mathematics one needs to provide both ways of thinking and applying mathematics along with
knowing and practicing the procedures and formulas. The majority of current mathematics
teachers were taught with traditional methods and intransitiontoteachinginamoreprogressive
setting, it may be necessary for teachers and directors to reflect on the questions Dewey (1938)
posedtoprogressiveeducators:

The problem forprogressiveeducation is:Whatistheplaceand meaningofsubjectmatterand

of organization within experience? How does subjectmatter function? Is there anything
inherent in experience, which tends towards progressive organization of its contents? What
resultsfollow whenthematerialsofexperiencearenotprogressivelyorganized?Aphilosophy
whichproceedsonthebasisofrejection,ofsheeropposition,willneglectthesequestions.

Dewey was trying to stress the importance of having a plan or vision for student learning. The
setting schools possess a design principle of the teacher being the primary designer of their
curriculum and assessments. This design principle allows for teacher passion to infuse the
learning arena if teachers are excited about their lessons, the students will also beexcited.This
is a valid premise, however it does not preclude the necessary standards or progression of
learning which needs to take place in order for students to successfully gain mathematical
fluency.
In answering Deweys questions regarding subjectmatter functions, organization and
progression, the CCSSM have been developed to guide educators to what topics andpracticesa
student needs to understand and use to meet the goalsofsecondarymathematics,butnothowto
teach them. The setting schools have adopted the framework of the CCSSM, but there are still
questions in how to incorporate them with themodelofprojectbasedlearning.Teacherefficacy
is being affected by the pull of the school model, parent and student desire (and their own) to
have the students perform well on gatekeeping exams, and their own backgrounds intraditional
mathematicsinstruction.
Mathematicsteachersinthisresearchsettinghavebeengatheredfromvariousindustries
anddisciplinemajors.AsJimLewis,aprofessorofmathematicsattheUniversityof
NebraskaLincolnandresearcherwiththeMathematicsTeacherEducationPartnership(MTEP)

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

26

states,"Oneoftheideasisthatwhatyouneedtoknowinordertoteachwellisdifferentfrom
whatyouneedtoknowtobeayoungengineeroreconomist,"and,"Inmathematics,youare
oftentryingtosynthesizeknowledge.Asateacher,you'retryingtopullapartknowledgeand
understandwhypeoplehavedifficultylearning"(Sawchuk,2014).Thevariedbackgroundsof
teachersinthisresearchmaycontributetoalackofcommonunderstandingand/orhowtofoster
thedevelopmentofmathematicalpracticesforstudents.Teachersanddirectorswithinaschool
needtodefinewhatthosepracticesmeantothemanddevelopacommonlanguagetofacilitate
theirsuccessfulacquisitionbystudents.Asshownbymyexperienceswithinonesettingschool,
havingthedesireandtimetodefinethesepracticesdevelopedteacherefficacyifthereisaplan,
thereisawaytoknowifoneisbeing
effective.Theprocessweemployedwas
similartothedesignthinkingprocess
developedbyStanfordsd.school(see
Figure8
)asuggestedmodelfortheprocess
canbefoundinAppendixE.
Figure8:DesignThinkingModelSource:JoeyAquino/WordPress

However, the process would have benefited from more frequent meetings and theuseof
an instructional coach or mentor to guide the process (
BehrstockSherratt et al. 2014 Lemov,
2012
). Additional areas for research and dialogue would be to extend this conversation and
process to middle school and elementary teachers to align the vision and practices of the K12
studentexperienceinmathematics.

ToTestorNotToTest
An additional areaaffectingteacherefficacyisstandardizedtesting.Highschoolstudents
wishing to pursue a college degree are directly affected by the outcomes of college entrance
exams. The setting schools are performing in line with state averages. However, given the
advantages of smaller classes and more personalized instruction, shouldnt the results reflect
those benefits? The CRESST center at UCLA stated the new SBAC and PARCC tests reflect a
shift towards measuring deeper learning (Hermann & Linn, 2013), with similar revisions to the
college entrance exams also forthcoming. If these tests are geared towards assessing deeper

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

27

learning and the CCSSM and those are the frameworks for the mathematics program at the
setting and other progressive schools, will they be deemed as important benchmarks forstudent
learning? There are conflicting messages being sent to the educators in this study regarding the
importanceofstandardizedtests.
Progressive school educators and leaders need to decide if the CCSSM and associated
gatekeeping exams are important to them as an institution. If they value what gets measured,
then the teaching will follow with whatever modifications this involves. This does not need to
translate to teaching to the test, however it does mean aligning curriculum to the skills and
knowledge required to be successful. Teachers can still use their individual passions to help
students discover the math, but alignment of vision and practices is key across grade levels and
schools. If school leaders dont value what they measure, then they have to be clear to their
stakeholders (teachers, students, parents and the community) about that idea, and let the
stakeholders make an informed judgement regarding their decision to be involved with the
institution.Havinganalignedandpublicvisionwillfosterefficacy,anditdoesnothavetotrump
teacherasdesigner.Itsolelyprovidesaframeworkofunderstandingandpurposetothework.

ProfessionalDevelopment
New, and some experienced, teachers could benefit from professional development to
assist them in their transition to the pedagogical aspects of deeper learning and strategies for
differentiating instruction. Multiple conversations with teachers, even those with masters in
mathematics, admitted to being unaware of the ways of thinking (Harel, 2008) behind certain
mathematical knowledge they possess. As stated earlier, being good at math or even using
math in the workplace is different from understanding what strategies willhelpstudentlearn.In
order to further develop a sense of efficacy, additional content, discourse and anticipatory
knowledge (Hauk et al., 2010) is needed. The use of mentors was deemed the most effective
method ofsupportfornewteachersfromthisresearchandothers(BehrstockSherrattetal,2014,
Lemov, 2012). The use of instructional coaches as a professional development strategy also
providesamentorthatisreadilyavailable.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

28

InclusionIssues
The inclusive environment provides a layer of complexity foreducators.Themajorityof
educators in this setting expressed concern over reaching all students. Researchers Powell et al.
(2013) found students with mathematics learning disabilities (MD) need ex
plicit instruction
which involves teacher demonstration of detailed stepbystep instructions along with
independent practice
. The methods needed to help MD students may be in conflict with the
model of projectbased learning or they may need additional strategies to reach competency. In
recentinterviewswithstudentsregardingYouthTruthsurveyresults,thosewhofindmathematics
easy expressed concerns regarding teachers focusing instruction on the students who need
moresupporttherebyimpedingtheirabilitytomovedeeperand/orfasterthroughthematerial.
A strategy that may increase teacher and student efficacy is increased dialogue and
cooperation with inclusion specialists or special educators. Hobbs & Westling (2002) and
Monsen et al. (2014) found teacher efficacy improved when special educators and teachers
worked together to form a support system for themselves and students. Jointly reviewing case
studies helped them develop best practices and
led to
an emphasis on cooperativelearningand
teamdecisionmaking(Hobbs&Westling,2002,p.188).

ResearchSurroundingProjectBasedLearning
An area for additional research could focus on the complexities of trying to teach
mathematics through the use of projects.
Teachers may benefit from specific teachingstrategies
to improve the balance of instruction between thinking, understanding and practicing
mathematics when attempting instruction through projects.
Questions surrounding time
allocation and the ability for students to effectively gain the adopted standards through project
work could be key considerations. Also, research regarding the definition and structure of
mathematics projects could help educators more effectively plan and coordinate instruction.
Again, these future research considerations are in line with defining thevisionofamathematics
program.
I believe the ultimate goalofmathematicseducationistocreatelearningenvironmentsto
increase student efficacy. Student efficacy will hopefully result in the successful attainment of

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

29

the language of mathematics and its associated college and careerreadiness.Efficacyappearsto

be a cyclical event. Student efficacy can facilitate teacher efficacy and vice versa. Teacher and
student efficacy can be facilitated by defining the goals of a mathematics program and making
them transparent to stakeholders. Providing educators with continued professional development
in their own transitions from traditional methodologies to a more progressive or constructivist
approach to mathematics is key to improving their efficacy. If students and teachers share
common vision, practices and language of mathematics across the K12 spectrum, who knows
wherewecouldrankasanation.

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

30

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AppendixA
TeacherSurveyQuestions
Thesequestionswereamixtureofsingleanswer,multiplechoice,ranking/scalingandopen
endedquestions:

1. Whatgradeleveldoyouteach?
2. Doyouteachacombinedclass(likePhysics/Math1)?
3. Howlongisatypicalclassperiod(inminutes)?
4. Isyourclassasemesteroryearlongcourse?
5. Doyoufeelyouhaveamanageableworkload?
6. Approximatelyhowmanystudentsdoyouteachinday?
7. Howwouldyourateyourteachingstyle,frombeinghighlytraditionaltobeinghighly
progressive/constructivist?{scaledquestion}
8. Doyouuseanyparticulartextbookorprimarysourceinformation?
9. Howmanyminutesperweekwillbeused/assignedtoreinforcemathematicalconcepts
(i.e.skillspractice)?
10. Whatpercentageofclasstimedoyouuseforopenendedquestions?
11. TowhatextentdoesyourclassincorporatetheCommonCoreStateStandardsin
Mathematics(CCSSM)?
12. Doyoufeel
(ScaledquestionsfromDisagreecompletelytoAgreeCompletely)
a. freetoteachinwhatevermethodsyouchoose?
b. thattheCCSSMprovideagoodframeworkforstudentstoobtainmathematical
proficiency?
c. thatitispossibletoobtainadepthofunderstandingofmathematicalconcepts
throughprojects?
d. itisimportanttoprovideclasstimetopracticemathematicalskillsandconcepts?
e. thatallmathstudentsareadequatelychallengedinthecurrentschoolstructurefor
mathematics?

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

35

f. thatallmathstudentsinyourclass(es)areadequatelychallengedand/or
supported?
g. thatyourstudentswillbepreparedforcollegelevelmathematics?(junior&
seniorteachers)
h. thatthemathteamatyourschoolsharesacommonvision/philosophyof
teaching/learningmathematics?
13. Whatisyourdefinitionofamathproject?
14. Doeshavinganallinclusivemodelaffectyourteaching,andifso,how?
15. Doeshavinganallinclusivemodelaffectstudentlearning,andifso,how?
16. Whatdoyouthinkarethebestmethod(s)(instructionalorinstitutional)forstudentsto
understandandbeabletousemathematics?
17. Whatdoyouthinkisthepurposeofsecondarymathematicsprograms?
18. Arethereanyothercommentsorsuggestionsregardingthecelebrationsand/or
challengesintheteachingorstudentlearningofmathematicsthatyouwouldliketo
share?
19. Wouldyouliketoshareyournameforpossiblefocusgroups,interviewsordiscussions?
(thisiscompletelyvoluntary)

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36

AppendixB
InterviewQuestionsforDirectors
1. HowlonghaveyoubeenworkingfortheHTHorganization?
2. Howlonghasyourcurrentstructureformathematicsbeeninplace?
3. Ifthestructurehaschangedunderyourtenure,whatwereyourreasonsformakingthe
change?
4. Areyouplanningtomakeanyfuturechangestomathematicsinstruction?Ifso,whatand
why?
5. Doyouhavepersonnel(coaches)thatareassignedspecificallytoassisteducatorsinmath
instruction?
6. Doyoufeelthat
i) allmathstudentsareadequatelychallengedwiththecurrentschoolstructurefor
mathematics?
ii) itisimportanttopreparestudentforstandardizedtests?
iii) junior/seniorstudentsarepreparedforcollegelevelmathematics?
iv) mathinstructorsareadequatelytrainedtoteachinaprogressive/constructivist
manner?
v) mathconceptscanbeeffectivelylearnedthroughprojects?
vi) mathteachersfeelthatmathshouldbetaughtthroughprojects?
7. Doyouhaveanyconcernsregardingthemathematicsprogramatyourschool?Ifso,whatare
they?
8. Arethereanyothercommentsorsuggestionsregardingmathematicsinstructionor
preparednessthatyouwouldliketoshare?

{Additionalindividualfollowupquestionswereaskedbasedonresponsestotheabove
questions.}

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

37

AppendixC
CollegeAdvisorSurveyQuestions

1. HowlonghaveyoubeenworkingfortheHTHorganization?
2. Doyoufeel(Scaledquestions)
a. thatallmathstudentsareadequatelychallengedwiththecurrentschoolstructure
formathematics?
b. thatstudentsarepreparedtoperformwellonstandardizedtest?
c. thatjunior/seniorstudentsarepreparedforcollegelevelmathematics?
3. Arethereanyothercommentsorsuggestionsregardingthemathematicsprogramsthat
youwouldliketoshare?
4. Wouldyouliketoshareyourcontactinformationforpossiblefocusgroupsortoprovide
additionalcomments?(thisiscompletelyvoluntary)

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

AppendixD
MathematicalPractices

38

TEACHEREFFICACYINSECONDARYMATHEMATICS

39

AppendixE
DesignThinking&DefiningPractices

Forthefullpresentation,selectthislink:
FosteringEfficacy