4.

INTRODUCTION TO V/F DRIVES

4.1 AC motor
The first electric motor built in the early 1800's was a dc motor. It was simple to
control speed by controlling the armature and field voltage and provides very fast
torque response. Many application requirements were met by changing the speed of the
dc motor. But they had many disadvantages of higher cost, higher rotor inertia, and
maintenance problems with commutators and brushes.
The first ac motor was designed around the turn of the century. Ac motors are
simpler and more robust than dc motors. The fixed speed-torque characteristics of ac
motors are not suitable for all applications. Ac motors convert electric energy into
mechanical energy by electromagnetic induction. This principle behaves in a manner
where a voltage will be induced if a conductor is moving through a magnetic field. If
the conductor is a closed circuit, a current will flow in the conductor (rotor). That
current creates another field, which interacts with the stator field.
The induction motor and the synchronous motors are two types of ac motors. In
principle the stator functions the same way in both motor types. The difference is in
rotor construction and how rotors operate in the magnetic field created by current
flowing in the stator windings. With synchronous motors, the rotor and the magnetic
field are running at the same speeds. With induction motors, the rotor and the magnetic
field are running at different speeds. The difference is defined as slip speed or slip.
When the rotating speed of the motor is greater than the speed of the rotating magnetic
field, the motor will act as a generator, transferring power from the motor back to the
electrical source. When the motor rotates at the same or lower speed than the magnetic
field, power is transferred from the electrical source to the motor.
Among all types of ac machines, the induction machine, particularly the cage
type, is most commonly used in industry. These machines are very economical, rugged
and reliable, practically no maintenance and are available in the ranges of fractional
horsepower (FHP) to multi-Megawatt capacity. FHP machines are available in singlephase, but poly-phase (three-phase) machines are often used in variable speed drives.
36

An ac Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM) has two basic parts: The
stationary part called the stator and the rotating part called the rotor as shown in fig 4.1.
The stator is a series of wound coils, while the rotor is a cage of aluminium or copper
bars connected by end rings. The phase windings and the stator core must produce the
magnetic field in a number of pole pairs.
Stator

Rotor

Rotor Bar

Fan Blades

End Rings

Fig 4.1 Electro Magnetic Parts of an AC

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
It is the number of pole pairs, which determines the speed of the rotating
magnetic field. Synchronous speed (Ns) of the motor is equal to 120/number of pole
pair times the applied frequency. The continuous torque that a motor will produce is 1.5
times the number of pole pairs times the motor horsepower. The speed is dependent on
the number of poles pairs of the motor and the frequency of the supply voltage. The
frequency applied to the motor sets the upper speed motor limit.
The power applied to the stator creates a magnetic field that rotates. As these
lines of flux cut across the rotor bars, rotor current is induced. This induced current
creates its own lines of flux.

If the rotor conductors are initially stationary, its

conductors will be subjected to a sweeping magnetic field, inducing current in the

short-circuited rotor (as shown in fig 4.2) at the same frequency. The interaction of air
gap flux and rotor mmf produces torque.
At synchronous speed of the machine, i.e., when the rotor catches up with the
stator, no lines of stator flux would be cutting across the rotor, so no rotor current, no
rotor magnetism, no attraction, no rotation, and the rotor begins to slow down. At any
other speed Nr, the speed differential Ns- Nr called slip speed, induces rotor current and
torque is developed.

37

Rotor Field Created by Induced

Current Flow in Rotor Conductors

Rotating Magnetic Field

Fig 4.2 Rotor Current generation in a motor

Speed/Torque/Current curves
In an ac motor, torque varies by:

T=Kx

E 2
F

x I line

Hence V/F ratio is altered to obtain higher starting torques.

Where: E/F is proportional to motor flux
I is current drawn by the motor
The applied voltage controls the torque that the motor produces. Torque is
proportional to the voltage squared. Torque is also dependent on the slip S. The
operating zones of the motor basing on slip can be defined as plugging (1.0<S<2.0),
motoring (0<S<1.0), and regenerating (S<0). In the normal operating region Te=0 at
S=0, and as S increases (i.e., with decrease in speed), T e increases in a quasi-linear
curve until breakdown torque is reached, beyond which T e decreases with increase in
S. It can be seen from the torque-speed curve of fig 4.3.
The motors capabilities are listed by the manufacturer in the form of a speed /
torque curve. Fig 4.3 is a typical curve showing, not only the torque capability, but the
amount of current required for producing that torque. This curve is typical for an across
the line start and shows 600% inrush current that decreases as the motor accelerates.
Only one curve is shown, because across the line stating is at one frequency (typically
60 Hz.).

38

600

Current
Break down
torque
(peak Torque)
Rated Torque
at rated FLA.

400

% Current
and
%Torque

200
100

Synchronous
speed

Torque
500

900

1725
1750

1800RPM

Speed
(RPM
Speed/Torque/current
)

Base
speed

Fig 4.3
curves of
Squirrel Cage induction Motors (line started)
Some important points along this curve are pointed out as followsBreakaway Torque is the amount of torque required to actually break the load free and
begin rotation. This motor is capable of about 2.3 times its rated torque or 230%.
Pull up Torque is the amount of torque available to accelerate the load once the motor is
broken free.
Breakdown torque is the maximum amount of torque the motor can ever produce.
Rated torque is the amount of torque the motor is designed to produce at rated slip and
rated current.
Synchronous Speed is the rotating speed of the stator when rated frequency is applied.
Rated Slip is the difference between stator and rotor at full load.
Base Speed is the speed with which the rotor is running when the motor is fully
loaded, rated frequency is applied, and therefore rated slip is present. For example, a 60
Hz, 4-pole motor has a stator rotating speed (synchronous speed) of 1800 rpm and a
typical rotor speed (Base Speed) of 1750 rpm. This means a rated slip of 50 rpm.
The physical size of the electric motor will usually determine how much work it
can do. Since the power output W = Diameter^2 * Length * RPM * Constant, the size
of the stator and rotor will relate directly to the torque producing ability of the motor.

39

Traditionally, ac machines with a constant frequency sinusoidal power supply

have been used in constant speed applications, whereas dc machines were preferable for
variable speed applications. But dc machines have many disadvantages resulting in
reduced motor reliability. Hence to use more rugged ac motors for variable speed
applications also, led to variable-frequency, variable speed ac machine drive
technology.
Initially, the slip ring induction motors (SRIM) were used for variable speed
operations, by changing the additional resistance in the rotor circuit. In applications
requiring high starting torques (like crane application), full external resistance is
included in the rotor circuit and maximum torque level is achieved at comparatively
lesser speeds. Thus SRIMs offer high starting torques but only step speeds could be
achieved. In order to avoid heavy inrush of currents, during starting and to obtain
smooth variation of 3-phase ac voltage, they employ soft starting (realised by phase
control), but is suitable only for variable torque loads (Fans, pumps etc.,).
As the SRIM employs slip rings, it is much costlier as compared to SCIMs and
need comparatively more maintenance. Modern methods of static frequency conversion
have liberated the squirrel cage induction motor from its historical role as a fixed speed
machine. But the inherent advantages of adjustable frequency operation cannot be fully
realised unless a suitable control technique is employed; the choice of control strategy
is vital in determining the overall characteristics and performance of the drive system.
4.2 Introduction to ac drives
The use of adjustable speed in industrial equipment is increasing due to the need
for better equipment control and for energy saving where partial power is required.
Drive systems are widely used in industries for all applications such as pumps, fans,
paper and textile mills, steel and cement mills etc. The electrical machine that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy, and vice-versa, is the workhorse in a drive
system. An ac drive is a device for controlling speed of an ac motor by controlling the
frequency of the voltage supplied to the motor. Following points put forth the need for
an ac drive -

40

 Machine or process requirements - Occasionally a machine or a process will

require other than base speed operation.
Energy savings this is by far the greatest single application of adjustable speed
drives. In variable torque applications that are frequently required in HVAC
industry, a tremendous cost saving can be developed by using adjustable speed
drives. If a fan could be slowed by as little as 20% of its base speed, an energy
savings of 50% can be developed.
Automated Factory Concept - Adjustable speed drives allow industries to
communicate information from one point to another and to react to the
information communicated.
Productivity increase - The adjustable speed drives utilize resources more
efficiently increasing the productivity.
The evolution of ac variable speed drive technology has been partly driven by
the desire to emulate the performance of a dc drive such as fast torque response and
speed accuracy, while utilising the advantages offered by the standard ac motor.
AC Drives Features
No commutator / brushes
AC motors are more available than DC
Power factor is constant across speed range
Low rotating inertia per frame size
AC does not require reversing contactor for reversing
AC motors offer more flexible motor enclosure
Individual isolation transformer not required
4.2.1 Operating region of a drive
To apply a drive to a motor, the choice of motor design will be very important in
determining performance. It is because the drive does not allow the motor to operate
like it does across the line. The drive only operates the motor on a very specific portion

41

of the speed torque curve, from synchronous speed to breakdown torque as shown in
fig.4.4.
Breakdown Torque

400
300

Operating Range

%Torque 200

of Variable
Frequency Drives

100
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

% Synchronous Speed

Fig 4.4 Fixed Voltage & Frequency Speed Torque curve

Break down
torque
(peak Torque)
Torque

200

%Current
and %Torque
Current

100

500

Rated Torque
at rated FLA.

900

75RPM Slip

1725

1800RPM
75RPM Slip

Speed (RPM)

Fig 4.5 Speed -Torque curve of a drive

The speed torque curve shown in fig.4.5 is just a 60 Hz curve. Since a drive can
operate the motor at a near infinite number of frequencies, there are a near infinite
number of speed torque curves - one for each frequency. When we vary the frequency
we create a new curve at that position, again operating only on the steep portion. It is
true for above and below base speed of operation and is known as a family of curves as
shown in figure 4.6.
Notice that the shape of the curve remains constant. The result would be a
straight line at the required torque level (for Constant Torque (CT) range).
Above base speed, torque falls off as one over the square of speed and the motor
operates in Constant Horsepower (CHP) range. Still, the curve shape remains.
42

CT4.6
range
Fig
Zero to Twice Base Speed CHP

Peak

4.2.2 NEMA standards for motor selection

.64

Rated

.44

peak

1
N2

One of the standards followed by the drive manufacturers, to.33choose proper motor

Torque

.25

for the drive is according to NEMA. NEMA defines these characteristics (as in fig 4.7)
to help categorize the motors.
Speed (Multiple of Base)

Base

1.25

1.5

1.75

Tor
que
or
Am
ps
Motor Speed

Fig 4.7 Effect of Rotor Bar Shape on Torque/Amps

DESIGN A - Low resistance and low inductance rotor. Across the line, it has lowstarting torque, high breakdown (peak) torque and high locked rotor current. Drive may
have to be oversized to allow required current.
DESIGN B - Higher rotor impedance. Across the line it has slightly higher starting
torque, lower breakdown (peak) torque, lower starting current. Most commonly used
design. Drives are typically sized for this design.
DESIGN C - Double cage rotor, across the line it has high resistance for starting, low
resistance for running. It is a Combination of design A and D. It is a poor choice
for drive operation.

43

DESIGN D - Highest resistance rotor for maximum starting torque, low efficiency
(runs hot). Example: Punch press - flywheel acceleration.
4.3 Available technologies for ac drives
There are 4 basic types of control for drives today: V/Hz, Sensorless Vector, Flux
Vector and Field Oriented Control. Each has its own place depending on application.
V/Hz is basic model; provides fair speed control at reasonable price.
Sensorless Vector provides better speed regulation/ acceleration/ shock load torque.
Field Vector provides even more precise speed control as well as allowing torque
control with improved dynamic response.
Field Oriented Control provides best speed and torque control with almost dc like
performance.

4.3.1 Volts/Hertz Control

V/Hz control takes a speed reference
command and varies Voltage and Frequency
Current Feedback
V/Hz Control
CURRENT

Speed
Ref

LIMIT

Elec.
Frequency

+
Frequency
Ref

Current Limit monitors

motor current and alters
frequency command

V/HZ

V Ref

VOLTAGE
CONTROL

INVERTER
MOTOR

Gate
Signals

Electrical Frequency
Slip Frequency

SLIP
ESTIMATOR

Slip Compensation alters frequency

reference during load changes

Fig 4.8 Volts / Hertz control of Induction motor

Volts/Hertz control in its simplest form takes a speed reference command from
an external source and varies the Voltage and Frequency applied to the motor as shown
in fig 4.8. By maintaining a constant V/Hz ratio, the drive can control the speed of the
connected motor. It cannot regulate torque.

44

The open loop Volts/Hz control of an induction motor is the most popular
method of speed control because of its simplicity, and such motors are widely used in
industries. For adjustable speed applications frequency control is required. However,
voltage is required to be proportional to frequency so that the flux ( s = Vs / e)
remains constant. The power circuit consists of a diode rectifier from a single or threephase ac supply, LC filter, and PWM voltage-fed inverter.
Typically, a current limit block monitors motor current and alters the frequency
command when the motor current exceeds a predetermined value. The drive usually
monitors total current - no current resolver is used, and so cannot distinguish I d from Iq.
Torque capability is limited; peak torque available is 150%. It can provide sufficient
acceleration but limited Breakaway. An additional feature in newer drives is a slip
compensation block alters the frequency reference when the load changes to keep the
actual motor speed close to the desired speed (to correct the speed droop).
Figure 4.9 shows the steady state torque performance of a Volts/Hertz drive. The
graph has been plotted according to the following procedure:
1. A torque transducer on the motor shaft supplies the data that is plotted as shown
below.
2. The drive is given a fixed speed/frequency reference.
3. The load on the motor is increased and actual shaft torque is monitored.

TORQUE

45

Fig 4.9 V/Hz Control Torque Vs Speed

Important points to

be observed in the

above graph are:

1.

When the load is increased, the motor speed drops off. This is normally a
frequency control technology, and actual shaft speed may suffer in response to load.
On some drives (1336 PLUS for example) speed control can be improved by adding
either an open loop speed regulator, such as slip compensation, or a closed loop
regulator using a motor mounted encoder.

2.

The ability of the drive to maintain a

3.

high torque output at low speeds drops off significantly below 3 Hz as shown in
fig 4.10. Here you see the actual speed torque curve for a motor driven by a V/Hz
drive. Notice that below 3 Hz. the torque falls below the 100% or Rated value.
Additionally, because the V/Hz technology is generally used in general purpose

drives, the dynamics are somewhat less than other technologies.

46

TORQUE

Fig 4.10 V / Hz. - Speed Range 20:1

With a motor running nearly unloaded when a full load shock load is applied,
the actual shaft speed decreases rapidly as shown in fig 4.11 and takes some time to
recover. This drive has a slip compensation feature that allows the drive to correct for
extra load to keep shaft speed at the desired level, but the dynamics are somewhat
limited.
When a VFD is used to bring the motor up to speed, it starts the motor by
applying low frequencies. This allows the motor to develop only the torque required to
turn and accelerate the load. No "extra" torque is developed unless the acceleration rate
is set too fast. The applied frequency is proportional to the applied voltage. For a 460
volt rated motor, a 7.6 Volts/Hz factor is used. At low speeds, any voltage drops in the
wires must be corrected with "Boost.

Per unit
quantities

Time (seconds)

Fig 4.11 V/Hz Shock Load

It is important that VFDs be selected based on "AMPS" not on horsepower or
KW. While this type of control is very good basic drive for many applications, it is not
well suited to applications that require higher dynamic performance, applications where
the motor runs at very low speeds, or applications that require direct control of motor
torque rather than motor frequency. As the frequency becomes small at low speed, the

47

stator resistance tends to absorb the major amount of air gap flux, thus weakening the
flux. Boost voltage is added so that the rated flux and corresponding full torque become
available down to very low speeds. The PWM controller is merged with the inverter
block.
In order to supply the motor with variable frequency and voltage, from the fixed
ac supply, the supply is rectified and then inverted. Normally voltage-fed converters are
extensively used for AC motor drives, AC uninterrupted power supplies etc. In voltage
fed converters, the power semiconductor devices always remain forward biased,
therefore self-controlled forward or asymmetric blocking devices, such as GTOs, BJTs,
IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and IGCTs are suitable.
PWM inverter
PWM Principle A PWM inverter controls the output voltage within the inverter itself,
instead of varying the supply voltage to the inverter. As the inverter contains electronic
switches, it is possible to control the output voltage as well as optimize the harmonics
by performing multiple switching within the inverter with a constant dc input voltage.
Fig 4.12 represents a PWM inverter and fig 4.13 represents its voltage and current
waveforms.

AC Input
L
Diode
Rectifier

Voltage

Fixed DC Bus
+
C

Fig 4.12 PWM INVERTER

(Line to Neutral)

Current
(Line)

0
48
Fig 4.13 PWM WAVEFORMS

Inverter

Benefits of PWM technique:

Constant input P.F.
Wide speed range
High efficiency (97 - 98%)
Ride through options
Open circuit protection
Common bus regeneration
Smooth low speed operation
Limitations:
Extra hardware for regeneration to line
Motor noise (solved with IGBTs)
Possible Cable length limitations (with IGBTs)
Modern IGBT Power Switching provides:
High peak current capability
Very high switching frequency
Reduced switching losses
Fig 4.14 depicts the advantages obtained by using IGBTs over the BJTs as the
switching device in the inverter.

1336 @ 60HZ

Bi-Polar

NO LOAD SWITCHING
FREQUENCY 1.26KHZ

1336 PLUS @ 60HZ

IGBT

NO LOAD SWITCHING

49

FREQUENCY 9KHZ

Fig 4.14 Bi-Polar Transistor vs. IGBT

4.4 Benefits of Variable Frequency Drives

Provide smooth starting. Jerk in the system is totally avoided.
Smooth operation and ease of control is made possible.
All contactors and rotor resistance boxes can be removed.
Space saving is achieved, as only one panel per motion.
Significant reduction of maintenance cost (Mechanical and Electrical)
Increased availability of machines due to reliable operation.
Energy savings are considerably high, especially when the motor is not needed
to operate at full speed for most of the time.
4.5 List of available drives
Table 4.1 List of available drives [4]
Manufacturer
Allen-Bradley
ABB
Baldor
Cegelec
Control
Techniques
Eurotherm
Hitachi
Mitsubishi
PDL
Reliance
Telemecanique
Yaskawa
Allen-Bradley
Control
Techniques
Fuji
Hitachi
Mitsubishi

Model

Control Type

1336 IMPACT
ACS601
Series 18H
GEMDRIVE
4000

force technology
DirectTorque Control
Vector Control

UniDrive

Flux Vector

620 Vector
J350
V200E
Microvector
GV3000
Altivar66
616G5

Vector
Closed Loop Vector
Flux Vector
Flux Vector
Closed Loop Vector
Sensorless Vector
Flux Vector

1336PLUS

Sensorless Vector

UniDrive

Open Loop Vector

Frenic 5000 G 9
S
J300
A200E

Torque
Vector
Control
Sensorless Vector
Magnetic Flux Vector

Flux Vector

50

Torque
Mode

Auto
tuning

V/
HZ

Siemens

Micro/Midi
Master

TB Woods

WFC Series

Toshiba

Tosvert G3

Flux Current Control

Sensorless
Vector
Power
Total/True Torque

Bold "Control Type" indicates sensorless (no encoder) operation

Bold and Italicized "Control Type" indicates both sensorless and encoder operation

4.6 Conclusions
The increasing need for adjustable speed in industrial equipment led to the
evolution of static frequency conversion techniques, liberating the squirrel cage
induction motor from its historical role as fixed speed machine. Although various
control techniques may be followed to obtain variable speed operation of the motor as
mentioned above, selection of a proper drive basing on the requirements of the
application is very important. The type of load, motor rating, starting, braking, and
range of speed control required are taken into consideration to choose an appropriate
control technique.
The volts/hertz control operating in open loop is the most commonly used technique
in field. Though the drives are unable to retrieve feedback from the process, they are
sufficient for the majority of variable speed drive applications. Many open loop
variable speed drives do offer slip compensation, which enables the drive to measure its
output current and estimate the difference in actual speed and the set point (the
programmed input value). The drive will then automatically adjust itself towards the set
point based on the estimation.

51