INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 History
The combination of elements to form complex molecules have triggered
off the most intriguing and fascinating process called life, the material basis for
whose origin was a polymer. This polymer, called protein, got synthesized in
nature from simple chemical compounds like methane, ammonia and carbondioxide. Meanwhile, polymer had also appeared in their other natural forms like
wood, cotton, cellulose, starch. Starting in 1811, Henri Bracannot did
pioneering work in derivative cellulose compounds, perhaps the earliest
important work in polymer science. Despite significant advances in synthesis
and characterization of polymers, a correct understanding of polymer molecular
structure did not emerge until the 1920s. Before that, scientists believed that
polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite
molecular weights, held together by an unknown force, a concept known as
association theory. In 1922, Hermann Staudinger proposed that polymers
consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea
which did not gain wide acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger
was ultimately awarded the noble prize. Most commercially important polymers
today are entirely synthetic and produced in high volume on appropriately
scaled organic synthetic techniques. Synthetic polymers today find application
nearly every industry and area of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives
and lubricants, as well as structural compounds for products from childrens
toys to aircraft.
1.2 MONOMER
A monomer (from Greek mono one and mer part) is a small molecule
that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to from a polymer.
Monomer is the raw material for a basic polymerization reaction. Synthetic
large molecules are made by joining together thousands of small molecular units
known as monomers. The process of joining molecules is called polymerization
and the number of these repeating units in the long molecules is known as
degree of polymerization.

1.3

POLYMER

The word polymer is derived from the classical Greek words poly
meaning many and mer meaning parts. Simply stated, a polymer is a long
chain molecule that is composed of a large number of repeating units of
identical structure. They are complex and giant molecules and are different from
low molecular weight compounds like, say, common salt. Polymers are different
from metals in the sense that their structure consists of very long chain
molecules.
1.4

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
a.
b.
c.
d.

Natural & Synthetic polymer

Organic & Inorganic polymer
Thermoplastic & Thermoset polymer
Plastic, Elastomers, Fibers, & Liquid resins.

HIERACHY OF POLYMER CLASSIFICATION

A characteristic feature of todays modern technology and market
oriented economy is the excessive and exponentially increasing usage of
polymer composites in all fields of industry. The reason for this phenomenon
can be explained by the favorable price/weight ratio.

1.4.1 NATURAL POLYMER

Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural
rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist,
such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper.

1.4.2 SYNTHETIC POLYMER

The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, phenol
formaldehyde resin (or Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC or
vinyl), polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB,
silicone, and many more.

1.4.3 THERMOPLASTICS
Thermoplastics are prepared by addition polymerization. They are
straight chain are (or) slightly branched polymers and various chains are held
together by weak vanderwalls forces of attraction. Thermoplastics can be
softened on heating and hardened on cooling. They are generally soluble in
organic solvents.
Example
Polyethylene, Polypropylene etc.,

1.4.4 THERMOSET PLASTICS

Thermosetting plastics are prepared by condensation polymerization.
Various polymer chains are held together by strong covalent bonds (called
crosslinks). Thermosetting plastics get harden on heating and once harden, they
cannot be softened again. They are insoluble in organic solvents.
Example
Bakelite, polyester etc.,

1.5

POLYMERIZATION

Polymers are high molecular weight compounds whose structures are

made up of large number of simple repeating units. The repeating units are
usually obtained from low molecular weight compounds referred to as
monomers. The reaction by which monomers are converted into polymers is
known us polymerization.
Example

Polymers which are synthesized from only one kind of monomer are
called Homopolymer. Polymers which prepared from more than one kind of
monomers are called Copolymers.
1.6

EFFCTS OF STRUCTURE ON PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

1.6.1 STRENGTH
The strength of the polymer depends upon following three factors
Attractive force
Slipping power
Molecular weight

Attractive forces
Strength of linear or branched polymers exhibit weak vanderwalls forces
and its strength can be enhanced by introducing polar groups like OH,
-COOH, etc., Strength of cross linked polymers exhibit strong covalent bond
forces.
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Molecular weight
Strength of the polymers increased by increasing their chain length or by
increasing their molecular weight.
Slipping power
It deals with movement of one molecule over the another molecule.
Example
Polyethylene has high slipping power which leads to lower strength
of the molecule.
PVC has less slipping power due to their restriction of movement
by the presence of bulkier chlorine groups, results in higher
strength of the molecule.
1.6.2 PHYSICAL STATES OF POLYMERS
Amorphous State
The amorphous state of a polymer exhibits random arrangement of a
molecule which is easily get affected by external heat and pressure. During
processing, they undergo small volumetric changes when melting or solidifying.
Example
Polycarbonate, Polystyrene.
Crystalline State
A small region of macromolecules materials in which portions of large
molecules are arranged in regular way is called crystalline. During processing,
they tend to develop higher strength in the direction of molecules. Since
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commercially perfect crystalline polymers are not produced, they are identified
technically as semi crystalline.
Example
Polypropylene, Polytetrafluoroethylene (TEFLON).
1.6.3 EFFECT OF CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
The chemical group has its effect on the properties of polymer in
the form of polar and non-polar groups.
Polar groups soluble only in polar solvents whereas non polar
groups soluble in non-polar solvents.
Polar groups are insoluble in non-polar solvents.

1.6.4 EFFECT OF GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (Tg)

Owing to the Brownian movement of the molecule, it get freezen
on cooling and it get unfroze on heating. As the temperature is
increased, the localized units (chain segments) within the long
chain first mobilized before the whole molecules starts moving.
The molecules start moving after that fixed position activating
Brownian movement.
The Brownian movement becomes progressively more vigorously
and molecules diffused all over randomly. Low molecular weight
substance in the condense state is called as,
i.

The first without Brownian movement, but with long range

order when stress transfer phenomenon is possible (the state
is called solid) or segmental motion.

ii.

The second with Brownian movement, without long range

order and with energy dissipation (the state is called liquid)
or molecular motion.

1.7

POLYPROPYLENE

Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic

polymer used in a wide variety of applications including packaging and
labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic
parts and reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment,
loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer banknotes. An addition
polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant
to many chemical solvents, bases and acids.
Structural formula :

Molecular formula : C3H6

IUPAC name : Poly(propene)
Other names : Polypropylene, Polypropene,
Polipropene 25 [USAN], Propene polymers,

1.8

Propylene polymers, 1-Propene

Density : 0.91 to 1.23 g/cm3 (57 to 77 lb/ft3)
Melting point : 176 C
Specific Heat Capacity : 1230 to 1900 J/kg-K
Glass Transition Temperature : -20 C (0 F)
HDT (At 264 psi) : 90 C (190 F)
HDT (At 66 psi) : 110 C (230 F)
Thermal conductivity : 0.15 W/m-K
Water absorption (After 24 hours) : 0.01 %

FILLERS

Fillers are particles added to material (plastics, composite material,

concrete) to lower the consumption of more expensive binder material or to
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better some properties of the mixtured material. Worldwide more than 53

million tons of fillers with a total sum of approximately 16 billion are used
every year in different application areas, such as paper, plastics, rubber, paints,
coatings, adhesives and sealants. As such, fillers, produced by more than 700
companies, rank among the world's major raw materials and are contained in a
variety of goods for daily consumer needs.
1.8.1 CALCIUM CARBONATE
Calcium carbonate is formed by three main elements are carbon, oxygen
and calcium. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world,
and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls,
pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural
lime, and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions
creating lime scale. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement
or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

Structural formula :

Molecular formula : CaCO3

IUPAC name : Calcium carbonate
Other names : Limestone, calcite, aragonite, chalk, marble, pearl, oyster
Molar mass : 100.0869 g/mol
Appearance : Fine white powder, chalky taste
Odor : odorless
Density : 2.711-2.83 g/cm3
Melting point : 1339 C
Boiling point : Decomposes
Flash point : 825 C
Refractive index : 1.59

1.8.2 TITANIUM DIOXIDE

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Titanium dioxide, also known as titanium (IV) oxide or titania, is the

naturally occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula TiO2. When used as a
pigment, it is called titanium white, Pigment White 6 (PW6), or CI 77891.
Generally it is sourced from ilmenite, rutile and anatase. It has a wide range of
applications, from paint to sunscreen to food colouring.
Structural formula :

Molecular formula : TiO2

IUPAC name : Titanium dioxide
Other names : Titania, Rutile, Anatase, Brookite
Molar mass : 79.866 g/mol
Appearance : White solid
Odor : Odorless
Density : 4.23 g/cm3 (Rutile), 3.78 g/cm3 (Anatase)
Melting point : 1,843 C
Boiling point : 2,972C
Solubility in water : Insoluble
Refractive index : 2.488 (anatase), 2.583 (brookite), 2.609 (rutile)
Flash point : Non-flammable

1.8.3 ALUMINIUM SILICATE

Aluminium silicate (or aluminum silicate) is a name commonly applied to
chemical compounds which are derived from aluminium oxide, Al2O3 and
silicon dioxide, SiO2 which may be anhydrous or hydrated, naturally occurring
as minerals or synthetic. Aluminium silicate is a type of fibrous material made
of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide, (such materials are also called
aluminosilicate fibers). These are glassy solid solutions rather than chemical
compounds. The compositions are often described in terms of % weight of
alumina, Al2O3 and silica, SiO2. Temperature resistance increases as the %
alumina increases. These fibrous materials can be encountered as loose wool,
blanket, felt, paper or boards.
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 Structural formula :

Molecular formula : Al2SiO5

Molecular mass : 162.0456 g/mol

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SCOPE OF THE WORK

2.1

SCOPE OF THE WORK

To determine the mechanical and physical properties of poly(propylene)
filled with various types of inorganic fillers. And compare the mechanical
and physical properties of filled poly(propylene) with various types of
inorganic fillers.

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